EFr*-:w

.,F

.':

114

Chapter

Engineering Design

Saddie

6.2

Selecting Manufacturing

Processes

15

MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

products. Processes are

Manufacturing processes transforrn raw materials into
metal bending, or
sheet
used to chang"*^u material's form as in metal casting,
of a material
properties
and
processes
microstructure
can alter the
machining.
heat treatment'
or
rolling,
cold
by
steel
of
strength
yield
the
such as increasing
of a material such as in
Some processes change the chemical composition
chrome plating or galvanizing steel'

ing,

castManufacturing pro..r*s can be categcrized as bulk deformation,

and
finishing,
machining,
procssing,
porymer
metalwoiking,
sheet

assemblY, as shown in Figur e 6.2,

primary manufacturing prccesses are used principally to alter the materitransform rectanguiar
al,s shape or form. we rr^rurting, for example, to
brake drums. Injection molding is used to

ingots of steei into crlindrical

handsets' Rolling
convert peilets of thermoplastic polyethylene into telephone
to bend steel
used
is
metalworking
shet
An,
is used to flatten siabs of steel.
housings'
refrigerator
sheets into
remove geometnc
Secondary uranufacturing processes are used to add or
undergoes
example,
for
casting,
drum
the basic forms. ifrr brake
features from

FIGURE 6.1 Trek *ountoin bicycle. (Courtesl, of Trek Bic,vcle Corporation.)

Manufacturing

of process and its sequence is important. Part of production pianning, in fact, is

determining the appropriate sequence of primary, secondary, and tertiary

manufacturing processes.
Other processes are used in making bicycles, including: molding (tires),
chrome plating or anoCizing (handlebars, wheel rims), swaging (seat posts),
stamping (sprockets), arrd casting (hand controls).
As we plan the manufacture of any product, we need to answer the fo1lowing questions:

E How do we choose the specjfic manufacturing processes?

E FIow rlo ihe materials seiected influence the chcice cf manufacturing

r
t

I)eforn:ation

Extrusion

Polymer

Casting

h4achining

Finishirig

Assembl,v

Processes

Cer:trifugal

Ilending

Blow molding

Boring

Anoclizing

Automated

Casting

Drilling

I{oning

Bonding

processes?

Forging

Die cast.ing

Blanking

Would product function or perforrnance issues influenc.e cur choice of

Rolling

Jni,estment

Drawing

Compression nioldfug

haclng

Painting

Brazing

Bar drawing

Pernanent mold

Punciring

Extrusiori

Grinding

Piating

Manual

processes?

lnjection moiding

Polishing

Riveting

What criteria should we use to seiect processes?

Wire drarving

Miliing

'Ihermoforming

Planing

Soldering

Transfer molding

Turning

Welding

Which criteria are rnost important?

Sand casting

Shearing
Spinning

Who will make the final decisions?

In the remaining sections we will examine some of the more widely used
manufacturing processes. We will investigate their: compatibiiity with alternative materials, ability to generate complex shapes, limltations as to the
maximum or minimum part size, feasible production quantities, and overall
economic viability. Then we will present a general method that will help us
select appropriate manufacturing proeesses.

Processes

Sawing

ECM, EDM

FIGURE 6.2 Types of manufacturing processes'

16

Chapter

Engineering Design

secondary machining operations such as turning and grinding of the friction

surface. Refrigerator housings are frequently drilled or hole-punched. Injection molded parts usually will have surplus flash trimmed.
Tertiary manufacturing processes relate to surface treatments such as polishing, painting, heat treating, and'ioining. A part, such as the bike frame, can
undergo a sequence of many processes, or operations, including cleaning and
painting before it is assembled as the final product

Seiecting Manrrfacturing

Processes

R.atl pi-essure

tttl
t
Blocked
preform

++
Fiash

Gutter

->

6.2.1 Bulk Deforrnation

Bulk deformation changes the shape or form of bulk raw materiais caused by
compressive or tensile yielding. Bulk rnaterials include billets, blooms, and slabs,
as compared

to

sheet materials. Ore is

FIGURE

initiallv processed into solidified ingots.

Ingots are subsequently rolled into smail rectangular blooms, billets and sIabs.
Some of the more common bulk deforrnation processes are described below.

Extrusion As shown in Figure 6.3, in extrusion, heated metal plastically yields

as it is pushed through a die, producing long pieces with a constant crosssection. Rectangular., circular, triangular. L-shaped, and lJ-shaped cross
sectio:s are corrmon. Tubing arid piping can also be extruded using a mandrel

to for"m the hollow core. Custom cross sections are also produced. Typicallir
extrusions are shipped in 40-foot lengths, the same length as a tractor trailer.
Cross-sections can range from about Ill to 12 incires in diameter. Economical
production quantities range from 1,000 to 100,000 pieces. Extrusions are made
from ductiie nretals including aluminurn, steel, zinc, copper. and magnesinm.

