Electrical Machines: Introduction

Lecture Notes: DCE5015

1. INTRODUCTION TO PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICAL

MACHINERY
1.1

INTRODUCTION
Broadly speaking, a machine is a device or equipment in any system that facilitates, by its

working, the interchange of energy between two parts of the system. Normally, the machine converts
energy from one form to another. An automobile is a machine that converts chemical energy of fossil
fuel like gasoline into mechanical form for motion. Inside the automobile itself, we have a machine that
takes a small part of the mechanical energy and converts it into electrical form for lights. Inside the
same car, there is a device called the induction coil that takes current from the car-battery and converts
it into a large voltage occurring for a very short interval of time. In this case, the energy is taken by the
induction coil in electrical form and delivered in the same electrical form. If you look at the modern
PC, it also has inside itself, a number of energy conversion devices.
Electrical Machines are of several types. Listed below in a tabular form in table 1.1, are the
different types of electrical machines and the nature of energy conversion being carried out by them.
Table 1.1 Types of machines and nature energy conversion performed in them
TYPE OF MACHINE

ENERGY CONVERSION

FROM
TO
Electrical
Mechanical
Dynamo
Mechanical
Electrical
Transformer
Electrical
Electrical
Battery
Chemical
Electrical
Solar Cells
Light
Electrical
Loud Speaker
Electrical
Sound
In this course, we shall confine ourselves to the study of the principle of working and
Motor
Generator

performance characteristics of first three of above listed machines i.e., electromechanical energy
converters (Dynamo generators and Dynamo motors) and Transformers. In all the three machines, a
magnetic circuit works like an intermediate messenger assisting the energy conversion process.
Energy from the input side is first converted to magnetic field form and then to the appropriate form in
the output side. This aspect is symbolically represented in the block diagram given below in Figure 1.1
system referred to in the diagram is usually constituted by a ferromagnetic material with / without an
air gap.
Electric / Mechanical
Magnetic
Electric / Mechanical
System
System
System
Figure 1.1 Energy Conversion from one form to another using electrical machines.
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Electrical Machines: Introduction

Lecture Notes: DCE5015

In the courses ECT1016 Circuit theory and ECT 1026 Field theory of the -year, you have been
exposed to the basics of Electrical Circuits and Fields. The topics to be covered in the present course
are built on the foundation laid in those two courses. The first chapter of this course deals with the
following sub-topics:
Mechanical Systems both linear and rotational - the different quantities and interrelating
mathematical relationships.
Magnetic Circuits basic concepts and energy storage and conversion principles.
1.2

NEWTONS LAW, MECHANICAL TORQUE AND POWER RELATIONSHIP

Electromechanical energy conversion involves the interchange of energy between an electrical

and a mechanical system. The primary quantities involved in the mechanical system are torque and
speed, while the analogous quantities in the electrical system are voltage and current respectively.
Figure 1.2a represents the analogue diagrammatically. When the electrical system causes a current i to
flow through conductors that are placed in a magnetic field, then a magnetic force is produced on each
conductor. If the conductors are located on a structure that is free to rotate, an electromagnetic torque
results, which in turn manifests itself as an angular velocity . This is called motor action.
Electrical
System
e, i

Coupling
Field

Mechanical
System
,

Figure 1.2a Block representation of electromechanical energy

Two
i
port
e
network

Fig 1.2b Two port representation

of the Electro-magnetic machine

While acting as motor, the rotating conductors cut the magnetic field and an e.m.f. e is induced in
them which is really a reaction voltage. In the case of a generator, the reverse process takes place. Here,
the rotating member namely the rotor, is driven by a prime mover (steam turbine, gasoline engine, etc.)
causing an induced voltage e to appear across the machine winding terminals. Upon the connection of
an electrical load to these terminals, a current i flows delivering electrical power to the load. Note that
the flow of this current through the armature conductors interacts with the magnetic field to produce a
reaction torque opposing the applied torque from the prime mover. From above its clear that the input
to a generator and the output of a motor are mechanical in nature. It is then useful to review the
relationships between mechanical quantities involved in the rotational system.

