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MCAST EEI
T/4
T/2
3T/4
0
90
180
270
360
time
angle
1 revolution (cycle)
1 radian
r
arc length = r
Abbreviation
Multiplier
Tera
Giga
Mega
Kilo
k or K
x 1 000 (x 103)
(none)
(none)
x 1 (x 100)
Centi
Milli
Micro
Nano
pico
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Atomic Theory:
All matter is made up of different substances called Elements
Elements are composed of tiny particles called Atoms
Atomic Structure:
The Nucleus: Gives the identity to an element. Made up of two
particles, Protons and Neutrons. Proton has a positive charge.
Neutron has no charge
Atomic number: Number of protons in the nucleus. Identifies the
element
Atomic weight: Sum of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
Number of neutrons can vary. This creates different isotopes for
a given element
Electrons: Surrounds the nucleus. Have an opposite charge from
the protons (i.e. they are negatively charged). Electrons orbit
around the nucleus in different spheres called electron shells.
The farther away from the nucleus the shell, the more energy the
electron has.
Electrons can move from one atom to the other. This depends
upon the material
Generally number of electrons equals number of protons. Atom is
electrically neutral
Under some conditions there can be an excess or shortage of
electrons.
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Nucleus
Example of an Atom
Ions:
Elements identity remains unchanged, irrespective if the atom is neutral, positive, or negative
ion.
Compounds: different elements joined together and sharing electrons. Resulting particles of
compounds are called molecules
Molecules: Always moving. Speed depends upon temperature. In solid, molecules are
interlocked but vibrate continuously. In liquid molecules slide around. In gas molecules are
literally whizzing all over the place, bumping into each other.
Conductor: Electrons can easily move from one atom
outer shell to the other neighbour atom outer shell. Gold
and silver are the best conductors. Copper and
aluminium are very good conductors. Conductor can be
solid or liquid. Gas is a poor conductor unless ionized
Insulator: Electrons are so tight to the atom that they
cannot easily move from one atom to the other. Good
insulators are Glass, Wood, Paper, Ceramic, and
Plastic.
Dielectric: Second name for insulator because it keeps
electrical charges apart. Prevents flow of electrons that
would equalize a charge difference between two places
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Resistance:
In some substances, flow of electrons is fairly but not really well
Using substances like carbon or adding impurities can change conductivity. i.e. flow of electrons
can be controlled. Electrical components made in this way are called resistors
The better a resistor conducts, the lower the resistance, and the worse it conducts, the better its
resistance
Electrical resistance measured in units called Ohms. The higher the value in ohms, the higher the
resistance.
Current:
When one electron leaves an atom to pass to a
neighbour atom, a hole is created in the atom, and one
is filled in the neighbour atom
Whenever there is movement of electrons (charge
carriers) in a substance, there is a flow of Electric
Current
Current is measured in terms of the number of
electrons or holes passing a single point in one second
Current (Amperes) I = Charge (Coulombs) = Q
Time (Seconds)
t
Static Electricity:
Charge carriers (electrons) in a substance can build up or become deficient without flowing
anywhere
Friction between two elements causes them to be charged either negatively (excess of electrons)
or positively (shortage of electrons)
A Charge of Static Electricity is acquired. Called static because it does not go anywhere.
Current (electrons) will flow only when two differently charged media are touched or brought near
together - spark occurs since electrons will jump from one medium to the other. In such case the
medium with greater charge will discharge through the medium with less charge. Current flow
stops when both mediums reach equal charge.
Electromotive Force (EMF):
For current to flow it must have a push
Push is caused by something positively
charged on one side and negatively
charged on the other
This Power is called Electromotive Force
(EMF) and is measured in Volts
For current to flow there must be a
continuous conductive path between the
two EMF points
Or the difference in charge between the two
points is so high that current will jump to
cause a spark (e.g. Lightning)
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Potential Difference:
The term EMF is normally related to a source of electric power, with the least charged point at zero
Volts. EMF is a measure of Volts, hence it can also be expressed as a Voltage
The zero Volts point is called the reference point and is also called Ground, the earth potential
The term Potential Difference (pd) is normally used when we have a power source where the
least charged point is greater or less than zero Volts
Two points charged at 3Volts and 0Volts will present an EMF of 3Volts
Two points charged at 3Volts and 1Volt will present a pd of 2Volts
Two points charged at 3Volts and -1Volt will present a pd of 4Volts
Summary:
Current flow is the flow of electrons from one atom to the other in a substance. It is measured in
Amperes or Amps. Abbreviation is A
Resistance is the control of electron flow inside a substance. It is measured in Ohms. Abbreviation
is the Greek Omega
Voltage is the difference in charge between two points. It is measured in Volts. Abbreviation is V
Schematic symbols:
Electronics and electrical are formed of circuits built up by a number of components. Before
starting forming up circuits, here are the first basic symbols we will be using to form electronic
circuit or schematic diagrams
R1
Wire (conductor)
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or
BAT1
R2
Resistance (Resistor)
BAT2
or
+ +
Battery (Energy/EMF source)
Ohms Law:
Provided that the temperature does not vary, the ratio of Potential Difference (p.d.) across
the ends of a conductor (or resistor) to the current flowing in the conductor is constant
In mathematical format:
Voltage (V) = Current (I) x Resistance (R)
Where Voltage (V) is expressed in Volts (V), Current (I) is expressed in Amps (A), and Resistance
is expressed in Ohms ()
It is important to remember to use units of Volts, Amperes and Ohms in order for the Law to work.