Forgi*g As shown in Figuie 6.4, in forging, material is piasticalll, compressed

between two halves of a die set by hydraulic presslrre or the stroke of a
hammer. In closed die forging tlie material is compressed on all sides. During

Extrusion die

6.4

Closed-die forging'

between two die halves that do

open die forging the workpiece is hammered

material is preformed in
not restrict the side flow of material. often bulk
is hot, requiring less
metal
tire
blocker dies. Forging is typically clone when
size lirnited
maxirnum
a
with
forged
be
,un
work. Moderatetfro;plex sliapl,
1,000 to
from
range
quantities
production
Economic
to r"oughly 36 inches.
100,000 pieces.

materiai, forming
Roping Tlvo or more cviinclrical rollers plastically comPress
and slabs flom
bioorns,
biilets,
pioduce
to
used
is
Rolting
rods.
or
sheets, bars,
circular bars'
or
rectangular
ingots. The billets are subequentty rtted into
structural
into
rolled
are
Blooms
metal.
Slab-s are rolled into plates and sheet

and.r'vid.e-flangebeams' The
shapes including l-beams, channel bearns, angle,
in Figure 6-5. Hot rolling
processing of ingots into the various shapes is shown
to deforrr materials but produces an

requires less r,vork than cold rolling

work but increases the
oxiclized surface finish. cold rolling requires more
finish.
n ut**rl's yield strength and produces a superior surface

bar stocic is pulled

Bar Drarvi*g As shou,n in Figure 6.6,in har drar,ving,
the material's
increases
draiving
Cold
section.
cross
trough a die of reduced
or rectancircuiar
of
lengths
strength and irnproves the surface finish. Straight
section'
cross
in
inches
to
6
118
from
stock are produced. Sizes range
gular bar

Cross sections

Ram

--.-.- .

a set of successivell'
\vire Drawing in wire drawing. bar stock is pulied through

'

usuall,v wound on a spool

narrowing dies, forming a ton[ strand of rviie that is
0.001 to about 318 inchfrom
range
sizes
section
as a continuous pro.*ru Cross
steel, and copper'
aluminum.
as
such
rnetals
ductile
with
used
es. Drawing is

FIGURE 6.3
Extrusion of metais.

117

(
(

18

Engineering Design
Chapter
'

'

':

'

'

,.

,-.;'-i:t,;.

,r;l il
"ri.i,ii:i -;
,::4.',

!:':.t

.::

l'';utj":''

';:^':-^

:{

,/

,'

l'.,,:t.'',, t.,.-r
,'.1' l'
i "ll"l',i'

'

Processes

Casting is one of the oldest processes, dating back thousands of years, in

which molten metal is poured into a cast to solidify. Casting can produce
complex geometries within broad tolerances. For dimensional accuracy castings
are typically machined in secondary operations. Three of the most commonly

.-

,7r.t.; tt;'':'nJ,:ti,

(.

Selecting Manufac{uring

6.2,2 Casting

aL'

'll.
.:!-i'

U;'91,:

"*---*---F

i ,

used casting processes are sand casting, die casting, and investment cast.

i:i,;,'1i

Casfing In sand casting, molten metal solidifies in a sand moid. The

standard mold is formed by packing damp sand around a pattem with the
same external shape as the part to be cast. The pattern is removed before
casting and later reused. As shown in Figure 6.7, molten metal flows down the
sprue into the runner, through the opening to the part, called a gate and into
the part cavity forming. The riser is a small reservoir of liquid metal that feeds
material into the part as the part cools and shrinks. Preformed sores can be
placed in the mold to create voids, such as cylindrical holes. Open-mold
casting is used for pas with a flat surface on one side (e.g., manhole covers,
jewelry). Closed-mold casting uses a cope half and a drag half, enclosed in a
flask. When the metal has solidified and cooled the mold is destroyed in order
to remove the part. The parting iine is where the two mold halves meet. Sizes
for sand castings can range from inches to feet. Some industrial engine blocks
have been cast as large as 12 feet in cross section and 30 feet long. Economical
production quantities can be very small, for example between 1 and 10. A1l

Sand

I
inEot

siab

sheet

l-rillet

nonferrous and ferrous metals are used. Moderately complex shapes are
possible. Sand cores can be used to produce internal and external undercuts.
Parts made by sand casting have a granular surface finish.

FIGURE

6'5 The rolling defo,nation

process iriitiallyproduces blooms. slahrs.

and billets.

are subsequentiy rolled into structural,

iheet, coil, bar, and rod shapes.

Clope

Drawing die

f hese

lilask

Sprue

Cross sections

ox

Drag

Biiiet
FIGURE 6.6

(
(

Drawing of bar stock.

FIGURE

6.7

Closed-mold sand casting.

Die Casting In die casting. molten material is injected under

pressure into
permanent die set (i.e., mold halves) usually made of steel. Because the steel

119

nA

Engineering Design

Chapter

mold is reused, die casting is faster than sand casting.

.- ----o But, the steel die set is
often more expensive to machine.
The surface finish of die-cast parts is smoother
than sand-cast parts. As
shown in Figure 6.8, a shot of molten metal is
iadled into the opening, and then
hydraulically rammed into the mold halves by
the plunger. Hot-chamber diecasting machines, rvhich"automate the process
even further, are also u*.. irr.
solidified part is pushed out of the *tlo by ejector
pins, after the die set is
separated' Maximum part sizes are limited
uy ttr* ciamping capacity of the
injection machines, typically around 30 inches
uy:o inches. srrall parts, iess than
an inch, can be die-cast. Moderately compler
shapes are possible. Economic
production volumes are generally over to,bo0
pieces. In order not to melt the
steel mold, common die-casting materials are
low melti;g-p;int'**iuls, including alloys of aluminum, znc,magnesium, and
brass.
Invesfment casting (Lost-wax Process) In investment
casting, molten metal
solidifies in a ceramic cast made by coating a wax
pattern with liquid slurry,
then dried' The wax is melted out prior to casting.
As shown in Figure 6.9, the
wax pattern is made in a metal mold. Muitiple
parts can be coinbined on the
pattern tree.'rhe wax is'ntelted and drained
fro* the ceramic mold. Molten

