The Quantitative and Qualitative

Research Process
Week 2

Week 2 The Quantitative and Qualitative

Research Process

Table of Contents
Welcome................................................................................................................................................3
Weekly Learning Objectives ................................................................................................................3
Introduction...........................................................................................................................................3
Quantitative Research..........................................................................................................................3
Qualitative Research ..........................................................................................................................15
Summary .............................................................................................................................................22

Week 2 The Quantitative and Qualitative

Research Process

Welcome
Welcome to the second weeks presentation, The Quantitative and Qualitative Research Process. This
week you will learn about quantitative and qualitative research approaches to conducting research. You
will understand the steps involved in each approach and the method used to analyze and interpret the
data.
Weekly Learning Objectives
By the end of this week you will be able to:
Compare the nursing process with the problem-solving process and the research process
Identify the different steps of the quantitative research process in experimental, quasiexperimental, correlational, and descriptive nursing studies
Read research reports
Critique a research report
Describe the scientific rigor associated with qualitative research
Identify the purposes of the four types of qualitative research
Differentiate the research processes (including data collection issues) used in
phenomenological, grounded theory, ethnographic, and historical research
Introduction
The methods of collecting data and analysis in quantitative and qualitative research helps to read
research reports and learn to critically view them.
Quantitative Research
Quantitative research is a formal and systematic approach to describe, investigate, and study the
relationships among variables. Examples include the following:
Describing the spread of certain diseases and its potential impact on large groups of people
Investigating the relationship between a certain diet and weight gain in healthy individuals
Studying the effectiveness of a particular nutritional supplement on shortening the duration of a
cold
The four types of quantitative research include the following:
Descriptive Research
Descriptive research is exploratory in nature. These studies are conducted in natural settings. They
usually use large numbers of subjects and do not involve any manipulation of variables. Descriptive
research studies describe and categorize information. Since it has an exploratory purpose, descriptive
research looks at possible relationships between concepts and describe and identify concepts that can
be studied in more depth.
Correlational Research
Correlational research is a systematic study of the relationships among variables. Once the variables
are measured, correlational statistics is used to examine the relationships among the variables.
Besides determining the relationship, the strength and type (positive or negative) of relationship can
also be studied. The strength of relationship ranges from -1 to +1, with 0 pointing to no relationship. A
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positive relationship shows that the variables either increase or decrease together. A negative
relationship on the other hand, indicates that the variables vary in the opposite direction; that is, when
one increases, the other decreases. Correlational studies explain existing relationships among
variables. They are not meant to determine cause and effect. However, results from correlational
studies help in forming hypotheses to design experimental and quasi-experimental studies, which
investigate causal relationships.
Experimental Research
Experimental research consists of a systematic and controlled study used to predict and control
phenomena in nursing practice. In experimental studies, causal relationships between the variables are
investigated under controlled conditions. Since the variables are highly controlled, experimental
research is considered to be the most powerful quantitative research method.
Experimental studies have the following three main features:
At least one treatment variable is manipulated
Some subjects receive the treatment and belong to the experimental group, while some others
receive no treatment and belong to the control group
Subjects are randomly assigned to either the experimental or control group
Quasi-experimental Research
Quasi-experimental research investigates causeeffect relationships of one variable on another. These
studies involve studying the effect of a treatment using specific methods of measurement. In the field of
nursing, this could be investigating an intervention to improve the outcomes of clinical practice. Quasiexperimental studies do not have the same level of control of the treatment as experimental studies. An
example of a quasi-experimental study is the investigation of the effect of an exercise program on
weight loss among a group of obese women. In nursing research, it is not possible for researchers to
control certain variables. This is especially the case when researching human behavior in a clinical
setting. Nursing research therefore mostly uses quasi-experimental studies.
The following are some terms relevant to quantitative research.
Basic Research
The goal of basic research is to do research for the sake of advancement of knowledge. Studies done
with this purpose seek to investigate and learn about general health-related phenomena. The outcomes
of these studies may not directly impact healthcare practice, but help in understanding and refining
theories.
Applied Research
Also known as practical research, applied research pertains to studies that will have a direct impact on
clinical practice. The goal of applied research is problem solving or predicting outcomes in real-life
situations. Results from these studies are helpful in policy-making that targets public health issues.
Nursing research largely comprises applied research, because clinical problems and interventions have
to be studied to improve patient outcomes. Another characteristic of applied research is to test theories
and study their role in nursing practice.