Using multiples and sub-multiples for these 3 elements will lead to incorrect answers
Current, Voltage and Resistance calculations:
To get the current in a circuit, you must know the value of the voltage and resistance. Using Ohms
Law one can find the current, which is the only unknown variable
Similar applies to find the voltage (you must know the values of current and resistance), and
Resistance (you must know the voltage and current)
Energy and Power in a circuit:
Whenever current flows through a resistor, work is being done by the resistor to control the current
flow
CURRENT (I)
Work is being done by the resistance
and electrical power will be dissipated in
+
the form of heat
Potential Difference (V)
EMF (V)
Electrical Power is measured in Watts
RESISTANCE (R)
(W) and can be expressed by:
Power (P) = Current (I) x Voltage (V)
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Resistance is measured in Ohms (), Resistivity is measured in Ohm-metre (m), length in metres
(m), and area in square metres (m2)
Metal
Resistivity
Silver
1.626 x 10-8
Annealed Copper
1.724 x 10-8
1.777 x 10-8
Aluminium
2.803 x 10-8
Mild Steel
1.38 x 10-7
Lead
2.14 x 10-7
Nickel
8.0 x 10-8
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Resistor networks:
Resistances in series: In a series resistor combination, resistors are connected one after each
other as shown below:
To get the total resistance, the values are just added together:
Total R = R1 + R2 + R3 etc.
In series resistor networks it is important to note that:
The supply voltage is divided across each resistance
Current through each resistance remains the same
This can be easily shown using Ohms Law:
To find the current, find the total resistance and then find current using ohms law
Use the current resulted and Ohms law to find the voltage across each resistor
The sum of voltage across each resistor must result equally as the supply voltage
R1
R2
R3
10k
10k
10k
BAT1
1.5V
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Resistors in Parallel: Here the resistances are connected parallel to each other in the form of a
ladder network as shown below
To get the total resistance value of a parallel network first you must add the reciprocal of each
resistor value to get the reciprocal of the total resistance value. Hence the total resistance value
will be the reciprocal of the answer:
1
Total Resistance
1 +
R1
1 +
R2
1
R3
.. Etc
BAT1
R1
R2
R3
10k
10k
10k
1.5V
13
Resistors in Series-Parallel Combination: To analyze such circuits one need to work in steps
To find total resistance, first point out each parallel network separately. Find the total resistance
of each parallel network and reduce the network to one single resistor having the resulted total
resistance of the network in series with any remaining resistor. Continue finding circuit total
resistance for the resulted series network
BAT1
R1
R1
10k
10k
R2
R3
10k
10k
BAT1
BAT2
1.5V
1.5V
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R2//R3
5k
10k
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Currents in the circuit: Battery BAT1 supplies the total circuit current (I total) from the positive
terminal. This current flows through resistor R1 and is divided into I1 (flowing through R2) and I2
(flowing through R3). Currents I1 and I2 will meet again and reform Itotal before returning to the
negative terminal of the battery. This is one of Kirchoff Laws stating that the total current entering
and being divided in a node will be the same current coming out of the node in the other side of the
network (i.e. Current in at node A = Current out from node B)
Knowing the Battery voltage and the total circuit resistance we can find the total current using
ohms law
I total
I total
R1
I2
I total
10k
R1
10k
I total
I1
BAT1
R2
R3
10k
10k
R2//R3
BAT1
1.5V
5k
1.5V
I1
I total
I total
I2
I total
Kirchoff Law:
At nodes A and B
I total = I 1 + I 2
BAT1
R1 + (R2//R3)
15k
1.5V
I total
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Voltages in the circuit: Battery BAT1 supplies the total voltage to the circuit. This is divided into a
voltage drop (p.d.) across R1 (V R1), and a voltage drop in the parallel network formed of R2 and
R3 (V R2//R3) Remember: In a parallel circuit Current divided, voltage not. In a series circuit
voltage divided, current not !!
Knowing the total circuit current, using ohms law, we can find voltage drop across R1. To find
voltage across R2 or R3, subtract voltage across R1 from the supply voltage. We can then find the
currents through R2 and R3 using ohms law and/or kirchoffs law
I total
I total
R1
I2
I total
10k
R1
I total
10k
I1
V R1
BAT1
R2
R3
10k
10k
1.5V
V R1
BAT1
V R2//R3
1.5V
I1
I total
R2//R3
5k
V R2//R3
I total
I2
I total
BAT1
R1 + (R2//R3)
15k
1.5V
I total
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R1
Vs
R2
V R2
V across R2 (V R2) = Vs x R2
R1 + R2
For the lower circuit:
V1 =
Vs x R3
R1 + R2 + R3
R1
Vs
R2
V2 = Vs x (R2 + R3)
R1 + R2 + R3
V2
R3
V1
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Total resistance in the network: The total resistance can be calculated using the formula
below, which is derived from Ohms Law
Total R
R1 x R2
R1 + R2
And when the values of the two resistors are the same, the total resistance of the network
becomes half the value of each individual resistor in the network
Also note that the total resistance in a parallel resistance network will always be near the
value of the smallest resistance in the network. Hence the total resistance in a parallel
network is governed by the resistance with the smallest value
R1
10k
R2
10k
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