Four-part
pattern tree

Wax pattern
is cast

Selecting Manufacturing

Processes

Ceramic mold
(harduncd slur"i-r';

JL dfu

ffiffi

Wax removed
by meltiug

Molten metal
solidifies in cast

Ceramic mold is
removed

FIGURE 6.9
Investment casting.
Stationary die

Moving die

rnetal is poured into the ceramic moid that is destro)ed after the part solidifies.
Shape coinplexit-v and production voiurne are similar to die casting. Casting materials inclucle ,iloyr of aluminum, zinc, maqnesium. brass, steel. and stainless
steel. Investment casting is typically used for runs of less than 10,000 pieces.

Molten
nletal

Piunger

**[;;;
Ejector pins

"2.3 Folyrner Processing

In pol.vmer pr$aessing, part shapes are created by solidification of thermopias-

Sprue

Parting line

FIGURE

6,8

Cold-chamber die casring.

tic polvmers or curing of thermosetting pol,mers. Parts made of thermoplastic

and thermosetting materials can be rnade in man-v shapes and sizes, u,ith little
waste of rau, materiai. requiring few, if anY. finishing operations. Some of the
more common processes include: blow rnolding, injection molding. cornpression molding, transfer molding. thermoforming. and casting.
Blow h{olding In blow molding, as shown in Figure 6.1,0, a molten parison of
thermopiastic material is extruded then injected with air, then expands to the
shape of the mold. Blow molding is frequently used to produce hollor,v parts
with thin walis. Captured cavities shapes are possible. such as a bottle' Sizes
are iimited to about three feet in diameter.

121

{\
(

122

Chapter"

Engineering Design

Selecting Manufacturing Processes

illl

Ram presure

(
ir4olten parison
is extrucied

lvlold halves

Air blou,n

close

into parison

Part is
removed

\
Extruder
air in'iector
Heated

mold

Sprue

(
parison

Charge

Part

FIGURE 6.12 Trunsfer molding.

FIGURE 6.10 Extrusion blow molding.

Compression Moding In compression molding, a charge of thermoset or elas'.tomer is fornled between heated mold halves under pressure whiie tire
polymer cures. As shown in Figure 6,11, compression molds are simpler than
injection molds, not requiring a complex s,vstem of sprue. runners, and risers.
Compression molding is comrnonly used for automobile tires and recotd

albums. Transfer molding injects the polymer into the cavity permitting
molded inserts. However, the ttrermcset or elastomer sprues and runners, as
shown in Figure 6.72, are not reground and reused as with thermopiastics.
h{aximum part sizes are tl,pically less tiran 24 inches by 24 inches. h4inirnum
Dart sizes can be on the order of 1/8 ta 714 inctr in cross section. Economic
production volumes start at about 10,000 pieces.
i{eated mold

and
Injection Motrdimg In injection rnolding, thermoplastic pellets ai e melted
6'13,
Figure
in
shown
As
mold.
a
metal
into
pressure
thn injected uod*, high

the hopper. As the pellets auger into the

fe[ets tf th.r*oplastii aie placed into
to ultitarrei, the pellets begin to iub against each other, causing enough heat

the mold via

marely meif the pellets. The uugri then rams the moiten plastic into
folms the
mold
the
of
haif
cavity
The
gate
network.
and
run,rlr,
the sprue,
cools,
part
the
As
outside of the part. The core half of the mold forms the inside.
part'
the
remove
to
pins
it shrinks onto the core, requiring ejector

Cavitl,half
of

Feed iiopper

Barrei

Core half
of molcl

Pe.llets

Ram Pressure

mold

*r
i

Ejector pins

Sirear-heating

\
(
(
(

SPrue

Parting plane/surface
FIGURE 6.1 1 Compression moiding

FIGURE 6.1

Injection molding of thermoplastic materials.

123

124

chapter

Engineering Design

Selecting Manufacturing

Processes

The mold halves slide on guideposts (not shown). External and internal
undercuts can be formed. Side cores are shaped metal parts that move in and
out of the mold to form external undercuts. An internal undercut is a feature
that restricts the removal of the part from the core half of the mold. An
external undercut is a feature that restricts the removal of the part from the
cavity half of the mold. A parting line separates the core and cavity halves.
lJndercuts are shown in Figure 6.14. A system of liquid channels cools the
rnold halves. The mclld halves move along an axis called the mold closure
direction. Very complex shapes are possible including internal and external
undercuts. Part sizes are lirnited by the planting capacity of the injection
molding machine. Maximum part sizes are typicaily less than 24 inches by 24
incires. Minimum part sizes are on the order of 1/B ta 114 inch in cross section.
Economic production volumes start at about 10,000 pieces.