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Rigor
It is every researchers goal to design and conduct sound research to ensure accurate results. A study
that is rigorous in every aspect uses a representative sample, accurate measurement techniques, and
a good design. Deductive and inductive reasoning are necessary to developing good studies. Rigor in
every study has to be evaluated by assessing the research steps that include design, sample, data
collection, measurement, and data analysis. These must be checked for accuracy. Precision is another
feature of rigor. Precision includes accuracy, detail, and order. One of the most important aspects of
precision is the method of quantifying variables. Researchers have to clearly define methods to
measure the variables under study.
Control
Control refers to rules followed in studies to minimize errors to ensure accuracy of research findings.
These rules used to achieve control are called design. Quantitative research ranges from highly
controlled to uncontrolled studies. For example, descriptive and correlational studies involve no control,
since the studies are conducted in natural settings. Quasi-experimental research explores the
effectiveness of a treatment in producing a specific outcome using a partially controlled environment.
Experimental studies on the other hand are highly controlled studies that look at the effect of a
treatment on the dependent variable. Experimental studies are mostly carried out in healthcare settings
or using animals in laboratories.
Extraneous Variables
Extraneous variables can hamper the interpretation of the results of a study. Researchers strive to
reduce the impact of extraneous variables on understanding the relationships among the variables. By
controlling the influence of extraneous variables, researchers can ensure the accuracy of the study and
thereby understand the impact of the independent variable on the dependent variable.
Sampling
Sampling is a procedure used to select a representative group of subjects from the population under
study. Random sampling ensures that the group of subjects is representative of the population. This is
because every subject of the population has an equal chance of being selected for the study.
Quantitative research employs random and non-random sampling. Descriptive research usually uses
non-random or non-probability sampling. Correlation and quasi-experimental research use either nonrandom or random sampling. However, in nursing research it is not feasible to select random samples.
Instead, quantitative studies use convenience samples. But to ensure rigor and reduce bias, the
subjects selected for the convenience sample are randomly assigned to the treatment and control
groups.
Research Settings
Research setting refers to the environment where the study is carried out. The following are the three
settings used in research.

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Natural setting
Also known as field setting, this involves research conducted in an uncontrolled and real-life setting.
The environment is not manipulated or changed for purposes of the study. Descriptive and correlational
studies are usually carried out in field settings.
Partially controlled setting
In this type of setting, the research manipulates or changes the setting in some way. Nursing research
conducts many of its studies in partially controlled settings.
Highly controlled setting
A controlled setting an artificial setting created for research purposes. The advantage of such a setting
is a reduction of the influence of extraneous variables on the variables under study. Examples of highly
controlled settings include hospital units, laboratories, and research centers used to conduct studies.
Problem-Solving and Nursing Processes
Research is a process much like other processes. A process consists of a purpose, a set of actions,
and a goal. The purpose gives direction to the process. The set of actions help in achieving the goal.
The table below will help you compare the problem-solving process with the nursing process and
research process.
Comparison of problem-solving process, nursing process and research process

*Source: Burns, N., & Grove, S. (2011). Understanding Nursing Research: Building an Evidence-based Practice (5th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: W.B.
Saunders.

Comparing Problem Solving with Nursing Process

Problem solving comprises the following steps:
Problem identification
Goal setting
Steps to achieve the desired goal
Implementation of steps
Evaluating achievement of desired goal

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Problem solving occurs in our everyday life and in nursing practice. Nursing process, on the other hand,
is a part of the problem-solving process. The steps in this process include assessment, diagnosis,
planning, implementation, evaluation, and modification.
Assessment involves data collection and interpretation to aid in nursing diagnoses. The diagnoses help
in implementing the rest of the steps in the nursing process. The planning phase is the same in the
nursing process and problem-solving process. Both include implementation and evaluation. If the
process is not effective, the nurse reviews and modifies the process to achieve the goal.
Comparing the Nursing Process with the Research Process
Both the nursing process and research process have differences and similarities. Both involve abstract
thinking and complex reasoning (Wilkinson, 2006). They are helpful in identifying new information,
exploring relationships among variables, and predicting phenomena. Both involve designing
methodology, data collection, and interpretation of results. The processes are also analyzed for
effectiveness and efficiency.
While there are important similarities between the two processes, there are also key differences
between the nursing and research processes. Understanding the nursing process helps in a better
understanding of the research process, although the research process is more complex when
compared to the nursing process. Research process is a more rigorous implementation of research
methods (Burns, 1989; Burns & Groove, 2009). With respect to focus, the research process has a
broader focus. The nursing process has an emphasis on a particular patient and family. The research
process, on the other hand, focuses on large groups of individuals. Additionally, investigators require a
thorough understanding of the field of nursing to decide which problems need further research. The
theoretical background behind the research process is more solid than that of the nursing process. The
steps and theoretical background in the research process are closely knit. The research process
consists of research that involves more precision, rigor, and control as compared to the nursing
process. Results of studies are disseminated to healthcare professionals in the form of scholarly
publications. Additionally, results from many studies can be analyzed to obtain strategies for sound
nursing practice.
Steps of the Quantitative Research Process
Quantitative research consists of conceptualization of the study, planning, and implementation of the
study, and communicating results of study.
Research Problem and Purpose
Research problems are areas of study in nursing practices that are yet to be explored in detail. The
problem statement is an identification of an area of study for a specific population that needs in-depth
investigation. The goal of research is to generate knowledge that will provide an evidence-based
practice in nursing (Brown, 2009; Craig & Smyth, 2007). The research purpose stems from the
research problem. It identifies the studys goals. The goal consists of the variables, population, and
setting.