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Electrical Machines: Introduction

Lecture Notes: DCE5015

1.2.1 Angular position

The angular position of an object is the angle at which it is oriented, with respect to a reference
point. This angle is usually measured in radians or degrees.
1.2.2 Angular velocity
Angular velocity is the rate of change in angular position with respect to time. It is assumed
positive if the rotation is in a counterclockwise direction. The magnitude of angular velocity is often
expressed in terms of the speed of rotation. Angular velocity is defined by the equation

d
dt

(1.1)

If the units of angular position are radians, then angular velocity is measured in radians per
second. In dealing with electrical machines, engineers often use units other than radians per second to
describe speed of revolution of the shaft. Frequently, the speed is given in revolutions per second or
revolutions per minute. It is customary to use different symbols of speed when it is expressed in
different units. The following symbols are used in this course to describe angular velocity:

Angular velocity expressed in radians per second

Angular velocity expressed in revolution per second

Angular velocity expressed in revolution per minute

These measure of shaft speed are related to each other by the following equations:
N = 60 n

(1.2)

= 2.n

(1.3)

1.2.3 Angular Acceleration

Angular acceleration is the rate of change in angular velocity with respect to time. It is assumed
positive if the angular velocity is increasing in an algebraic sense. Angular acceleration is defined by

d
dt

(1.4)

The units of angular velocity are radians per second. Angular acceleration is measured in radians per
seconds squared.

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Electrical Machines: Introduction

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1.2.4 Torque
In a linear system involving motion along a straight line, the velocity of an object does not
change unless a force acts on it. When an object is rotating, its angular velocity is constant unless a
torque is present on it. The greater the torque on the object, the higher the rate of change of angular
velocity of the object.
Torque can be described as a twisting force on an object, refer figure 1.3a and 1.3b. Suppose we
have a cylinder that is free to rotate about its axis. If a force is applied to the cylinder in such a way that
its line of action passes through the axis (as shown in Figure 1.3a), then the cylinder will not rotate.
However, if the same force is placed so that its line of action passes to the right of the axis (Figure
1.3b), then the cylinder will tend to rotate in a counterclockwise direction. The torque or twisting action
on the cylinder depends on the magnitude of the applied force, and the distance between the axis of
rotation and the line of action of the force.
F

=0

180-

= F.r.sin().

Axis of
revolution

Axis of
revolution
r.sin()

Figure 1.3a Force applied along the

line passing through the axis, = 0.

Figure 1.3b Force applied away

from the axis, = F.r.sin().

The torque on an object is defined as the product of the force applied to the object and the
smallest distance between the line of action of the force and the objects axis of rotation. If r is a vector
pointing from the axis of rotation to the point of application of the force, and if F is the applied force,
then the torque can be described as

= (force applied) X (perpendicular distance)

= F (r sin )
= r F sin ,

(1.5)

where is the angle between the vector r and the vector F. The direction of the torque is clockwise if it
would tend to cause a clockwise rotation and counterclockwise if it would tend to cause a
counterclockwise rotation. The unit of torque is newton-meters (Nm).

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Electrical Machines: Introduction

Lecture Notes: DCE5015

1.2.5 Newtons law of Rotation

Newtons law for objects moving along a straight line describes the relationship between the
force applied to an object and the resulting acceleration. This relationship is given by the equation
F= m a
Where

(1.6a)
F

is the net force applied to a object,

is the mass of the object and

is the resulting acceleration.