Parting
line

a) No undercuts

Mold closure
direction

lr

injection

Thermal Fcrming Thermal forning includes vacuum-forming thin sheets of

thermoplastic. A vacuum is drar,n sucking the rnolten sheet onto the paitern
forming the part. Farts as large as 6 feet t y 6 feet have been vacuum-formecl.
Casting (PolS,rners) Gravitv casting of poll,urethane materiais is done using
silicone or rubber molds. Complex shapes can be cast" including internal and
external undercuts. since the moid wiil flex upoit part removal.

6.2.4 Sheet

..Parting
Iine
b) External undercuts
h4old ciosure
dire.ction

tVIetalworklng
Plastic

ln

sheet metalrvorking, penranent deformation of thin itetal sheets is produced b_v bending or shearing forces. Sheet metalu,'orking processes are often
called statnping processes. The forces are produced by mechanica] or hydraulic presses. Hydraulic presses pressurize fiuid that pushes against a piston to

injection

Parting
line

colnpress die halves. Faster,, but iess controilabtre, mechanical presses use an

electric motor to energize a flvr.r,heel, connected to a ram or hammer that

strokes the punch. Die sets include a collection of components, includiitg one
or more rloving punch*s fastenerJ to a punch plate and a stationary die
mounted to a die holcier. In aridition to bending and punched features"
secondarv side-acicn featnres such as a hole or boss can be produced by
machinery that acts on the sides of the stamped parts. Sheet metalworking

c) Internal undercuts
fu,lold closure

iiirection

processes produce shapes rvith moderate cornplexitv. Part sizes are typically
iess than24 inches b\, 24 inches. Economic production quantities start at al'rout

10,000 pieces. Common materials include alloys of steel and aluminum.

Common sheet-metalworking processes inciude dran'ing, bending, punching,
ernbossing, shearing, and blanking.

injection

t
FIGURE 6.14 The boss features create external undercuts that restrict the removal of the part
from the cavity half of the mold in (b), and an internal undercut that restricts removal of the part
from the core half of the mold. as in (c).

125

126

Engineering Design

Chapter

SelectinE Manufacturing

Processes

(
(

Shearing. Shearing is cutting or separating sheet metal along a straight line.

Shearing is used to size sheets for subsequent operations.

Blanking. Blanking is shearing of a smaller, shaped piece, called a blank, fiom

the stock. Blanks are used in deep drawing.

Drawing (sheet). As shown in Figure 6.15, the punch plastically deforms a

blank of sheet material into the die, forming cupped-, box-, or hollow-

Hffil,|Ti:"?,lll:,:j,ff iJ; ffi'ffi i#ucts

such as

sod

press.

(
\

Turning

a cans'

Punching. Producing features such as slots, notches, extruded holes, and

holes using a punch and die, punching can be done on a compound die,
which performs two or more metai deformation processes with one
stroke of ptess, or on a progressive die, which is divided into sections,
called stations, performing multiple operations with each stroke of the

Operation

TWork

plates)

&*ffi

Br:ring mill

Lathe (with
special

att:rchnrcnt)

Laser

-Flame

cuuing

Plasma arc

press

Machining
centcr
Vert. milling
machinLl

Lathe
Horizontal
boring

Horizontal
n:illing

machine

Boring rnill

Lathe
Boring mill
Horizontal
boring

(
Boring

i{{.t

Punch

or
TDan0
_;:.saw.:'

Lontour

Drill
Drilling

used

c()ntrOl

grincler

Sau,ing (of

F{achines
seldcnt

Lathe

lurning

Cylindrical

Grindirrg

Embossing. Embossing is forming plastic indentations to form ribs, beads,

or iettering on the surface of meial.

Bending. Bendiilg iq plastic deformation of sheet metal using a matched

punch-and-die set, or a descending punch to wipe-form the blank over
the edge of a die.

m
Block diagram

Most
Machines
commonly less
used
frequently
machines used

n]achine

h{iI}ing machiile

Driil press

machine

Machining
center

Lathe
Blank holder
R*aming
Die

ffif

Drill

press

Boring nrill
Horizontal
borin_[
machine

Ivlilling
machinc

Machining
cenl.cr

Crinding
FTGURE

/r>#l;
'\
\.-\s#$:
t'1.?-t1l

\_

6.15 Sheet met.ai drai,ing.

Sawing

6.2.5 Machining

,/ ^ 1l
{-ti,i\t'

Latire (r.vitli

Criindrical

special

sdnder

atlachment)

Tottl

, Wtlrk

\\r>}72
*q1

Contour or
band saw

F1

(
(
(
(

Machining involves removing material frcm the rvorkpiece by a sharp cutting

tool that shears away chips of material to create a desired form or features. Machining is a subtractive process that produces rnanufactured waste and can,
therefore, be expensive. Machining is often used as secondary process to true-up
critical dimensions or surfaces or to smooth the surface finish. Even though machining is an expensive process, it is often used for low-volume production since
an expensive mold or die-set need not be prepared. Some of the more common
machining processes are listed below and shown in Figures 6.16 and 6.17.

*i*,*,,,*
Broaching

/ry/
:/

. _, .
machine

11

trr0acnrilsU

Arl'ror prcss
(keywai,
hroaching)

FIGURE 6.16 Machining cylindrical surfaces. (Materials and Processes in Manufacturing, Bth ed.;
E. P. DeGarmo, J. T. Black. and R. Kohser; Copyright @ 1997. This material is used by permission
of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)

127

128

Engineering Design

Chapter6 SelectingManufacturingProcesses 129

Operation

BIock

Machines

Reaming is refining the diameter of an existiug hole.

used

frequentfy

Machines
seldom

machines

used

used

Lathe

Boring rnill

Iess

I,lrk

=-

/ tl

^
\*vU
L\-/

Facing

Most
commonly

Facing is material removal from a turning workpiece using a radially fed tool.
Grinding is removal of material from a surface using an abrasive spinning wheel.

rixl

Turning is removal of material from a rotating workpiece.

