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Albert Einstein
Exemplo:
!
f(x)
x1 = 4
em torno de x1 = 4: x& f ( x1 ) +
f
x
x = x1
em torno de x2 = 6: x& f ( x2 ) +
f
x
x = x2
x2 = 6
( x x1 ) = 3 + x 4 x& x 1
( x x2 ) = 7 + 2( x 6) x& 2 x 5
f ( x) = f ( x ) +
f ( x) = f ( x ) +
df
dx
(x x) +
x= x
1 d2 f
2 dx 2
( x x )2 + O (( x x )3 )
x= x
d
1 d2
f ( x )( x x ) +
f ( x )( x x )2 + O ( x x ) 3
2
dx
2 dx
f ( x ) = f ( x ) + f ( x )( x x ) +
1
2
f ( x )( x x ) + O ( x x ) 3
2
df
dx
(x x) = f (x) +
x=x
d
f ( x )( x x ) = f ( x ) + f ( x )( x x )
dx
ou, fazendo y = x x ,
f ( x + y) f ( x ) +
df
dx
y = f (x) +
x=x
d
f ( x ) y = f ( x ) + f ( x ) y
dx
f(x)
f( x ) + f( x )y
f( x + y)
f( x )
f ( x1 ,..., xn ) y1 + ... +
f ( x1 ,..., xn ) y n
x1
xn
f ( x + y ) f ( x ) + f ( x )T y
onde
x1
x= M
xn
y1
y= M
y n
f (x)
x
M
f ( x ) =
f ( x )
xn
f n ( x + y ) f n ( x ) + f n ( x ) T y
f1 ( x )T
f 2 ( x ) T
F=
T
f n ( x )
f1 ( x )
f ( x )
f ( x) = 2
M
f ( x )
n
df
dx
x=x
y (t ) y&
df
dx
y (t ) = f ( x ) y (t )
x=x
df
dx
y ( k ) y ( k + 1)
x=x
df
dx
y ( k ) = f ( x ) y ( k )
x= x
y1 g1 ( x (t ) )
y g ( x ( t ) )
2 = 2
M
M
y g ( x (t ) )
p p
x&1 f1 ( x (t ), u(t ) )
x& f ( x (t ), u(t ) )
2 = 2
M
M
x& f ( x (t ), u(t ) )
n n
2 = 2 1
M
M
x& f ( x (t ), x (t ),..., x (t ), u (t ), u (t ),..., u (t ) )
n n 1
2
n
1
2
m
y1 g1 ( x1 (t ), x2 (t ),..., xn (t ) )
y g ( x (t ), x (t ),..., x (t ) )
2
n
2 = 2 1
M
M
y g ( x (t ), x (t ),..., x (t ) )
2
n
p p 1
f i
x2
f i
um
( x2 x2 ) + ... + f i
xn
( x ,u )
( xn xn ) + f i
u1 ( x , u )
( x ,u )
f i
( x1 x1 ) +
x1 ( x , u )
(u1 u1 ) + f i
u2
(u2 u2 ) + ... +
( x ,u )
(um um ), i = 1,..., n.
( x ,u )
g j ( x1 , x2 ,..., xn ) g j ( x1 , x2 ,..., xn ) +
+
g j
x2
( x2 x2 ) + ... +
( x ,u )
g j
xn
g j
x1
( x1 x1 ) +
( x ,u )
( xn xn ), j = 1,..., p.
( x ,u )
10
Exemplo 1:
linearize a seguinte equao diferencial em torno de h0: a
dh
+b h =c
dt
Soluo:
!
dh
b
c
dh
b
c
=
h+
= f (h(t ) ) , com f (h(t ) ) =
h+
dt
a
a
dt
a
a
df
(h(t ) h0 ) = b h0 + c b (h(t ) h0 )
dh h ( t ) = h0
a 2a h0
a
f (h(t ) )
c b h0
h (t ) +
2a h0
2a
a
b
c b h0
dh
b
h (t ) +
dt
2a h0
2a
a
11
Exemplo 2:
linearize a seguinte equao diferencial em torno de x0 =
repare que x0 =
: x& = cos(x )
Soluo:
!
12