The force is measured in newtons, mass in kilograms, and acceleration in meters per second squared. A
similar equation describes the relationship between the torque applied to an object and its angular
acceleration. This relationship, called Newtons law of rotation, is given by the equation

= J ,

(1.6b)

where is the applied torque in Nm and is the resulting angular acceleration in rad/sec2. J is called
the rotational moment of inertia of the object and is measured in kilogram-meter2 and is analogous to
mass m in the linear system equation F = m a.
1.2.6 Work W
For linear motion, work is defined as the product of a force F and the resulting displacement of
the object dx. In equation form,

W = F . dx

(1.7)

If the force F is constant such that the displacement is x, the equation of the work becomes

W=F.x

(1.8)

The unit of work is joule J. For rotational motion, work done is due to the application of a torque and
the accompanying angular displacement d. The equation for work done is

W = .d

(1.9)

If torque is constant, then

W=.

(1.10)

1.2.7 Power P
Power is the rate of doing work with respect to time and may be defined as below:
P=

dW
dt

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(1.11)

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Electrical Machines: Introduction

Lecture Notes: DCE5015

The unit of P is joules per second or watts. By applying this definition and assuming that the force is
constant, one finds that power is given by
P=

d( x )
dW d( F . x )
=
=F .
= F .v
dt
dt
dt

(1.12)

Similarly, assuming constant torque, power in rotational motion is given by

P=

d( )
dW d( . )
=
= .
= .
dt
dt
dt

(1.13)

In the electrical system, we have the following equation, relating power P to a voltage e and a current i:

P = e.i

(1.14)

In the light of the above, let us look at Figure 1.2b on page 2. This is a two-port configuration, which
we are familiar with, from our course on Circuits. One port represents the mechanical system. The
variables are the torque and the angular velocity . Their product is power. The second port stands
for the electrical system, with the variables v and i, whose product is again power. Either port can be
energised as an input port, with the other one being connected to a load of the suitable nature. This is an
alternative way of looking at Fig. 1.2a. If the system is ideal, . = e . i.
1.3

DEFINITION OF MAGNETIC QUANTITIES

1.3.1. Magnetic Field - Introduction

The magnetic field in a machine forms the energy link between the electrical and mechanical
systems. It is produced by currents flowing in coils of wire inside the machine, or by a combination of
coils and permanent magnets. Four basic principles describe how magnetic fields are used in the
electric machine devices.
A current-carrying wire (conductor) produces a magnetic field in the area around it.
A current-carrying wire in the presence of a magnetic field has a force induced on it. This is
the basis of motor action.
A moving wire in the presence of a magnetic field has a voltage induced in it. This is the
basis of generator action.
A time-changing magnetic field induces a voltage in a coil of wire if it passes through that
coil. This is the basis of transformer action.
i

ferrite core

Figure 1.4 Law relating the current direction and the resultant flux direction - cork-screw rule

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Electrical Machines: Introduction

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1.3.2 Production of Magnetic
Field
In order to determine the

i
N turns

direction of flux created due flow

Cross-sectional
area A

of

current

in

conductor,

consider the diagram in figure

Mean magnetic
path length lc

1.4. When the current i amperes

lc

flows through a conductor, the

flux wraps around in a similar

Figure 1.5. A simple magnetic core

manner as that of a direction of

travel of cork-screw when turned in clockwise direction. Consider the magnetic core shown in the
diagram of Figure 1.5. It has a winding carrying a current of i amperes and N turns. It generates a
magneto motive force (MMF)

of N.i ampere (A). Since the number of turns, N is dimensionless,

the SI unit for MMF is just ampere, denoted by A. The MMF creates a magnetic field in core having
an intensity of H ampere-turns / meter along the length of the magnetic path. Upon integrating the
magnetic field intensity along the magnetic path, we get,
H . dl = N.i ampere (A)

(1.15)

The above is the Ampere'

s law governing the production of a magnetic field by a current carrying coil.
If the path of integration is the mean path length of the core lc, Amperes law becomes

H.lc = N.i
This MMF

(1.16)
drives through the magnetic core, a flux webers. The flux can be related as:

N.i
=

(1.17)

The term refers to reluctance of the magnetic core. The MMF has to drive the flux against this
reluctance . The reluctance of the magnetic core may be given by the following expression:

lc
Ac .