Electric discharge machining is removal of material by means of a spark.

,Tottl

Broaching

work

/-a1l'vto'x
/VA-/

Grinding

,t 4-* f

T<x:l

Sawing

Broaching
nrachine

broach

Surfacc

Laf.ho (rvith

grinclcr

spocial

attaclrnrent)

Cu1oll'sarv

Horizonf al

Shaping
\\rork

Turrct

shilper

C()nl0ur saw

Vertical
shapcr

[%'*,,,r

Pianer

Protection. Polymers and ceramics require little protection from the environment. Metals, however, require some surface treatment. Oil-and waterbased painting is perhaps the least expensive coating. Steels are often
plated with chome. cadmium, or zinc (galvanizing). Aluminum alloys are
usually anodized, rvhich is a chemical surface treatment.

slab niilling
Ttrll
l
'
Iv{itiing

\4r

ffi,*n,r

lv{iliing
rurachinc

Lathe r,vitlt
special
r:rilling tcx;ls

facc millins
Work

Mt:^",
i{ --g3\

ll{iiling

machjnc
lv{acrlininr
center

Finishing is preparing the final surface lor aesthetics and protection from the
envionment. Machining processes produce different surface roughness, as
shown in Table 6.1. Fine grinding is sometimes used to reduce the surface
roughness of parts to between 8 and 16 micro-inches (Dieter, 2002). However,
for superior smothness, surfaces are often polished between 1 and 32 niicoinches. Polishing uses abrasive powders embedded in rotating leather or felt
wheel. Honing is used for interior cylindrical surfaces. Lapping is uscd for flat
surfaces. Buffing can produce roughness approximating 0.5-16 micro-inches.
Cleaning. Wire brushing is used to remove grit and scale, and chemical solutions, inciuding acid baths, are used to remove oily films.

*
-+fl*.. toot

Pianing

6.2.6 Finishing

Llthe witil

.speciar
tools

milling

Drill

press

(iitt'ht cuts)

fi.2.7 Assembly
Assernbly is the process of putting tosether all the product's components
before shipping, Products that have subassemblies will irave undergone some

FIGURE 6'17 Machining flat surfaces. (Ait$erials anli Proce,sses in

luanufacturing,Bth ed.: E. p.
r)eGarmo, J' l. Black. and R. Kohser: Copl,right o 1997. This material ji
us,:d b"y perrnission of

John \\/ile,& Sons, inc.)

TABLE 6.1 Surface Roughness (adapted from SME, 1992)

Process

an'ing involves removing material rvith a tootheci b1ade.

h*illing involves removing material from a flat surface lry , rotating cutter
tool.
Planing invoives reilloving material usins a translating cutter as the r,orkpiece feeds.
Shaping invoives removing material from a translating workpiece
and a stationary cutter.

Boring is increasing the diameter of an existing hole with a curting tool

by
rotating the workpiece.

Drilling is removing rnaterial using a rotating bit to forrn a cylindrical hole.

Roughness (p incir)

Machining

Turning
Boring

32-2s0

Miliing
Driliing

32-250

Reamin-e

16-72s

Broaching

16-125

Finishing
Precision grinding
Lapping / honing
Super finishing

16-25A
63-2s0

2-16
2-16
1-B

'

130

Engineering Design
Manufacturing Processes

Chapter 6

assembly operations prior to final

assembly. Assembly operations
include the
handling' insertion, nd/or attachment
of parts. Handting incrudes grasping,
moving' orienting, and placing parts,
beforl insertion or attachment.
Attachare usualiy either permanent,
or temporary
as

ilH:

Permanent-atiachment methods
include welding
adhesive bonding' Rivets, eyelets,

though rabor c,osts wourcr be

higher.
The cusromer pays te slling
frir., iess any cjiscunrc. The company,s
income results

net
from deducriJg'seiliil;;il lo*,n,rrrarive
cosrs,
manufact,ring ccsts from the tot
sales revenues.

equipment and builclings, in addition

to paying dividencls

to stockholders. wJ
can help' of course' by making
economicat eslgn
*vursrr cr,\r
and manufacturing decjsions
that keep totar manufacturinfcosls

lo",.

