GENERAL METALLURGY...............................................................................................

2
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES...........................................................................................3
Strength............................................................................................................................3
Hardness..........................................................................................................................4
Toughness........................................................................................................................4
Fracture Toughness..........................................................................................................4
Determining Fracture Toughness.....................................................................................4
Elasticity..........................................................................................................................5
Plasticity..........................................................................................................................5
Brittleness........................................................................................................................5
Ductility and Malleability................................................................................................5
ALLOYS..............................................................................................................................6
STEEL ALLOYS.............................................................................................................6
Critical temperatures..........................................................................................................10
Characteristics of addition of alloys to the Iron................................................................11
Manganese.....................................................................................................................11
Phosphorus.....................................................................................................................12
Chromium......................................................................................................................12
Molybdenum..................................................................................................................12
Vanadium.......................................................................................................................13
Titanium.........................................................................................................................13
Columbium....................................................................................................................13
Copper............................................................................................................................13
Boron.............................................................................................................................13
Aluminum......................................................................................................................14
Phosphorus.....................................................................................................................14
Sulfur.............................................................................................................................14
Radioactivity......................................................................................................................16

Iron
Iron is allotropic / polymorphic i.e. exhibits different crystal structures at different temperatures.
Most importantly: bcc > fcc transformation at 912C (for pure iron)

GENERAL METALLURGY
SOLID METALS HAVE a crystalline structure in which the atoms of each crystal are
arranged in a specific geometric pattern. This orderly arrangement of the atoms, called a
lattice, is responsible for many of the properties of metals.
Alloying elements, called solutes, are located in the parent metal matrix in one of two
ways. The solute atoms may occupy lattice sites replacing some atoms of parent metal
atoms, called the solvent. Alternatively, the solute atoms are small enough, they may fit
into spaces between the solvent atoms.
Substitutional Alloying. If the solute atoms occupy sites at the lattice locations as shown
in Figure, then the type of alloy is called a substitutional solid solution. Examples of
substitutional solid solutions are gold dissolved in silver, and copper dissolved in nickel.

Interstitial Alloying. When the alloying atoms are small in relation to the parent atoms,
they can locate (or dissolve) in the spaces between the parent metal atoms without
occupying lattice sites. This type of solid solution is called interstitial, and is illustrated in
Figure. Small amounts of carbon, nitrogen, and hydrogen can alloy interstitially in iron
and other metals.

The overall arrangement of the grains, grain boundaries, and phases present in a metal
alloy is called the microstructure of the alloy. The microstructure is largely responsible
for the physical and mechanical properties of the metal. It is affected by chemical
composition, thermal treatment, and mechanical history of the metal. Microstructure is
affected by welding because of the thermal or mechanical effects, or both, but the
changes are confined to the local region of the weld. The metallurgical changes in the
local region of the base metal (called the heat-affected zone) can have a profound effect
on the service performance of a weldment.
AT SPECIFIC TEMPERATURES, many metals change their crystallographic structure.
For example, the crystalline structure of pure iron at temperatures up to 1670F (910C)
is body-centered cubic, Figure 4.1(B). From 1670F to 2535F (910C to 1390C), the
structure is face-centered cubic, Figure 4.1(A), and from 2535F (1390C) to 2795F
(1535C), the melting temperature, it is again body-centered cubic. A phase change in
crystal structure in the solid state is known as an allotropic transformation.
Other metals that undergo allotropic transformations include titanium, zirconium, and
cobalt. Chemical composition, cooling rate, and the presence of stress influence the
temperature at which transformation takes place.
A metal also undergoes a phase change when it melts or solidifies. Pure metals melt and
solidfy at a single temperature. Alloys, on the other hand, usually melt and solidify over a
range of temperatures. The exception to this rule is the eutectic composition of certain
alloys.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Strength, hardness, toughness, elasticity, plasticity, brittleness, and ductility and malleability are
mechanical properties used as measurements of how metals behave under a load. These
properties are described in terms of the types of force or stress that the metal must withstand and
how these are resisted.
Common types of stress are compression, tension, shear, torsion, impact, 1-2 or a combination of
these stresses, such as fatigue.
The tendency of a material to fail after repeated bending at the same point is known as fatigue.
Strength
Strength is the ability of a material to withstand an imposed force or stress.
Strength is the property that enables a metal to resist deformation under load.