(1.18)

where lc refers to the mean length of the magnetic path in meters, Ac refers to the cross-sectional area of
the flux path in meter2 and the term refers to the permeability of the magnetic material of the core.
The unit for is 1/henry or 1/H. The unit for is H/m. The permeability of free space or air is 0 and
is given by

0 = 4 107 H/m
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(1.19)
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Electrical Machines: Introduction

Lecture Notes: DCE5015

Relative permeability is a convenient way to compare the magnetizability different materials. For
example, the steels used in modern machines have relative permeability in the range 2000 to 6000. This
means that, for a given amount of current, 2000 to 6000 times more flux is established in a piece of
steel than in a corresponding area of air. Obviously, the metal in a transformer or a motor core may
plays an extremely important role in increasing and concentrating the magnetic flux in the device.
Since the permeability of iron is much higher than that of air, a major portion of the flux in
configuration like that of Figure 1.5 remains inside the core instead of traveling through the
surrounding air which has lower permeability. The small portion of flux that does not travel through the
iron core but travels through air-path is called leakage flux. Treatment of leakage flux is very important
in transformer and motors.
The flux density B may be defined as
B=

Ac

(1.19)

Resolving in the above equation using equation (1.17) and (1.18) we get,
B=

Ac

(N.i )
Ac

N.i
N.i
= .
= . H
lc
lc
Ac
Ac

(1.19a)

The unit of the flux density is weber/ meter2, known as tesla (T). Thus, alternatively, the flux
determined in (1.17) may be found as below

B .d S

(1.20)

where dS is the differential unit of the cross-sectional area. If the flux density vector B is perpendicular
to a plane of area Ac, and if the flux density B is constant throughout the area, then this equation
reduces to

= B.Ac

(1.21)

Thus, the total flux in the core in Figure 1.5 due to the current i in the winding is

= B . Ac =

. N.i.Ac

(1.22)

lc

1.3.3 Magnetic Circuits

Considering equation (1.22) for total flux , we can see with reference to Figure 1.5, that the
current in a coil of wire wrapped around a core produces a magnetic flux in the core. This in some
sense is analogous to a voltage in an electric circuit producing a current flow. It is possible to define a
magnetic circuit whose behavior is governed by equations analogous to those for an electric circuit.

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Electrical Machines: Introduction

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Table 1.2 Analogue between the electric and magnetic circuits

Electric circuit
Equivalent
circuit

Driving
force
Response

Electric
circuit unit

Magnetic circuit

+
v
-

Magnetic
Circuit unit

R
V = R.I
Electro- Motive Force
emf (V)
Current (I)

volts (V)

= .
Magneto Motive Force
(MMF)
Flux ()

ampere
(A)
ampere (A)
weber
(Wb)
Impedance
Resistance (R)
1/henry
Reluctance ( )
ohms ()
(1/H)
Admittance
Conductance G = 1/R
siemens (S)
henry (H)
Permeance ( )
volts
(V)
ampereField
H . dl = N.i
E . dl = V
(A)
relationship
Circuit loop
ampere
v = R.i
volts (V)
= .
equation
(A)
Other
J = i/A
A/m2
tesla
(T)
B = Ac
relations
Where
or
where
J is the current density of the
weber
/
B is the flux density through
2
resistor,
meter
the core,
2
i is the current and
(Wb/m
)
is the flux and
A is the cross-sectional area of
Ac is the cross-sectional area
the resistor element
of the core
In a simple electrical circuit such as the one in Figures given in table 1.2, the voltage source v drives a
current i around the circuit through a resistance R. The relationship between these quantities is given by
Ohms law:
(1.23)

v= R i

In the electrical circuit, it is the voltage or electromotive force that drives the current in the closed path.
In the magnetic circuit, the analogue is the Magneto Motive Force (MMF) that causes the flux to
flow through the closed magnetic circuit. The MMF of the magnetic circuit

is equal to N.i. The

circuit loop balance equation from equation (1.17) is

= .