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Literature Review
Any study includes a review of research literature pertaining to the investigation. This helps researchers
understand what has already been explored and what needs further investigation. This section
comprises a summary of present knowledge of the subject and identification of further research to
generate important evidence for practice.
Study Framework
The framework is the theoretical underpinnings of a study. This helps the investigator connect the
findings to nursings body of knowledge. In quantitative research, the framework is a theory that can be
tested. A theory is a set of concepts and relational statements that outline a view of a phenomenon.
This can be used to describe, explain, predict, or control the phenomenon. Study frameworks are
represented in the form of diagrams, maps, or narrative formats.
Research objectives, questions, and hypotheses
Research objectives, questions, and hypotheses help investigators translate an abstract problem in a
well-defined manner. They have a narrow focus when compared to the purpose and mostly emphasize
one or two variables. They also identify the relationship between the variables and population to be
included in the study.
Study Variables
Variables are concepts that are measured or controlled in a study. Concrete concepts such as weight,
height, or body temperature are examples of variables in a study. Abstract concepts such as creativity
or social support are examples of research concepts. Variables are operationalized in a study with the
help of operational definitions. A conceptual definition gives a variable a theoretical meaning (Burns &
Groove, 2009). Conceptual definitions stem from a theorists definition or it is developed through an
analysis of the concept. Operational definitions are developed to ensure that variables can be
measured or controlled in the study. A study of the variables will broaden the understanding of the
theoretical concept from the study framework.
Assumptions
Assumptions are statements that are considered to be true, although they have not been tested
scientifically. They are said to be embedded in thinking and behavior. Assumptions can also be seen as
universally accepted truths. Nursing research has the following two common assumptions.

"People want to assume control of their health."

Health is a priority for most people." (Williams, 1980)