The ultimate strength is the maximum strain a material can withstand. Tensile strength is a
measurement of the resistance to being pulled apart when placed in a tension load. The strength
of a material is defined by its yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, and creep strength.
Material creep strength is only a design factor at temperatures that are above approximately
427C (800F). Because the design temperatures for storage tank applications are never more
than 260C (500F), the tensile and yield strengths are the only strength properties that are of
concern for storage tanks.
Fatigue strength is the ability of material to resist various kinds of rapidly changing stresses and is
expressed by the magnitude of alternating stress for a specified number of cycles.
Impact strength is the ability of a metal to resist suddenly applied loads and is measured in footpounds of force.
Yield Strength:- In technical terms the yield stress, which measures the onset of plastic
deformation (for example, 0.1 or 0.2 percent permanent extension), occurs when significant
numbers of dislocations move in the crystal lattice of the major phase present, usually some
form of ferrite.
The allowable stress is the maximum stress that is permitted in a component for design
purposes. Because the yield strength and tensile strength define failure limits of a material, a
safety factor is used between the allowable stress and the stress at which a tank component is
considered to fail. Tensile Properties Materials fail in tension when the increment of nominal
stress from work hardening can no longer support the applied load on a decreasing diameter. The
load passes through a maximum [the ultimate tensile stress (UTS)], and an instability (necking)
sets in at that point. The triaxial stresses thus induced encourage the formation of internal voids
nucleated at inclusions or, less commonly, at other particles such as precipitates. With increasing
strain, these voids grow until they join and ultimately lead to a ductile failure.
Hardness
Hardness is the property of a material to resist permanent indentation. Because there are several
methods of measuring hardness, the hardness of a material is always specified in terms of the
particular test that was used to measure this property. Rockwell, Vickers, or Brinell are some of
the methods of testing. Of these tests, Rockwell is the one most frequently used. The basic
principle used in the Rockwell testis that a hard material can penetrate a softer one. We then
measure the amount of penetration and compare it to a scale. For ferrous metals, which are
usually harder than nonferrous metals, a diamond tip is used and the hardness is indicated by a
Rockwell "C" number. On nonferrous metals, that are softer, a metal ball is used and the
hardness is indicated by a Rockwell "B" number. To get an idea of the property of hardness,
compare lead and steel. Lead can be scratched with a pointed wooden stick but steel cannot
because it is harder than lead.
A full explanation of the various methods used to determine the hardness of a material is
available in commercial books or books located in your base library.

Toughness
Toughness is the property that enables a material to withstand shock and to be deformed without
rupturing. Toughness may be considered as a combination of strength and plasticity. The
capability of a material to resist such a brittle fracture is a measure of its toughness.
Fracture toughness is the ability of a material to withstand conditions that could cause a brittle
fracture. Brittle fracture is characterized by the lack of deformation or yielding in the material prior
to failure. When a brittle fracture occurs, there is no leak or warning prior to complete failure of

the component. These failure characteristics of brittle fracture are in contrast to the ductile type of
failure that occurs when the material strength is exceeded.
Brittle fracture occurs only when the following three conditions occur simultaneously:
The material has insufficient fracture toughness at the temperature.
There is sufficient stress in the component to cause a crack to initiate and grow.
There is a critical size defect in the component that can act as a local stress
concentration point
and site for crack initiation such as at a weld.
As strength increases, toughness falls in all cases except where strengthening arises from grainsize reduction. Fine grain size thus is a double blessing; it will increase strength and toughness
simultaneously.
The energy involved in crack growth depends on carbon content. High-carbon materials have not
only much lower propagation energies (e.g., the shelf in a Charpy test, or the value of Kc), but
also higher impact transition temperatures (ITTs). There is, then, a real incentive to keep carbon
in steel as low as possible, especially because pearlite does not increase the yield strength, but
does increase the ITT, often to well above room temperature.

Welding is an important assembly technique. Since the hardenability of the steel can lead to
generally undesirable martensite in the heat affected zone (HAZ) and possibly to cracks in this
region, the toughness of welds necessitates using steels with the lowest possible carbon
equivalent. Furthermore, the natural tendency of austenite to grow to a very coarse grain size
near the weld metal may be desirably restrained by adding elements such as Ti, which as
undissolved carbides, interfere with grain growth. In critical applications, finer grain sizes after
transformation during cooling increase toughness in the HAZ.
Determining Fracture Toughness
Charpy V-notch test (CV) is commonly used to qualitatively determine the fracture toughness of
steel. The test consists of performing an impact test on a notched specimen that is taken from a

specific location in the material, and then recording the impact energy that is required to fracture
the specimen at various temperatures.
The magnitude of the measured impact energy, the shape of the impact energy curve, and the
appearance of the specimen cross-section are significant factors in evaluating the material
fracture toughness. Figure 1 illustrates the typical shape of impact energy transition curves for
low- and high-strength steels.
Factors that Influence Fracture Toughness
The impact energy level at a given temperature varies with different steels and with different
manufacturing and fabrication processes. Additional factors such as torch cutting, arc strikes, and
cold forming also affect brittle fracture behavior. Torch cutting or beveling of plate edges may lead
to hard and brittle areas that make the edges more prone to cracking. Arc strikes can cause a
brittle fracture, especially if the strike is made over a repaired area. Cold forming of thick plates
may cause fractures in areas that have local stress concentration points or plate scratches.