(1.24)

The reluctance of a magnetic circuit is the counterpart of electrical resistance R, and its units are
1/henry or 1/H. the magnetic analog of electrical conductance is the reciprocal of reluctance, and is
termed as permeance .

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(1.25)

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Electrical Machines: Introduction

Lecture Notes: DCE5015

Ac
lc

(1.26)

Reluctance in a magnetic circuit obeys the same rules as resistance in an electric circuit. The equivalent
reluctance of a number of individual reluctance elements in series is given below:
eq = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + ...

(1.27)

The equivalent reluctance of a number of reluctances in parallel may be computed as

1
1
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
+
+
...
eq 1 2 3 4 5

(1.28)

The equivalent permeance of number of permeance elements in parallel and series are given below:

eq = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ....
1/eq = 1/1 + 1/ 2 + 1/3 + 1/ 4 + ....

parallel combination

(1.29)

series combination

1.3.4 Behavior of Ferromagnetic Materials

To illustrate the behavior of magnetic permeability in a ferromagnetic material, apply a direct

current to the winding on the core shown in Figure 1.5, starting with zero ampere and slowly working
up to the maximum permissible current. When the flux produced in the core is plotted against the
Magneto Motive Force (MMF) producing it, the resulting plot looks like Figure 1.6.a. This type of plot
is called a magnetization curve. At first, a small increase in the MMF produces a huge increase in the
resulting flux. After a certain point, though, a further increase in the MMF produces a relatively smaller
increase in the flux. Finally, an increase in the MMF produces almost no change at all. The region of
this figure in which the curve flattens out is called the saturation region and in this region the core is
saturated. In contrast, the region where the flux changes very rapidly is called the unsaturated region
of the curve, and the core is unsaturated. The transition region between the unsaturated region and the
saturated region is called the knee of the curve. Note that the flux produced in the core is always
linearly related to the applied MMF in the unsaturated region and approaches a constant value
regardless of the value of MMF in the saturated region. Another related plot is shown in figure 1.6b.
Figure 1.6b is a plot of magnetic flux density B versus magnetic field intensity H. From equation
(1.19a) we get
B= H

Expressing B and H in terms of and

(1.30)
respectively using B =

equation one gets,

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Ac

and . H = .

lc

, in the above

Electrical Machines: Introduction

Lecture Notes: DCE5015

B tesla

Wb

A-T
Figure 1.6a Magnetization curve for
ferromagnetic material in terms of MMF

Ac
lc

H AT/m
Figure 1.6b Magnetization curve for
ferromagnetic material in terms of Magnetic
intensity

= .

(1.31)

From the above two equations (1.30) and (1.31), one can see that the relations versus MMF
and B versus H are directly proportional to . The relations versus MMF and B versus H have
therefore the same shape. The slope of the curve of flux density B versus the magnetic field intensity H
in Figure 1.6b is the permeability of the core at that value of H.
The curve shows that the permeability is large and relatively constant in the unsaturated region and
then gradually drops to a very low value as the core becomes heavily saturated.
Example 1

Find the relative permeability of the typical ferromagnetic material whose magnetization curve is
shown in Figure 1.7 at (a) H =50, (b) H=100, (c) H=500, and (d) H=1000 A/m

Figure 1.7 Magnetization curve for example 1.

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Example 2

A magnetic core of square cross-section has a mean path length of 55 cm and a cross sectional area of
150 cm2. A 200-turn coil of wire is wrapped around one leg of the core. The core is made of material
having the magnetization curve shown in Figure 1.7.
How much current is required to produce 0.012 Wb of flux in the core?
What is the cores relative permeability at that current level?
What is its reluctance?
1.3.5 Core with Air-gap

Transformers are wound on closed cores as in Figure 1.3. Rotating machines have a moving
element and therefore the magnetic path will have air-gaps out of necessity. A typical magnetic circuit
with an air-gap is shown in Figure 1.8. It is assumed that the air-gap is narrow and the flux coming out
of the core passes straight down the air-gap such that the flux density in the air-gap is the same as in the
core. As will soon be seen, the flux in the gap actually fringes out so that the gap flux density is
somewhat less than that of the core. Further, let the core permeability c, be regarded as constant
(linear magnetization characteristic).
Core area Ac

Core Hc, lc

N turns

c
g

Air gap Hg, lg

Figure 1.8

A typical magnetic circuit with air gap and its equivalent circuit.