Assumptions are part of the philosophical base of the framework, study design and results. They
influence the implementation of the research process. Recognizing assumptions leads to more rigorous
study development (Burns & Grove, 2009).
Limitations
Limitations refer to certain restrictions in a study that make it difficult to generalize the results.
Limitations also reduce the reliability of a study. Generalization refers to the extent to which a studys
findings can be applied to a larger population.
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The two types of limitations are theoretical and methodological. Theoretical limitations restrict the
abstract generalization of a studys results. They are found in the framework and the conceptual and
operational definitions of the variables.
Methodological limitations restrict the reliability of a studys results. They limit the population to which
the studys results can be generalized. Methodological limitations are caused due to factors such as
unrepresentative sample, weak design, single setting, measurement tools with limited reliability and
validity, and poor statistical analyses.
Research Design
Research design is the architecture for conducting a study. It aims to maximize control over the factors
that could adversely affect the outcomes of a study. Research design dictates the population used in
the study, sampling methods, measurement tools, and data collection and analysis. The type of
research design is determined by what is already known and not known about the problem, the
investigators expertise, studys purpose, and how the studys findings will be generalized.
Researchers often conduct a pilot study to fine-tune research design methodology. A pilot study is a
study that is carried on a much smaller scale than the actual study. Pilot studies use similar settings,
subjects, treatments, and data collection and analysis techniques. They are useful in developing a
sound research design. When evaluating a study, it is useful to see if a pilot study was used and if so,
how it benefited the present study.
Pilot studies are conducted for the following reasons:
1. Determine whether the proposed study is feasible.
2. Develop or refine a research treatment.
3. Develop a protocol for the implementation of a treatment.
4. Identify problems with the design.
5. Determine whether the sample is representative of the population or whether the sampling
technique is effective. Hertzog (2008) provided sample size guidelines for pilot studies.
6. Examine the reliability and validity of the research instruments.
7. Develop or refine data collection instruments.
8. Refine the data collection and analysis plans.
9. Collect preliminary data.
10. Give the researcher experience with the subjects, setting, methodology, and methods of
measurement.
11. Implement data analysis techniques.
12. Convince funding organizations that the research team is knowledgeable and competent to
implement the study (Prescott & Soeken, 1989; van Teijlingen & Hundley, 2001).
Information about a studys research design is usually contained in the methodology section of the
research report.
Population and Sample
A population includes all elements (individuals, objects, or substances) that meet certain criteria for
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inclusion in a study (Kerlinger & Lee, 2000). A sample is a part of this population that is chosen to be
included in a study. Subjects refer to the members who are chosen for the study and this term is used
in quantitative research. In qualitative research, the term participants refers to members who are part of
a study. Sampling is the process of selecting subjects, behaviors, or other events that are to be
included in the study.
Methods of Measurement
Measurement involves allotting numbers to objects, events, or situations according to a specific rule.
Instrumentation is part of measurement and it refers to a set of defined rules to design a device or
instrument. An instrument is used to measure a variable in the study. Data obtained from an instrument
can be nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio. Nominal data is the lowest form of measurement, while ratio
is the highest. Depending on the level of measurement, researchers select the appropriate statistical
analysis.
Data Collection
The accurate and systematic collection of information pertaining to the research objectives and
hypotheses is referred to as data collection. Investigators must get permission from the agency where
the study will be conducted and also the written consent from all subjects who will participate in the
study. Researchers are required to obtain a signed consent form from subjects. This form describes the
study and assures the subject of confidentiality and also mentions that the subject can withdraw from
the study at any time. Permission from the agency and subjects must be documented and become a
part of the research report. Researchers use different methods for investigating the variables under
study. This includes questionnaires, interviews, or scales. Data is gathered and recorded in such a
manner that it is easy to enter it in the computer. Information on data collection can be found in the
methodology section of the research report under the subheading, Procedures.
Data Analysis
Data analysis is the process of reducing, organizing, and giving meaning to the data. In quantitative
research, data analysis includes descriptive and inferential analyses. Data analysis techniques are
dictated by the research objectives, questions, or hypotheses. Information on data analysis is included
in the Results section of the research report.
Research Outcomes
Data analyses involve interpretation of the results. Interpreting research outcomes is the process of
understanding the significance of the results, forming conclusions, generalizing the findings, and
exploring the implications of the results for nursing. A part of research outcomes also includes
suggesting areas that require further study. The segment on research outcomes is included in the
Discussion section of a research report.
Reading Research Reports
Learning about the different steps of the research process will help in reading research reports.
Research reports summarize a studys findings and emphasize the studys contribution to the field of
nursing. These reports are presented at conferences and are published in scholarly publications. They
are meant to disseminate information to fellow researchers and are not necessarily aimed at clinicians.
Research reports contain technical information that can be difficult to interpret by students and nurses.
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The following will help you understand research reports better:

Sources of published research reports
Content of a research report
Tips for reading research literature
Sources of Research Reports
Professional journals are the most common sources of research reports. Some journals that focus
largely on research reports are listed below:

Of the above, Applied Nursing Research and Clinical Nursing Research focus on disseminating
research to practice nurses. Reports published in these journals provide more information on
implications of study results for nursing practice than on methodology and statistical analysis.
Sources of Research Reports
The following table lists journals that focus on research articles.

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*Source: Burns, N., & Grove, S. (2011). Understanding Nursing Research: Building an Evidence-based Practice (5th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: W.B.
Saunders.

Apart from reports published in professional journals, some research reports such as qualitative reports
are published in books. Masters theses and doctoral dissertations are also examples of research
reports. These reports are also presented at national conferences and seminars.
Major Sections of a Research Report
Research reports contain the following major sections:
Introduction
The introduction section contains the nature and scope of the study. This section provides the reader
with a clear understanding of the significance of the study and its relevance for nursing practice. The
literature review and study framework could be included in this section depending on the type of
research report. Although it is necessary to include the studys framework in research reports, only half
of all research reports mention it. The introduction section concludes by mentioning the studys
objectives and hypotheses.
Methods
The methods section informs the reader about how the study was conducted. Part of this section is a
detailed description of the study design, treatment, sample, setting, data collection, and measurement
tools. The methods section is important to critically evaluate a study and its reliability in interpreting the
findings.
Results
This section describes the outcomes of the statistical analysis used to analyze data and the subsequent
significance of the outcomes. Also included in this section are the hypotheses, purpose, objectives, and
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research questions. Information on statistical analysis used to address each research objective is
presented in the form of a narrative or tables and figures.
Discussion
This section organizes information from all other sections of the report and presents in a meaningful
form. It discusses findings from the study, the limitations, and implications of the study to nursing
practice, and suggestions for further research.
References
The References section follows the Discussion section of the report and includes all sources of citations
used in the report. This section is important, because it gives the reader information on the sources
used for the methodology and theories that form the backbone of the study.
The following table presents the major sections of a research report and the information in the
respective sections.