Let's examine the total manufacturing

costs (TMc) for nlaki*g a
production run of quantity' q, pieces and
see ho*, ,o*. manufacturine proces.es
differ' Tire three *iajoi .**ponenrs
are rorar nrarer;i;;;;,
rooling
costs' 7" and total processing
ccsts, P, other breakdowns
of costs
"::ral
can be made,
but tlie one proposed wiil work
weil for iilustraticn purposes.
Totai h4anufacturing cost
= Mater ial +Tooling + processing

TtvC-fV+T+p

(6 1)

material cost per part

c,, = material cost per unit weight,
and
w p = weight of finished
part
c,,, =

:. :ffslj i,T.:,T,Hffiilj,',I,T,
(
(

The total toolimg cost, I is composed of the total material and labor
to rnake the part patterns, or die-casting molds, or sheet metal punchand-die sets, or jigs and fixtures used in machining. Once the tooling is made,

however, the tooling cost is fixed. CoRsequentiy, the more parts made with the
same tooling, the more economical it becomes. TJre tooling cost per part is
therefore:

weight =

'fhe total

processixeg ecst,

t*o

P, includes the cost of: labor. energy, ftroor

machine depreciation (cr rent). Then, if the cycle tirne to make a part is t
(hours per part), the processing cost per part, c, is:
Processing cost per

pari,

(6 5)

cp = cl

The total cost per part is therefore:

Cost per

part, c = cnn,u,o G+ 4 +

T/r +

Examining equation (6.6), we see ti:at to reciuce part costs

crt
r.ve

(6.6)

shctlld:

purci:ase less expensive materiais

E keep our finished part rveight lou

*s

produce litle manufactuled waste

make man,v parts per production run (i.e., batcii)

E design srmple parts ancJ tools tliat result in less expensive
H

tooling

choose a manufacturing process that has a low cvcie time

Unfortunatell,. the material seiection ancl the choice of manufacturing

process are ccupled. Choosing a material for its low material cost. foi
example. may result iir trarger processing costs. Sorne inexpensive plastics, for
example, require longer freezingisoiidification c,vcle. increasing processing
cycle time and costs, actually raising the total cost per part. Therefore, we
need to make our decisions based on the total costs, as we shall see in the
following example.

(6 4)

space, and nrachine usage. For example, a machine shop might estimate their
cost per iiour, c,to run a rnilling macirine at $1501hr. to pay for the machine
operator, electricity usage, floor space (buiiding depreciaticrn or rent), and

and

wlien a compani/ is
it wiil have cash availabir ;; *;l;;;'rror,r-our
nranufacrr-rrin s

(6.2)
(6 3)

Tooling cost per part, ct = T/q

The cost to manufactul e a product

depends on the chosen materials
and
manufacturirig processes' If rve plan
to produce 50,000 or more pieces
of the
sarne part' we rryill want to consider
investing in processes lvitrr
more auto'mated rooiing such as die casting
andlor injitio,i-;;;ld;;;,';;'r.our*
Iabor
costs and have iittle maierial
u'alte. on ths other hand, if
we are making a
custom' one-off part for a special
custome, (.
;:. il. ;'r;r;,",iie trish cosr
of automated tooling will not iikely
u. .r*noil;: Therefor,'*. witt Iikety
consider machining, even

Let

- M/q- cw(*o+w*) = c*(*o+ wp)

costs

COSTS OF MANUFACTURING

profitable,

cM

cM= clr,wp (1+ a)

Tempor ary-attachment methods

include threaded fasteners such
as screws,
nuts and bolts' and snap fits. Poli/mer
materials sometimes use metailic
threaded inserts' Metals, or course,
can be niachined to form threads,

6.3

Material cost perpart,,

in rhe case of servicing

brazing, soldering, and

_ ___r -_v, urlrlr\
, rtupr*r,
rrrriri. rtL)
fits, dllu
and press fits are

also used

Then the material cost per part is a function of weight and waste:

41,,1

---

132

Engineering Design

Chapter

Selecting Manufacturing

Processes

Therefore, based on the marketing dePaflment's 5,00Grun estimate, injection molding

Example
Assume that our company is considering making a part out of low-strength metais or
thermoplastics. Three processes appear compatible with the required feature shapes:
sand casting, injection molding, and machining. The marketing department estimates

that the company should produce about 5,000 pieces. Data gathered to select the
material and manufacturing process are shown in Table 6.2. Determine the cost per

would be the least expensive process.

The alternatives are plotted as a function of production volume, as shown in
Figure 6.18. Note that for very small quantities, machining would produce the lowest
cost per prt (up to pt a). And from about 200 to about 4,000 per run (between pt. a
and pt. b), sand casting would be the least expensive. After about 4,000 parts per run
(pt. b) injecrion molding would be the least expensive.

part.

h4anufacturing Cost versus Production Quantity

TABLE 6.2 Manufachrring Data for Cost Estimates

Alternative

Mfg.Process

Sand casting

molding Machining
AtsS
Bronze alloy
32

Injection

Aluminum alloy

htraterial

Part rveight (lb)

Alpha
Material cost ($llb), c*,
Tooling cost ($). T
Production quantit.v, q
Cycle tirne (iirs/part). t
Machine rate ($ihr)

0.01

0.05

a.z
ti

10000
5000
0.3
30

35000
s000
0.03
i00

We use equal.ion (6.3) to calcuiate tiie rnateriai cost per part as c^,r=

A:

cMA = $1.00/lb (1

B:

clrB = $0.2511b

C:

crurc

1500

fr

500

0.6
7s

cv,rl)t)

(l+

a).

ib/part) (1+0.05) = $ 1.050 /part

(3 lbipart) (1+0.0i) = $ 0.758 lpart

= $0.i5ilb(

2lblpart) (1+0.20) = $ i.800 lparr

Lising equation (6.a) we calculate t}:e tooling cost as c,

A:

c-n = $10,000 / 5000 psrts= $ 2.00

B:

% = $35.000 / 5000 parts= $ 7.00 lpart

C'

r*.-.i L = $ 1 ,500 / 5000

l^

parts

2000 3000

T/q

Ii

lpart

Using equation (6.5) we cajculate the processing cost per part as cp = ctt

A:

cpa = $ 30/hr (0.30) hrsipart= $ 9.00 ipart

B:

cpB =

{-,

cpc = $ 75/hr (0.60) hrslpart= $45.00 lpart

Summins the material, tooling and processing cost for each part we obtain:
cpA

_-B

-..-l-

__:___J

= $ 1.050 + 2.00 + 9.00= $12.050 ipart

6.18 Manufacturing

Example
Determine the production quantitl'for which the manufacturing costs for aiternative
and B are the same.