The MMF F = N.i is now used to drive the flux through the core and the air-gap. From the circuitmodel of Figure 1.8 and equation (1.16) we get,
= N.i = Hclc + Hglg

(1.32)

From above, substituting for the magnetic field intensity in terms of the flux density, we get
N.i =

Bc

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.l c +

Bg

(1.33)

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Assuming that all the core flux passes straight down the air-gap, g = c= .

= Bc.Ac = Bg.Ag.

(1.34)

The reason for using different values for the area through with flux passes would be clear in section
1.3.8. Using equation (1.33) and (1.34) one gets
N.i =

l
lc
+ g = ( c + g ) = eq .
Ac c
Ag g

(1.35)

where g , c and eq are the air-gap, core and equivalent reluctances.

From equation (1.35)

c + g

1+ c
g

(1.36)

Since c in ferromagnetic materials is several thousand times g, g >> c . The permeability effect
predominates for the usual core and air-gap dimensions even though lc>>lg. It then follows from
equation (1.36), that

(1.37)

The above thus implies that in a magnetic circuit with air-gap(s), core reluctance may be neglected with
no significant loss of accuracy. This assumption will be generally made in modeling rotating machines.
The effect of core saturation (reduction of core permeability) will be introduced as a correction
wherever greater accuracy is desired.
1.3.6 Magnetic Circuit Calculations

Normally magnetic circuit calculations involve two types of problems. In the first type of
problem it is required to determine the excitation MMF needed to establish a desired flux or flux
density at a given point in a magnetic circuit. This is the normal case in designing electromechanical
devices and is a straightforward problem. In the second category the flux (or flux density) is unknown
and is required to be determined for a given geometry of the magnetic circuit and specified MMF. This
kind of problem arises in magnetic amplifiers wherein this resultant flux caused by an excitation on one
or more control windings is required to be determined. A little thought will reveal that there is no direct
analytical solution to this problem because of the non-linear B-H characteristic of the magnetic
material. Graphical/numerical techniques have to be used in obtaining the solution of this problem.

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1.3.7 Leakage Flux

In all practical magnetic circuits, most of the flux is confined to the intended path by use of
magnetic cores but a small amount of flux always leaks through the surrounding air. This stray flux as
already stated is called the leakage flux. Leakage is characteristic of all magnetic circuits and can never
be fully eliminated. Calculations concerning the main magnetic circuit are usually carried out with the
effect of leakage flux either ignored or empirically accounted for. Special studies of leakage must be
made for rotating machines and transformers since their performance is affected by it.
1.3.8 Fringing

At an air-gap in a magnetic core, the flux fringes out into neighboring air paths as shown in
Figure 1.9, these being of reluctance comparable to that of the gap. The result is non-uniform flux
density in the air-gap (decreasing outward), enlargement of the effective air-gap area and a decrease in
the average gap flux density. The fringing effect also disturbs the core flux pattern to some depth near
the gap. The effect of fringing increases with the air-gap length. Corrections for fringing in short gaps
(as used in machines) are empirically made by adding one gap length to each of the two dimensions
making up its area. For the core given in Figure 1.8, the air-gap reluctance, given by
g =

lg

0 Ag

(1.38)

should be calculated using an Ag which is greater than Ac.

Figure 1.9. Flux fringing at air gap.

It can be shown theoretically that the magnetic flux leaves and enters the surface of an infinitely
permeable material, in a direction normal to the surface. This will be nearly so in ferromagnetic
materials which have high permeability. In electrical machines a small amount of the tangential flux
component present at iron surfaces will be neglected.