*Source: Burns, N., & Grove, S. (2011). Understanding Nursing Research: Building an Evidence-based Practice (5th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: W.B.
Saunders.

Reading Research Reports

Tips for Reading Research Reports
Reading research reports can be done effectively by following a few tips. The following are some tips to
help you get started:
Read the Abstract followed by the Discussion section
Use the Glossary to review unfamiliar terms
Read the report slowly a few times to understand the information

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According to Wilkinson, reading research reports uses critical thinking skills such as skimming,
comprehending, and analyzing to understand the study. These skills will help you to critically evaluate a
research report effectively.
Skimming
Skimming a research report entails quickly reading the report to gain a broad idea of what the study is
all about. Next, familiarize yourself with the authors name and the title of the study. Following this, read
the main headings and a few sentences under those headings. Complete reading the report by
reviewing the conclusions and implications of the study. Skimming is a useful way to obtain an initial
view of the report.
Comprehendings
This requires further study of the report to gain an in-depth understanding. This can be accomplished
by taking notes, highlighting important points, and listing any questions you may have regarding the
methodology, sample, framework, or any other aspect of the study. The biggest challenge in reading
the report could be in the area of statistical analysis. To help you understand this aspect, review the
specific statistical analysis used and link it to the results.
Analyzing
When analyzing a research report, it is helpful to divide the content and examine each section
thoroughly. Look for completeness, unique qualities of the information, and structure. Evaluate the
report to see if there are any missing or incomplete steps and if the investigators have used a critical
argument to apply the studys findings to practice.
Initial Critical Appraisal Guidelines for Quantitative Research
The following guidelines will help you to critically evaluate a quantitative research report:
Identify the type of quantitative study:

Descriptive

Correlational

Quasi-experimental

Experimental
Identify the various sections of the research report:

Introduction

Methods

Results

Discussion
Review to see if the steps of the study have been clearly identified
Look for any missing steps in the research process
Practice Reading Quasi-experimental and Experimental Studies
Quasi-experimental Study
Quasi-experimental studies aim to investigate cause-and-effect relationships among the dependent and
independent variables.

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In nursing research, quasi-experimental studies are used to study the effects of nursing interventions or
treatments on patient outcomes.
The following are the steps of the research process in a quasi-experimental study:
Step 1: Introduction
Research problem
Research purpose
Literature review
Framework
Hypotheses testing
Variables
Step 2: Methods
Design
Sample
Intervention
Outcome measurement
Data collection
Step 3: Results
Step 4: Discussion
Experimental Study
Experimental studies aim at exploring cause-and-effect relationships among the dependent and
independent variables in highly controlled settings. These studies are usually conducted on animals or
objects in laboratories. Very few nursing studies are completely experimental studies.
Qualitative Research
Qualitative research is a systematic and subject approach to describe life experiences and give them
meaning. Social and behavioral sciences use qualitative research, but nursing research began using
this approach only in the late 1970s. We will now explore the values upon which qualitative research is
built and the four qualitative perspectives. An introduction to qualitative research will help you
understand published qualitative studies and evaluate such studies critically, and explore how you can
apply the findings to nursing practice.
*Source: Burns, N., & Grove, S. (2011). Understanding Nursing Research: Building an Evidence-based Practice (5th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: W.B.
Saunders.

Values of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is based on a different set of values when compared to quantitative research.
Qualitative research is based on a more holistic view. They are as follows:
There are multiple, constructed realities (Nicholls, 2009),
The knower and the known are inseparable and knowledge is co-constructed (Haverkamp &
Young, 2007),
Inquiry is value-bound (Haverkamp & Young, 2007), and
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All generalizations are bounded by time and context (Grace & Powers, 2009; Lincoln & Guba,
1985).