We can let

c,q = c B and use

equation (6.6) such that

c = cw**p (1+

cMs* fus+ cpB = $ 0.758 + 7.00 + 3.00 = $10.758 lpart

cuc* crc+ cpc = $ 1.800 + 0.30 + 45.00= $47.100 lpart

cost4:art as a function of production voJume.

$100/iir (0.03) hrslpart = $ 3.00 /part

cu* cre+

-.---_-.r1

= $ 0"30 ipar t
FIGURE

A:
B:
C:

s000

4000

Production quantiti,

$ 01.050

$ 10.050

d) + T/q

* ci

I part+ $35,000/q + $ 3 i part

I part + $10,000/q = $3'758 / part + $35,000iq

I part+

$10,000/q + $ 9 / part = $0.758

Il

133

(
(

,.

134

Engineering Design

Chapter6 SelectingManufacturingProcesses

(
combining terms and muttiprying both

sides by q we obtain

($6.292lpart)

Q = $25,000
q = 3,973 parts.
Therefore, process A is less costly for runs less than 3,g73parts.

6"4

PROCESS SHLECTIOru

Mosi parts undergo primary. secondarv, and iertiary manufacturing

processes.

As a part design evolves, a variety of processes are considered.

As we have

learned in previous sections, some processes are not

economically feasible unless significant quantities are produced. Sorne materials
are ,r ,r*prtr[ll
with certain process as is shos,n in Table 6.3.
TABLE 6.3 Compatibilitv Between proces
Dewhurst' aild w' Knigirt. 2a02, Produ.cr Designor ll4anufacture
inrJ Assenrly wirii pennission froni
Ta),Ior & Francis.) _
h,Iaterials

Some processes are not capable of producing large part sizes. Other processes
cannot produce the desired geometric complexity, such as: the type and number
of features, including: holes, notches, bosses, rotational symmetry, enclosed
cavities, and uniformity of walls and/or cross sections as shown in Table 6.4.
Manufacturing process and materials selection decisions occur in every
phase of a part's design. As more and more information becomes avaiiable, revised cost estimates can also be made, ultimately affecting prior decisions.
During conceptual design, for example, little is known about the part sizes or
dimensions. Aiso, design is iterative. During the configuration design phase,

some features may be combined to improve functionality, but demand a

specialized manufacturing process or material, not previously considered.
Wren we use the manufacturing-processes-first approaclz, we first screen
out manufacturing processes that will not satisfy part considerations, such as:

TABLE 6.4

Shape Generation Chpabilities of Processes. Y-ves, N-no, h4-nlusl Y-easier, ahigher cost" b-shallow undercuts, c-requires special equipitrent, d-only continuous, open ended.
(Adapted from Boothroyd, G., P. Deu,hurst, and W. K:right. 2tr)2. Product Design.for Manuiacmre an,rJ Assenrbl u,ith lxrnrision frorn Ta,vlor & Franci$.

DI"A

Shapes / Features
a

1.1_,

i.J

a
>,
a

Prclcesses

a
a
.Ja

u1

V.\

tr

i-

q)

Tl--tr

tlt

Solidification

l,

(
(

-1
(

MetaI

(
(

Injection moiciing

\./
I

Structural foam

Y
Y

Not lpplicable

Ya

"-.i

Ya

y_Y

Ya

N4 l'I

Coid heading

Y
Y
Y
yo

Rotar\ swaging

Nc

Metal

Machined from stock

Removal

ECM

Y
Y

EDM

Wire EDM

Sheet

Sheet metal bending

Forming

Thermoforming
Metal spinning

ci

vtI

YY YYY
YY YYY
\.Y Y Y ],{
YY v Y lqh

Deforriiatiou

Profiling
Normal practice

Investment casting
Die casting

14

r \

'

Ur'
;r!
ci --

cxurr-

lY
lY

Machined from srock

*a.i

<

Y Y
Y Y
Y Y1

Sand casting

Closed die fr:rging

Powder metal
Hot extrusion

EDh4
Wire EDM

tsa,

VL

CP

i:npact extrusi0n

Ren:oval

Profilin

Li

Bulk

iR*r**4e*-

'\J

iv Ya h,{ i.i

Deformition I Ccid hea

dilr q
- ----*--______
iiClosec} die forsins

lr'fetai

!)

L!
L<

ti)C.ivaJ
)*,\'/:3!P
EL:9()rI

Blow nrclding - extr

Blow rnolding - inj
Rotatiorral molding

[1f*tgrrrqglon

lPowder merai

()u

Processes

!:oldin_q
Structural foam

o:cirr\
\

a)
a
OO
i<
ra

jn

isgg1,"!