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1.3.9 Energy Losses in a Ferromagnetic Core

Instead of applying a direct current to the core of Figure 1.3, let us apply an alternating current.
This current is show in figure 1.10a. Assume that the flux in the core is initially zero amperes. As the
current increases for the first time, the flux in the core traces out path ab in the figure 1.10b. This is
basically the saturation curve shown in figure 1.7. However, when the current falls again, the flux
traces out a different path from the one it followed when the current increased. As the current

decreases, the flux in the core traces out path bcd, and later when the current increases again, the flux
traces out path deb. Notice that the amount of flux present in the core depends not only on the amount
of current applied to the windings of the core, but also on the previous history of the flux in the core.
This dependence on the preceding flux history and the resulting failure to retrace flux path is called the
property of hysteresis. Path bcdeb traced out in figure 1.10b as the applied MMF completes one cycle
is called a hysteresis loop.
B

Figure 1.10a

Wave for

of alternating current

Figure 1.10b

The hysteresis loop traced out by the

flux in a core when a current sinusoidal is applied to it.

1.3.9.1 Hysteresis Loss

If the magnetic field intensity applied to a magnetic material is carried through a complete cycle
from +Hmax to Hmax and back to +Hmax, the B-H characteristic is described by a hysteresis loop as
shown in figure 1.11. The area of the loop represents the energy loss in a unit cube of the core material
during one cycle.

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Electrical Machines: Introduction

B

Lecture Notes: DCE5015

Hysteresis loop
Energy absorbed
Energy given up be
steel
H

Figure 1.11

Hysterisis loop and associated energy absorbed / loss.

1.3.9.2 Rotational Hysteresis Loss

The flux in transformers, reactors, and ac electromagnets oscillates along a path that is practically
fixed while the rotors of rotary electromagnetic devices such as motors and generators are subjected to
fluxes that change their direction by virtue of rotation. The rotational hysteresis loss is greater at low
magnetization than the corresponding oscillating hysteresis loss, while at high flux densities the
rotating hysteresis loss actually decreases, becoming quite low at very high flux densities.
1.3.9.3 Eddy Current Loss

The alternating flux induces emf in the magnetic core, which in turn produces eddy currents that
circulate in the iron. The iron in the magnetic circuits is laminated to prevent excessive eddy currents.
The plane of the laminations is parallel to the flux, thus confining the eddy current to paths of small
cross section and correspondingly high resistance. Ferrite cores in solid mould-form are sometimes
used for high-frequency applications, since the Ferrite-composition has very high electrical resistivity.
1.3.10 Maximum Flux Density under Sinusoidal Excitation

Consider the core shown in Figure 1.8 with an air gap, linked by a winding of N turns. Assume
the flux in the core to be defined by

(t) = max . sin(.t) = Ac.Bm. sin(.t)

(1.39)

where Ac is the cross-sectional area of the core and Bm is the maximum instantaneous flux density
assumed to be uniform throughout the core.

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Electrical Machines: Introduction

1.4

Lecture Notes: DCE5015

FARADAYS LAW- INDUCED VOLTAGE FROM A TIME-VARYING MAGNETIC

FIELD

1.4.1 Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction

There are numerous ways in which a magnetic field can affect its surroundings. One major effect
is due to Faradays law. It forms the basis of transformer operation. Faradays law states that if a flux
passes through a turn of a coil of wire, a voltage or e.m.f. will be induced in the coil, the e.m.f. in each
turn being proportional to the rate of change in the flux with respect to time. In equation form,
Core

(t) e(t) = -

d (t)
dt

(1.40)

where e(t) is the voltage induced in each turn of the

coil and (t) is the flux passing through the turn or

e(t)

N turns

flux linking the turn. If a coil has N turns and if the

flux linking the ith turn is i(t), then the voltage

Figure 1.12

A typical magnetic circuit

induced across the whole coil is given by

e(t) = -

d i (t)
=i =1
dt

e(t) = -

d
dt

d i (t)
i =1

(1.41)

dt

(1.42)

where is the net flux linkage in webers. If the same amount of flux (t) links all the N turns, then the
in equation (1.42) would just be N . (t).
1.4.2 Lenz's Law

i(t)

Core

(t), the original flux

Lenzs law, refer figure 1.13. Lenzs law states that the

direction of the voltage buildup e(t) in the coil is such

that if the coil ends where short-circuited, it would

R(t), the

e(t)

The minus sign in the equation (1.42) is due to

reaction flux

produce current that would create the flux opposing the

original flux change.