Qualitative research involves organizing pieces together to form a whole. This process results in
meaning. Since perception is subjective, a variety of meanings are possible. Frameworks are also part
of qualitative research, but they are used in a different way. Theories are used in the process of data
analysis to understand the findings. New theories could emerge as researchers analyze qualitative
data. Generalization does not occur in the same manner as in quantitative research. Results from
qualitative research help in a better understanding of a phenomenon. Qualitative research can help
nursing practice and also develop new theories and expand nursing knowledge.
Gestalt
Since qualitative research is built upon holistic theory, it is helpful to understand the underpinnings of
this theory. The concept of Gestalt is linked to holism. It refers to the fact that information is organized
into a group of ideas, or a gestalt. A demerit of this process is that, once a phenomenon is interpreted
through that theory, it becomes difficult to understand it from another perspective. Qualitative
researchers understanding of phenomena is shaped by their initial exposure to existing theories. It is
important for them to keep an open mind to different perspectives.
Rigor in qualitative research
Rigor is an important part of any research. A rigorous study is said to be scientifically more trustworthy.
However, in qualitative research rigor is defined differently, since the desired results are different from
quantitative research. A qualitative study is said to be very rigorous if there is clarity and logic in the
emerging theory and how well it explains the phenomenon under study. Rigor is also evaluated on the
basis of the detailed design, sound data collection, and accuracy of data analysis. The qualitative
research report must include a complete critical evaluation of these characteristics.
Qualitative Research Approaches
The following are the four approaches to qualitative research. Each approach is based on the
underlying philosophical perspectives that influence data interpretation.
Phenomenological Research
The word phenomena refers to the world of experience. Every individual has unique experiences.
Phenomenology is the philosophy and the research methods associated with this philosophy. The
following are some of the salient features of phenomenology:
Phenomenologists perceive the person to be a part of the environment,
Phenomenologists have differences in their philosophical beliefs with nursing researchers
basing their work on Hussed or Heiddegers philosophy,
Husseds view focuses on the phenomenon and the meaning-rich statements,
Husseds philosophy supports descriptive phenomenological research,
Heidegger philosophy is an interpretative approach and includes interpretation of data and
presentation of a rich picture of the phenomenon under study, and
Hermeneutics is a type of interpretive phenomenological research method that is in line with
Heideggers philosophy.