Elasticity
When a material has a load applied to it, the load causes the material to deform. Elasticity is the
ability of a material to return to its original shape after the load is removed. Theoretically, the
elastic limit of a material is the limit to which a material can be loaded and still recover its original
shape after the load is removed.
Plasticity
Plasticity is the ability of a material to deform permanently without breaking or rupturing. This
property is the opposite of strength. By careful alloying of metals, the combination of plasticity and
strength is used to manufacture large structural members. For example, should a member of a
bridge structure become overloaded, plasticity allows the overloaded member to flow allowing the
distribution of the load to other parts of the bridge structure.
Brittleness
Brittleness is the opposite of the property of plasticity. A brittle metal is one that breaks or shatters
before it deforms. White cast iron and glass are good examples of brittle material. Generally,
brittle metals are high in compressive strength but low in tensile strength. As an example, you
would not choose cast iron for fabricating support beams in a bridge.
Creep
Creep is defined as the time-dependent deformation of a material that occurs under load at
elevated temperatures.
The flow or plastic deformation of metals held for long periods of time at stresses lower than the
normal yield strength. The effect is particularly important if the temperature of stressing is above
the recrystallization temperature of the metal.
Ductility and Malleability
Ductility is the property that enables a material to stretch, bend, or twist without cracking or
breaking. This property makes it possible for a material to be drawn out into a thin wire. In
comparison, malleability is the property that enables a material to deform by compressive forces
without developing defects. A malleable material is one that can be stamped, hammered, forged,
pressed, or rolled into thin sheets.
Modulus of Elasticity (Youngs Modulus).
The modulus of elasticity is the ratio of normal stress to corresponding strain for tensile or
compressive stresses. This ratio is linear through a range of stress, known as Hookes law. The
value of the slope in the elastic range is defined as Youngs Modulus.

Ultimate Tensile Strength

The ultimate tensile strength constitutes the maximum applied load divided by the original
specimen cross-sectional area.
Upon further increase of applied load under constant strain rate, the specimen will continue to
stretch until the loss of load-carrying cross section caused by specimen thinning during the test
(due to Poissons ratio) cannot withstand further load increase.
Yield strength:The stress that causes permanent deformation in a material. It is usually defined as the stress
required to cause 0.2% offset strain.
High-temperature hydrogen attack. A loss of strength and malleability of steel due to hightemperature reactions of absorbed hydrogen with carbides in the steel, resulting in
decarburization and internal fissures.

ALLOYS
By definition, alloys are two are more elements, one of which is metal. There are three
major types of alloys:
TYPE 1: Solid Solution - Two elements, complete solubility in solid and liquid;
TYPE II : Compounds - Complete solubility in liquid;
TYPE III: Mixtures - Partial solubility in solid ( interweaved crystals).
STEEL ALLOYS
Plain carbon steel is made up of Iron (solvent) and carbon (solute). Wrought iron (meaning pure
iron) is a very ductile material and has the ability to undergo allotropic change from BCC to FCC
to BCC as it cools from liquid to room temperature or vice versa.

Austentite - Occurs above the A3 line; have the ability to desolve carbon in solid solution.
Austenite (gamma iron) is a FCC structure that can dissolve and hold up to
2.11 % carbon in solid solution.
Cementite - A very hard, brittle compound (Iron Carbide) having over 6.67 % carbon.
Cementite is 100% IRON CARBIDE.
Peralite - Alternating layers of alpha iron(Ferrite) and cementitie. Occurs only at eutectic
composition. The austenizing temperature must be reached and then the steel must be allowed to
cool and maintain equilibrium.
Ferrite - Alpha iron has a BCC structure and holds only about .008% carbon at room
temperature.
Martensite - Extremely hard and brittle. occurs when austenite is cooled rapidly through
quenching.
Plane carbon steels are considered to be binary alloys (e.g. only two elements are combined).
When two elements are combined a eutectic composition usually occurs. In the case of steel, the
eutectic point occurs at .8 % carbon composition and 733 degrees C. If the rate of cooling is
controlled, a eutectic microstructure of fine alternating layers of the two constituents occurs. In
steel this material has a special name--pearlite.