N turns

Figure 1.13
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Lenz'
s Law.
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Electrical Machines: Introduction

Lecture Notes: DCE5015

Since the induced voltage opposes the change that causes it, a minus sign is included in equation 1.42.
Lenz'
s law helps to determine the direction of induced emf e(t) and the short-circuit current i(t). Thus if

(t) having direction as shown in the diagram is increasing in magnitude, then R(t) must also be
increasing in magnitude, but in a direction opposite to that of (t). Using the cork screw rule shown in
figure 1.4, it can be ascertained that the direction of current i(t) shown in the diagram in Figure 1.13
above produces the requisite flux. Thus the polarity of the induced voltage e(t) may also be determined.
Example 3

Figure 1.13 shows a coil of wire wrapped around an iron core. If the time varying flux in the core
is given by the equation (t) = 0.05 sin(t) Wb and number of turns N=100, determine the induced
voltage e(t). Assume that the core does not get saturated and all the flux links the coil.
1.4.3 Force on a Current Carrying Conductor in a Magnetic Field

A second major effect of magnetic field on its surroundings is that it creates a force on a current
carrying conductor within the field. The basic concept involved is illustrated in Figure 1.14. The figure
shows a conductor present in a uniform magnetic field of flux density B, pointing into the page. The
conductor itself is l meters long and contains a current of i amperes. The force induced on the
conductor is given by
F = i( l X B )

(1.43)

where l represents the vector of length l along the direction of the conductor.

Current
carrying
conductor

Uniform
magnetic
field with
flux density
of B

Force F
on the
conductor

Figure 1.14 Force on a current carrying conductor in a uniform magnetic field

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Electrical Machines: Introduction

Lecture Notes: DCE5015

The direction of the force is given by the right-hand rule: If the index finger of the right hand
point in the direction of the vector i and the middle finger points in the direction of the flux density
vector B, then the thumb points in the direction of the resultant force on the wire. The magnitude of the
force is given by the equation
F= ilB sin

(1.44)

where is the angle between the conductor and the flux density vector B. The variable B represents the
magnitude of the flux density vector.
Example 4

Figure 1.14 shows a wire carrying a current in the presence of a magnetic field. The magnetic
flux density is 0.25 T, directed into the page. If the wire is 1.0 m long and carries 0.5 A of current in the
direction from top of the page to the bottom of the page, what are the magnitude and direction of the
force induced on the wire?
1.4.4 Voltage Induced in a Conductor Moving in a Magnetic Field

There is one other way in which a magnetic field interacts with its surrounding. If a conductor
moves through or cuts the magnetic field at a suitable angle of orientation, then a voltage is induced in
the conductor. This idea is shown in Figure 1.15. The voltage induced in the wire is given by
e=(v B)l

(1.45)

where v is the velocity of the of the conductor, B is the magnetic flux density vector and

l is the

effective length of conductor sweeping the magnetic field. The polarity of the voltage in the wire will
be so that the positive terminal is in the direction of the vector v B.

+
l
vxB

Uniform
magnetic
field with
flux density
of B

+
conductor

Figure 1.15 Induced emf on a moving conductor in a

uniform magnetic field
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Figure

1.15

shows

conductor

moving with velocity of 5.0 m/s to the

Motion of
E
the
Induced
conductor emf
v

Example 5

right in the presence of a magnetic

field. The flux density is 0.5 T into the
page, and the wire is 1.0 m long,
oriented as shown. Determine the
magnitude

and

polarity

resulting induced voltage.

of

the