Bulk

cast

Soiidificarioll_
llnveslinent
lDie castine

V)

rA
v,

u.nE

'JCJY;

Ar:

(1,

id
iJ

T
:_

\T
j\

]-{

NN

1\

I\4 Y i'l
h4N i\

Y Y
YAMi{ YYNMN
Fi Y i'i Y Y: I.i I.i
NYN YYJ.,i}JY
YAY Y YYNNI'l
NYY YYNliy
NYh4 YYi\N)'
N},iN N{ Nc}{ N
YYY YYYNY
YCY Y YY]I{NN
YCY Y YYNNN
NYY YYNNY
YMY YYNNI{
YAMY YYNNN
NMN MNYNN

!-

45

))

44

j4
i4

J
_i

22

^44
JJT

3 31
21
3
.1
Jf_t
A^a
L/-J

}i

n4

1i1
2 3 ?
3 41
341
223
4 3 4
1^4

JJJ

111

f35

rlr rr

r--r

-rr

ll

ll!

136

Engineering Design

Chapter

production quantities, part size, or shape capability, as shown in Table 6.5. The
remaining feasible processes will be compatible with some rnaterial classes.
We next screen out materials that will not satisfy the functional requirements of the part. I'lamely, we compare application infc,rrnation from the
engineering design specification to the mechanical and physical properties of
material classes. We typically include criteria regarding the nature of the
applied loads and the operating environrent. This screening will eliminate a
number of rnaterial classes and or sub-classes.
As mentioned in Chapter 5, either apprach will lead to the sarne subset
of material classes and compatible manufacturing prcess since we are doing
successive eliminations or screenings based on the same criteria. Also note
that during configuration design we will cansicler design-for-assembly and
design-for-manufacture guidelines that will further help us refine our manufacturing-process decisions, such as determining sec*ndary and tertiary processes.

6.5 Process-First approach first screefis out manufacturing

processes that are incompatibie with the desired production run
eluantit), part size, and geometric shape capabitrity.

6.5

6 Selecting Manufacturing

Processes

SUMMARY

Most parts undergo primary, secondary, and tertiary manufacturing

processes.

Fundamental manufacturing processes include: bulk deformation, casting,

sheet metal working, polymer processes, machining, finishing, and assembly.
Manufacturing costs include material, tooling, and processing costs.
Material cost per part is directly related to manufactured waste.
Manufacturing costs are influenced by planned production quaniities.
Soine processes are more compatible with certain materials.
Some processes are more capabie at generating certain geometric features.

Preliminary process seiection considerations include: part size, geometric

compiexity, and production quantities.

TABLE

1.

Production run cluai:tityivolurre

2. Part size (overail)

3. Shape capabiliti, (geometric features)
boss or depressioa in one dimension
boss or depression in more than one dimension

RFHRHF{CES
Eoothro),d, G., P. Delvhurst, and W. Knight.
Assentbly" New York: Marcel Dekker.

- uni formircgtlar
rotational s-vmmetry

cross secti ons

ca.irtured cevities (e.9., bottles)

Protluct Design for hanufacture

vol. 6. Dearborn. MI: Societr, of Manufacturing Engineers.

Dieter, G. E. 2000. Engineering Design,3ded. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Dixon, J. R.. and C. Poli. 1S95. Iingineering Desigtt tnd Design for hfanufacturing.
Conway, MA: Fieid Stone Publishers.
Grcover. M. P. 7996. Fundatnentcls of Modern Manutfactrtri,ng. Upper Saddle River.
NJ: Prentice
Sche,v.

Ilall

J.A. I999 . lntroduclictt o Mc*ttL.factw'ing

Processes, 3d ecl.

New York: &4cGrau,-Hill.

Hxar*ple
KffiY THRIU

in chapter 5 r,r,e concluded that carkron steels and aiuminum alloys would. be prospective materials for onr lawn rnower rn:heel rirn design. A 50,000 unit prociuction run is

Assemblv

Coinpression nrolding

Embossing

aniicipaied. Complete a process screening.

Bar drawing

Core (moki)

External undercut

E,xamining Table 6.3 ,,e find that sand casting, investment casting, die casiing,
ciosecl die forging. niachining. and she.et metalworking are compatibte manufacturing

Be

nding

Blanking

processes (normal practice). Considering both part-size and production run quantitt,,

Blorv molding

machining and investment casting are elirninateC at this point. We will revisit Table 6.4
during configuration design to screen out processes that are not capable in generating

Boring
Bulk deformaiion

the features defined at that time.

Casting

At this point

we have narrowed our materials to carbon steels and alurninum al-

loys which are compatible with sand casting, die casting. forging and sheet metaiworking processes.

Grl,tl

DeGarrno,8"F.. J.T. Black, and R.Kohser.1997. Mttteri.als a.nd Procc.rs.r in Mrn.u{ttcturing. Stli ed. Upper SaCdle River, NJ: Prentice Hail.
Design for &4anufacturabilitr,. 1q1l?. Toal snd h'tanufactitring Engineers Iandbook.

holes

undercuts (i nternallexternal)
uniform u,all thickness

20A2.

Cavitv
Compound die

Cvcle time

Extrusion

Die
Die casling
Drawing (metal)

Facing

Drillin_e

Grinding
Injection moiding
Internal undercut

Ejector pins
Electric discharge
machining

Finishing
Forging

Investment casting

tJ/