Iron-carbon phase diagram describes the iron-carbon system of alloys containing up to

6.67% of carbon, discloses the phases compositions and their transformations occurring
with the alloys during their cooling or heating.
Carbon content 6.67% corresponds to the fixed composition of the iron carbide Fe3C.
The following phases are involved in the transformation, occurring with iron-carbon
alloys:
L - Liquid solution of carbon in iron;
-ferrite Solid solution of carbon in iron.
Maximum concentration of carbon in -ferrite is 0.09% at 2719 F (1493C)
temperature of the peritectic transformation.
The crystal structure of -ferrite is BCC (cubic body centered).

Phase Diagram

Ferrite
Austenite -

Austenite interstitial solid solution of carbon in -iron.

Austenite has FCC (cubic face centered) crystal structure, permitting high solubility of
carbon up to 2.06% at 2097 F (1147 C).
Austenite does not exist below 1333 F (723C) and maximum carbon concentration at
this temperature is 0.83%.
-ferrite solid solution of carbon in -iron.
-ferrite has BCC crystal structure and low solubility of carbon up to 0.25% at 1333 F
(723C).
-ferrite exists at room temperature.
Cementite iron carbide, intermetallic compound, having fixed composition Fe3C.
Cementite is a hard and brittle substance, influencing on the properties of steels and cast
irons.
The following phase transformations occur with iron-carbon alloys:
Alloys, containing up to 0.51% of carbon, start solidification with formation of crystals of
-ferrite. Carbon content in -ferrite increases up to 0.09% in course solidification, and at
2719 F (1493C) remaining liquid phase and -ferrite perform peritectic transformation,
resulting in formation of austenite.
Alloys, containing carbon more than 0.51%, but less than 2.06%, form primary austenite
crystals in the beginning of solidification and when the temperature reaches the curve
ACM primary cementite stars to form.
Iron-carbon alloys, containing up to 2.06% of carbon, are called steels.
Alloys, containing from 2.06 to 6.67% of carbon, experience eutectic transformation at
2097 F (1147 C). The eutectic concentration of carbon is 4.3%.
In practice only hypoeutectic alloys are used. These alloys (carbon content from 2.06% to
4.3%) are called cast irons. When temperature of an alloy from this range reaches 2097 F
(1147 C), it contains primary austenite crystals and some amount of the liquid phase.
The latter decomposes by eutectic mechanism to a fine mixture of austenite and
cementite, called ledeburite.

All iron-carbon alloys (steels and cast irons) experience eutectoid transformation at 1333
F (723C). The eutectoid concentration of carbon is 0.83%.
When the temperature of an alloy reaches 1333 F (733C), austenite transforms to
pearlite (fine ferrite-cementite structure, forming as a result of decomposition of austenite
at slow cooling conditions).

Critical temperatures

Upper critical temperature (point) A3 is the temperature, below which ferrite starts to form
as a result of ejection from austenite in the hypoeutectoid alloys.

Upper critical temperature (point) ACM is the temperature, below which cementite starts
to form as a result of ejection from austenite in the hypereutectoid alloys.

Lower critical temperature (point) A1 is the temperature of the austenite-to-pearlite

eutectoid transformation. Below this temperature austenite does not exist.

Magnetic transformation temperature A2 is the temperature below which -ferrite is

ferromagnetic.

-ferrite Solid solution of carbon in iron.

Maximum concentration of carbon in -ferrite is 0.09% at 2719 F (1493C) temperature of the
peritectic transformation.
The crystal structure of -ferrite is BCC (cubic body centered).
Austenite interstitial solid solution of carbon in -iron.
Austenite has FCC (cubic face centered) crystal structure, permitting high solubility of carbon
up to 2.06% at 2097 F (1147 C).
Austenite does not exist below 1333 F (733C) and maximum carbon concentration at this
temperature is 0.83%.
-ferrite solid solution of carbon in -iron.
-ferrite has BCC crystal structure and low solubility of carbon up to 0.25% at 1333 F (733C).
-ferrite exists at room temperature.

Cementite iron carbide, intermetallic compound, having fixed composition Fe3C.