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Grounded Theory Research

This is an inductive method that has developed from sociology. The term grounded refers to the fact
that the theory that has emerged from research has developed from the data from which it has derived.
Grounded theory has its foundations in symbolic interaction theory. The social psychologist George
Herbert Mead is a pioneer in symbolic interaction theory. Grounded theory looks at how people
perceive reality, and the relationship between their beliefs and actions. Reality is a by-product of
meanings assigned to situations. Meaning is represented through symbols such as words, clothing, and
religious objects. Grounded theory states that these symbolic meanings are the foundation for actions
and interactions. Every individual has different symbolic meanings. Grounded theory looks at the
interaction between the individual and group.
Ethnographic Research
The term ethnography means portrait of a people. Ethnographic research has its origin in
anthropology, where researchers used the method to study culture by being a part of the culture for an
extended period. Culture is "a way of life belonging to a designated group of people a blueprint for living
which guides a particular group's thoughts, actions, and sentiments all the accumulated ways a group
of people solve problems, which are reflected in the people's language, dress, food, and a number of
accumulated traditions and customs" (Leininger, 1970, pp. 48-49). The philosophy behind ethnographic
research is that culture is both material and non-material. Material culture refers to all created objects,
whereas nonmaterial culture pertains to symbolic aspects, social customs, and beliefs.
The two basic approaches to ethnography are emic and etic. Emic includes study of behavior from
within the culture, while etic involves studying behavior from outside the culture. Ethnographic research
in nursing is mostly emic.
Ethnonursing is a recently developed research strategy that involves observation and documentation
interactions with people and its influence on nursing practices.
Historical Research
As the term indicates, historical research focuses on the past. An evaluation of historical events is said
to improve understanding of the self. Additionally, historical knowledge is beneficial to broaden the
knowledge of the nursing profession.
History deals with the following three major questions:
Where have we come from?
Who are we?
Where are we going?
Oral reports, artifacts, and written accounts shed light on the past and this helps historians look for
patterns and form generalizations. Historical nursing research is now gaining importance and nurses
are beginning to explore relevant topics. The methods used in historical research are appropriate for
this approach. Research objectives are aimed at exploring, describing, and analyzing events during a
specific time period.
Qualitative Research Methods
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There are similarities and differences in research methods in qualitative and quantitative studies.
However, there are some methods that are unique to qualitative research. This section introduces you
to qualitative research methods.
The following are the research methods used in qualitative research:
Selection of participants
In qualitative studies, subjects are termed as participants. This goes with the idea that the investigator
and participant engage in the study cooperatively. Participants help the researcher carry out the study
successfully.
Research-participant relationship
A major difference between quantitative and qualitative research is the extent of involvement of the
investigator with the participants in the study. Although this may be considered as bias in quantitative
research, in qualitative research, it is considered as an important aspect. The relationship between the
participant and researcher affects data collection and interpretation. The investigator builds a rapport
with the participant and maintains an open and honest relationship at all times. The researcher and the
participant have a symbiotic relationship and support each other throughout the study. The investigator
has to be empathetic and intuitive.
When conducting ethnographic studies, the investigator must be very familiar with the culture that is
under study. Immersion in the culture is essential and this is accomplished by learning about the
cultures language, customs, socio-cultural norms, and traditions. Immersion also entails acceptance of
the researcher being accepted by that culture. However, it is important that the researcher does not go
native, by becoming a part of the culture and losing an objective perspective.
Data Collection Methods
The commonly used methods of data collection in qualitative research are as follows:
Interviews
There are differences between interviews used in qualitative studies and quantitative studies. In
quantitative studies, interviews are in the form of questionnaires and surveys to obtain subject
responses. However, in quantitative studies, interviews range from semi-structured to unstructured.
Semi-structured interviews use fixed questions and no fixed responses. Unstructured interviews are
open-ended questions with probes. Probes are questions used by the researcher to get more
information from the participant. In qualitative studies, interviews tend to be open ended, with no fixed
sequence of questions. Researchers could change questions as they gain more information from
previous observations. Participants are encouraged to contribute to the interview process by providing
their insights. Although the interview process could be one session, the researcher could continue to be
in touch for weeks or months with the participant to obtain more information. This is helpful in
maintaining a good relationship between the researcher and participant and is beneficial to collecting
rich data.
Focus groups
The goal of focus groups is to gather information about participants perspectives on a topic. This is
conducted in a permissive and nonthreatening setting. Since group dynamics facilitates expression of
views, focus groups are better in some circumstances than one-on-one interviews. This is particularly
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helpful when participants are likely to feel more comfortable expressing their opinions in a group
setting. Focus groups were first used in nursing in the late 1980s. Focus groups have the following
assumptions (Morrison & Peoples, 1999):
A homogeneous group provides the participants with freedom to express thoughts, feelings,
and behaviors candidly
Individuals are important resources of information
People are able to report and verbalize their thoughts and feelings
A group's dynamics can generate authentic information
Data provided by a group are needed to achieve the study purpose
The facilitator can help people recover forgotten information by focusing on group interaction
* Source: Burns, N., & Grove, S. (2011). Understanding Nursing Research: Building an Evidence-based Practice (5th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: W.B.
Saunders.

A moderator or facilitator conducts focus groups. The entire proceeding is recorded and the researcher
also takes written notes. Information about the time and environment is also noted, since this is an
important element that could affect the group. Focus groups must be conducted in natural settings that
are most comfortable for participants. This provides for a richer dialog and data. Moderators must be
trained sufficiently to facilitate discussions in the focus group.
Observation
Observation is the most important method of data collection in qualitative research. This is especially
relevant in ethnographic studies. Researchers obtain first-hand information in a natural situation. The
question answered is, What is going on here? The researcher has to observe keenly and listen to
what is happening. Participants are mostly engaged in routine activities. The observer has to focus on
certain aspects of the situations that are relevant to the study. Researchers record information in
several ways. They may take notes, called field notes, during the observation or wait until observation
is complete to make notes. Videotaping the event is also another method to record data.
Text
Text is a rich source of data in qualitative studies. Participants are asked to write about specific topics.
It can be either sent through e-mail or given in person. This portion of the data can be used along with
other pieces of data including patient records or procedure manuals. Articles published via the Internet,
newspapers, or magazines can also be a part of qualitative data. Interview transcripts can also be used
for qualitative analysis. If it is historical research, documents and letters associated with certain
historical events can also be used for analysis purpose.