Cementite is a hard and brittle substance, influencing on the properties of steels and cast irons.
The following phase transformations occur with iron-carbon alloys:
Alloys, containing up to 0.51% of carbon, start solidification with formation of crystals of -ferrite.
Carbon content in -ferrite increases up to 0.09% in course solidification, and at 2719 F (1493C)
remaining liquid phase and -ferrite perform peritectic transformation, resulting in formation of
austenite.
Alloys, containing carbon more than 0.51%, but less than 2.06%, form primary austenite crystals
in the beginning of solidification and when the temperature reaches the curve ACM primary
cementite stars to form.
Iron-carbon alloys, containing up to 2.06% of carbon, are called steels.
Alloys, containing from 2.06 to 6.67% of carbon, experience eutectic transformation at 2097 F
(1147 C). The eutectic concentration of carbon is 4.3%.
In practice only hypoeutectic alloys are used. These alloys (carbon content from 2.06% to 4.3%)
are called cast irons. When temperature of an alloy from this range reaches 2097 F (1147 C), it
contains primary austenite crystals and some amount of the liquid phase. The latter decomposes
by eutectic mechanism to a fine mixture of austenite and cementite, called ledeburite.

All iron-carbon alloys (steels and cast irons) experience eutectoid transformation at 1333 F
(733C). The eutectoid concentration of carbon is 0.83%.
When the temperature of an alloy reaches 1333 F (733C), austenite transforms to pearlite (fine
ferrite-cementite structure, forming as a result of decomposition of austenite at slow cooling
conditions).

Acicular ferrite
Acicular ferrite is a microstructure of ferrite that is characterised by needle shaped
crystallites or grains when viewed in two dimensions. The grains, actually three
dimensional in shape, have a thin lenticular shape. This microstructure is advantageous
over other microstructures because of its chaotic ordering, which increases toughness.
Acicular ferrite is formed in the interior of the original austenitic grains by direct
nucleation from the inclusions, resulting in randomly oriented short ferrite needles with a
'basket weave' appearance. This interlocking nature, together with its fine grain size (0.5
to 5 um with aspect ratio from 3:1 to 10:1), provides maximum resistance to crack
propagation by cleavage. Acicular ferrite is also characterised by high angle boundaries
between the ferrite grains. This further reduces the chance of cleavage, because these
boundaries impede crack propagation.

Pearlite
NB Pearlite is a MIXTURE of phases (on a very fine scale)
Alternating layers of ferrite and cementite formed simultaneously from the remaining
austenite when temperature reaches 723C.

Characteristics of addition of alloys to the Iron

Manganese

Manganese is used in small amounts in most steels to deoxidize, desulfurize, and improve
material properties. Manganese is an active deoxidizer and shows less tendency to
segregate than most other elements. The manganese also combines with sulfur to form
manganese sulfide (MnS). The reason sulfur is detrimental is that it solidifies at a low
temperature. The liquid sulfur is carried to the grain boundaries and reduces the strength
of the weld. Any manganese remaining after formation of MnO and MnS will form
manganese carbide (Mn3C) which strengthens and toughens the matrix.
Phosphorus

Phosphorus is generally considered an impurity except where its beneficial effect on

machinability and resistance to atmospheric corrosion is desired. While phosphorus
increases strength and hardness to about the same degree as carbon, it also tends to
decrease ductility and toughness or impact strength, particularly for steel in the
quenched-and-tempered condition. The phosphorus content of most steels is, therefore,
kept below specified maxima, which range up to 0.04%.
Silicon

Silicon is one of the principal deoxidizers used in the manufacture of carbon and alloy
steels and, depending on the type of steel, can be present in varying amounts up to 0.40%.
Silicon is also a ferrite strengthener and is sometimes added as an alloying element up to
approximately 0.5% in plate steel. It combines with oxygen to form SiO2. This silicon
dioxide, (also known as glass), floats to the surface of the weld puddle in combination
with manganese oxide to form the brown slag islands seen in the weld surface. Silicon
can also be added as an alloying element; this is very beneficial in electrical steels used in
transformers.
Nickel
Nickel is one of the fundamental steel alloying elements. When present in appreciable
amounts, it provides improved toughness, particularly at low temperatures. Nickel lowers
the critical temperatures of steel, widens the temperature range for effective quenching
and tempering, and retards the decomposition of austenite. In addition, nickel does not
form carbides or other compounds which might be difficult to dissolve during heating for
austenitizing. As an alloying element in alloy steels, nickel is a ferrite strengthener and
toughener and is soluble in all proportions. In combination with chromium, nickel
produces alloy steels possessing higher impact and fatigue resistance than can be
obtained with straight carbon steels.
Chromium

Chromium is added to increase the strength, wear resistance, heat resistance, corrosion
resistance, and hardness of steel. Of the common alloying elements, chromium is
surpassed only by manganese and molybdenum in its effect on hardenability. Chromium
forms a carbide that gives high-carbon chromium steels exceptional wear-resistance. And
because its carbide is relatively stable at elevated temperatures, chromium is frequently
added to steels used for high-temperature applications. At higher temperatures, chromium
contributes increased strength and is ordinarily used in conjunction with molybdenum.
Additions of chromium significantly improve the elevated temperature oxidation
resistance of steels.
Molybdenum

Molybdenum is another carbide forming element, and is added to most alloy steels from .
5% to 1.5%. Molybdenum improves yield strength and resistance to high temperature
creep (deformation due to high temperature and stress). It also helps to maintain the
strength of the steel after it undergoes stress relief. Molybdenum is added to stainless
steels to reduce pitting (highly localized corrosion) in corrosive environments. It is a
nonoxidizing element, making it highly useful in the melting of steels where close
hardenability control is desired. Molybdenum is unique in the degree to which it
increases the high-temperature tensile and creep strengths of steel and thus it is used
together with chromium in A387 alloy steels for high-temperature pressure vessels. Its
use also reduces a steels susceptibility to temper embrittlement.
Joins with carbon and increases the hardenability at elevated temperatures;
hampers grain growth, therefore, finer grains.

Vanadium

Vanadium is widely used as a strengthening agent in HSLA steels. Vanadium is a strong

carbide former, and increases the hardenability of the steel. Vanadium bearing steels are
strengthened by both precipitation hardening and refining the ferrite grain size.
Precipitation of vanadium carbide and nitride particles in ferrite can provide a marked
increase in strength. Thermo-mechanical-controlled-processing (for example, control
rolling) increases the effectiveness of vanadium. Vanadium is also effective in increasing
the hardenability and resistance to loss of strength on tempering in the quenched and
tempered steels. This element reduces the grain size and increases the toughness of the
material.
Promotes fine grain growth.
Titanium

Titanium is a strong carbide former that will also form oxides and nitrides. A large use of
titanium is to stabilize certain grades of the stainless steels. Titanium combines with any
carbon in the matrix to form carbides before chromium carbide precipitation can occur.
When chromium forms carbides, the corrosion resistance of the material will deteriorate.
Titanium also helps to reduce grain growth in high strength steels, improving strength
and toughness.
Columbium

Columbium (Niobium) is most often used in steels that receive controlled

thermomechanical treatment. Small additions of columbium in the range from 0.02% to
0.04% provide a significant improvement in yield strength. For a given addition,
columbium is approximately two times as effective as vanadium as a strengthener. When
the steel is finished below about 1700F, columbium improves notch toughness primarily
by refining grain size. At higher finishing temperatures, it may be detrimental to
toughness.
Copper

Copper is added to steel primarily to improve the steels resistance to atmospheric

corrosion. In the usual amount between 0.20% to 0.50%, the copper does not
significantly affect the mechanical properties. The copper aids in the formation of a very
tight oxide that is not as prone to flaking as carbon/manganese steel; this slows the
corrosion rate of the material.
Boron

Boron has the unique ability to increase the hardenability of steel when added in amounts
as small as 0.0005%.
Aluminum

Aluminum is used principally to control grain size and achieve deoxidation. The
finegrained steels produced by aluminum killing show improved notch toughness over
coarse-grained steels.

Phosphorus

Phosphorus is generally considered an impurity in steels; a maximum percentage is

generally listed. Phosphorus tends to segregate forcing carbon into the surrounding
matrix. This can lead to brittle materials.
Sulfur

Sulfur, also considered an impurity like phosphorus, is usually specified as a maximum

allowable concentration. Sulfur in the puddle moves to the grain boundaries of the
solidifying weld metal because of its low melting temperature. This segregation in the
grain boundaries reduces the strength of the material. Manganese is added to prevent this
as it combines with the sulfur (Mn + S = MnS) before it can react with iron.

Eutectoid
Definition: An isothermal reversible reaction in which a solid solution is converted into
two or more intimately mixed solids on cooling.
A mixture of two or more constituents which forms on cooling from a solid solution and
transforms on heating at a constant minimum temperature.
A eutectoid steel contains approximately 0.83% carbon. In the Fe-C system, there is a
eutectoid point at approximately 0.8wt% C, 723C. The phase just above the eutectoid
temperature for plain carbon steels is known as austenite or gamma.

When the solution above the transformation point is solid, rather than liquid, an
analogous eutectoid transformation can occur. For instance, in the iron-carbon system, the
austenite phase can undergo a eutectoid transformation to produce ferrite and cementite
(iron carbide), often in lamellar structures such as pearlite and bainite. This eutectoid
point occurs at 727C (1340.6 F) and about 0.8% carbon; alloys of nearly this
composition are called high-carbon steel, while those which have less carbon are termed
mild steel. The process analogous to glass formation in this system is the martensitic
transformation
The eutectoid structure in iron has a special name: it is called pearlite (because it has a
pearly look). It is important to note that pearlite is not a phase, but a mixture of two
phases: ferrite and cementite.