Other Qualitative Methods of Data Collection

You have just learned about the major methods of data collection in qualitative research. Some
additional methods of data collection are:
Collecting stories
Stories are powerful ways to influence health behavior in patients. Researchers find stories helpful to
understand a phenomenon under study. Stories are especially useful when collecting information about
traumatic events in clients lives.
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Constructing life stories

This method has evolved from history, anthropology, and phenomenology. It is used to understand life
of individuals, states of health, patients, and their caregivers. Life stories are especially beneficial when
trying to understand patients symptoms and their experiences with treatments. Personal diaries and
records are also useful in interpreting patients life experiences. Analysis should be completed by
reconstructing a full picture by assembling all records pertaining to the individual.
Case studies
Case studies explore a single unit in the context of its real-life environment. The unit could be an
individual, organization, or even a family. Case studies were common in nursing studies in the early
twentieth century. As newer research methods gained prominence, case studies became less common.
Case studies involve quantitative, qualitative, or a combination of the two methods of data collection.
The type of data collection depends on the case in study.
Data Management
Research generates large amounts of data and this must be managed appropriately by researchers.
Investigators gather, manage, and interpret data simultaneously, so it is important to store data in a
format that is easy to access.
Some ways to manage data generated from qualitative research are:
Transcribing interviews
Audio interviews are transcribed word for word. To help in accurate transcription, researchers often
transcribe as soon as possible after the interview. Researchers must pay attention to the tone of voice
and inflections. It is recommended that the investigator listen to the entire recording after transcription
to ensure accuracy. Proofing is a process by which the transcript is checked against the recording to
make note of any important elements of the interview.
The process of transforming raw data into a meaningful form can be organized into a process. The
steps in the process include the following:
Immersion
Data reduction
Analysis
Interpretation
Immersion
Qualitative data often includes lengthy narratives, transcripts, and recordings. The investigator must
read, and reread the information to gain an in-depth understanding of the data. Participants feelings,
emotions, and nonverbal communication are often part of this data. The researcher therefore finds the
need to be completely immersed in the process of decoding this data. In phenomenology, this
immersion is called dwelling with the data. This process addresses the question, What is going on?
Data reduction
As mentioned previously, qualitative studies generate large amounts of data. This data has to be
organized and managed effectively for accurate analysis. The initial focus of data analysis focuses on
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reducing the volume of data to ensure efficient interpretation. This process is called data reduction. In
this process, the researcher tentatively attaches meaning to the different elements in the data. Data can
be reduced based on classification or theoretical perspectives.
Data Analysis
Data analysis is a systematic and thorough process. Since published qualitative studies often do not
describe detailed methodology, researchers perceive qualitative research to be unstructured. Data
analysis entails a disciplined approach which is in line with the philosophical method of the study.
Codes and coding
Coding is the process of reading data. It also involves breaking text into small segments and labeling
parts of the text. Labels help in establishing patterns in the data. The sequence and goal of coding
depends on the type of qualitative study.
Codes are symbols assigned to categorize words or phrases in the data. They could be hand-written or
be highlighted sections of texts. Numbered lists of codes are also commonly used to analyze data.
Codes could result in themes, processes, or exemplars. Investigators must give information regarding
the codes used in the research report. Reflexive thought is the process of dynamic interaction between
the researcher and his or her experience of the data. This must be documented in the report since it
gives important clues about the data.
Reflection
As mentioned earlier, qualitative studies involve interaction between the researcher and the data. In
some phenomenological research, this leads to bracketing. Bracketing helps avoid misinterpretation of
data.
Identifying Themes
Codes are related to transcribed text, whereas themes are deduced from codes. Only recently, have
there been strategies to develop themes and use them in data analysis. Themes are not related to
textual data. Some studies have many layers of themes. It is challenging to link themes to original data.
Analysis of Focus Group Data
Analyzing data obtained from focus groups can be challenging, since data from this method is complex.
Since there is much group dynamics, there is a possibility for participants to be influenced by those in
another group. Hence, data analysis cannot completely rely on individuals remarks. There are no
standard rules to analyzing focus group data. Many researchers often rely on individual remarks as
representative of the entire data.
Interpretation
Themes and descriptions are the starting point of data interpretation in qualitative studies. Data
interpretation is usually accomplished by viewing the data in a larger context by connecting different
themes in the results to each other. Interpretation in qualitative research aims to emphasize the studys
applications for nursing practice or at developing theories.

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Summary
That brings us to the end of this weeks session
By now, you will be able to:
Compare the nursing process with the problem-solving process and the research process
Identify the different steps of the quantitative research process in experimental, quasiexperimental, correlational, and descriptive nursing studies
Read research reports
Critique a research report
Describe the scientific rigor associated with qualitative research
Identify the purposes of the four types of qualitative research
Differentiate the research processes (including data collection issues) used in
phenomenological, grounded theory, ethnographic, and historical research

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