Eutectic
A eutectic or eutectic mixture is a mixture at such proportions that the melting point is as
low as possible, and that furthermore all the constituents crystallize simultaneously at this
temperature from molten liquid solution. Such a simultaneous crystallization of an
eutectic mixture is known as a eutectic reaction, the temperature at which it takes place is
the eutectic temperature, and the composition and temperature at which it takes place is
called the eutectic point.

Radioactivity
Radioactivity, the spontaneous disintegration of the nucleus of the atom, is an important
phenomenon related to atom construction. The inclination to undergo this disintegration varies
among the elements; in fact, different isotopes of a given element can show great differences in
radioactivity.
Gamma rays are electromagnetic waves, or photons, representing another form of energy given
up by the atom. Gamma rays have a wave length somewhat shorter than x-rays, and they carry
no electrical charge. For these reasons, gamma rays have a much greater ability to penetrate
mailer than alpha or beta rays.
The rate of disintegration of an atom exhibiting radioactivity is measured by its half-life, which is
the time required for half of a given quantity of that element to disintegrate into a new element.

Tungsten
Tungsten, also known as wolfram, is a chemical element with the chemical symbol W
and atomic number 74.
Named after the tungsten mineral wolframite. Highest melting point of all metals. Resists
oxygen, acids and alkalis
Tungsten's hardness and high density give it military applications in penetrating
projectiles. Tungsten compounds are most often used industrially as catalysts.

Hydrogen Attack

Hydrogen attack is one of the most important problems with materials used in ammonia
synthesis, oil refining, and coal gasification equipment.
When carbon and low-alloy steels are held in hydrogen at high temperature and pressure
for an extended period of time, these materials can suffer degrading effects to their tensile
and creep rupture properties. This is accompanied by the formation of intergranular
fissures, blisters on the surface, and loss of carbon content (decarburization). The
phenomenon is called hydrogen attack and is generally attributed to the formation of
methane (CH4) within the steel. The microstructural damage occurs when methane
bubbles form and grow around precipitates at the grain boundaries within the material.
The continued growth of the bubbles causes grains to separate along their boundaries and
the bubbles, or voids, to coalesce. The rate of growth of the bubbles is a function of the
ease by which the steel carbides give up carbon atoms to the intruding hydrogen atoms to
form the methane. The more stable the carbide, the slower this reaction will take place.
Thus, it has been long recognized that additions of chromium and molybdenum, both
strong carbide stablizers, improves hydrogen-attack resistance of steels. Addition of other
carbide-stabilizing elements such as titanium and tungsten has also assisted in reducing
susceptibility. Weld regions are more susceptible to hydrogen damage because they
possess less stable carbides. It is also readily apparent that carbon content of the base
material is an important variable in determining the susceptibility of a steel to hydrogen
damage. In general, steels used in this service are kept below 0.20 weight percent carbon
content. Certain other elements, such as nickel and copper, are known to also have a
detrimental effect.
Nelson curves have proven indispensable in the selection of materials in hydrogen
service. These curves (see Fig. A3.20. for an example) were originally based on
experience gathered over several decades, and have been revised as new experience has
been gained. These curves identify a safe regime in which an alloy will perform
acceptably at various temperatures and hydrogen partial pressures. Where these curves
have proven unconservative have been associated with weld heat affected zones that had
been inadequately postweld heat-treated (PWHT). The high residual stresses and high
hardness left in the weld region contribute to accelerated damage. For this reason, most
specifications for hydrogen service equipment stipulate a maximum hardness in weld
regions that will assure adequacy of the PWHT. The limit is usually placed at 210 Brinell
hardness, corresponding approximately to a 100,000 psi (690 Ma) ultimate tensile
strength.
Austenitic stainless steels are essentially immune to hydrogen damage. The numerous
sites within the FCC lattice in which the hydrogen atoms can be safely accommodated,
and the inherent ductility of the lattice, gives austenitic materials this freedom from
hydrogen damage. However, when stainless overlay weld metal has been used over
carbon or low-alloy vessel steels, hydrogen-induced cracking can occur at the weld
fusion line just inside the ferritic material.

Why Nickel content is limited to 1% in carbon steel.

Optimum Ni content in the weld metal is around lwt.%, because this value enables the
highest Charpy-V energy of the weld metals for almost all tested temperatures. This is
basically due to the high amount of acicular ferrite and the low amount of the M-A
constituent in the weld metal. For Ni higher than lwt.% there was decomposition of the
microconstituent M-A into ferrite-carbide along grain boundaries of the acicular ferrite,
which did not allow a better performance of the weld metals regarding to the toughness
after heat treatment for stress relief.

Iron
Iron is allotropic / polymorphic i.e. exhibits different crystal structures at different
temperatures.
Most importantly: bcc > fcc transformation at 912C (for pure iron)

Iron Carbon Phase Diagram

Iron-carbon phase diagram describes the iron-carbon system of alloys containing up to

6.67% of carbon, discloses the phases compositions and their transformations occurring
with the alloys during their cooling or heating.
Carbon content 6.67% corresponds to the fixed composition of the iron carbide Fe3C.
The following phases are involved in the transformation, occurring with iron-carbon
alloys:
L - Liquid solution of carbon in iron;
-ferrite Solid solution of carbon in iron.
Maximum concentration of carbon in -ferrite is 0.09% at 2719 F (1493C)
temperature of the peritectic transformation.
The crystal structure of -ferrite is BCC (cubic body centered).
Austenite interstitial solid solution of carbon in -iron.
Austenite has FCC (cubic face centered) crystal structure, permitting high solubility of
carbon up to 2.06% at 2097 F (1147 C).

Austenite does not exist below 1333 F (723C) and maximum carbon concentration at
this temperature is 0.83%.
-ferrite solid solution of carbon in -iron.
-ferrite has BCC crystal structure and low solubility of carbon up to 0.25% at 1333 F
(723C).
-ferrite exists at room temperature.
Cementite iron carbide, intermetallic compound, having fixed composition Fe3C.
Cementite is a hard and brittle substance, influencing on the properties of steels and cast
irons.
The following phase transformations occur with iron-carbon alloys:
Alloys, containing up to 0.51% of carbon, start solidification with formation of crystals of
-ferrite. Carbon content in -ferrite increases up to 0.09% in course solidification, and at
2719 F (1493C) remaining liquid phase and -ferrite perform peritectic transformation,
resulting in formation of austenite.
Alloys, containing carbon more than 0.51%, but less than 2.06%, form primary austenite
crystals in the beginning of solidification and when the temperature reaches the curve
ACM primary cementite stars to form.
Iron-carbon alloys, containing up to 2.06% of carbon, are called steels.
Alloys, containing from 2.06 to 6.67% of carbon, experience eutectic transformation at
2097 F (1147 C). The eutectic concentration of carbon is 4.3%.
In practice only hypoeutectic alloys are used. These alloys (carbon content from 2.06% to
4.3%) are called cast irons. When temperature of an alloy from this range reaches 2097 F
(1147 C), it contains primary austenite crystals and some amount of the liquid phase.
The latter decomposes by eutectic mechanism to a fine mixture of austenite and
cementite, called ledeburite.
All iron-carbon alloys (steels and cast irons) experience eutectoid transformation at 1333
F (723C). The eutectoid concentration of carbon is 0.83%.
When the temperature of an alloy reaches 1333 F (733C), austenite transforms to
pearlite (fine ferrite-cementite structure, forming as a result of decomposition of austenite
at slow cooling conditions).

Critical temperatures
Upper critical temperature (point) A3 is the temperature, below which ferrite starts to
form as a result of ejection from austenite in the hypoeutectoid alloys.

Upper critical temperature (point) ACM is the temperature, below which cementite starts
to form as a result of ejection from austenite in the hypereutectoid alloys.
Lower critical temperature (point) A1 is the temperature of the austenite-to-pearlite
eutectoid transformation. Below this temperature austenite does not exist.
Magnetic transformation temperature A2 is the temperature below which -ferrite is
ferromagnetic.

Acicular ferrite
Acicular ferrite is a microstructure of ferrite that is characterised by needle shaped
crystallites or grains when viewed in two dimensions. The grains, actually three
dimensional in shape, have a thin lenticular shape. This microstructure is advantageous
over other microstructures because of its chaotic ordering, which increases toughness.
Acicular ferrite is formed in the interior of the original austenitic grains by direct
nucleation from the inclusions, resulting in randomly oriented short ferrite needles with a
'basket weave' appearance. This interlocking nature, together with its fine grain size (0.5
to 5 um with aspect ratio from 3:1 to 10:1), provides maximum resistance to crack
propagation by cleavage. Acicular ferrite is also characterised by high angle boundaries
between the ferrite grains. This further reduces the chance of cleavage, because these
boundaries impede crack propagation.

Pearlite
NB Pearlite is a MIXTURE of phases (on a very fine scale)
Alternating layers of ferrite and cementite formed simultaneously from the remaining
austenite when temperature reaches 723C.