Petrowiki Pressure Drop Equations

Pressure drop evaluation along pipelines -
Pressure drop evaluation along pipelines
http://petrowiki.org/Pressure_drop_evaluation_al...
The simplest way to convey a uid, in a contained system from Point A to Point B, is by means of a conduit or pipe (Fig. 1).
(/File%3AVol3_Page_319_Image_0001.png)
Fig. 1Fluid-ow system (courtesy of

AMEC Paragon).
Contents
1
2
3
4
Piping design
Bernoulli equation
Reynolds number and Moody friction factor
Pressure drop for liquid ow
4.1 General equation
4.2 Hazen Williams equation
5 Pressure drop for gas ow
5.1 General equation
5.2 Simplied equation
5.2.1 Weymouth equation
5.2.2 Panhandle equation
5.2.3 Spitzglass equation
5.3 Application of the formulas
5.3.1 Simplied gas formula
5.3.2 Weymouth equation
5.3.3 Panhandle equation
5.3.4 Spitzglass equation
6 Multiphase ow
6.1 Flow regimes
6.1.1 Bubble
6.1.2 Slug ow
6.1.3 Transition ow
6.1.4 Annular mist ow
6.2 Two phase pressure drop
6.3 Simplied friction pressure drop approximation for two phase ow
6.4 Pressure Drop Because of Changes in Elevation
7 Pressure drop caused by valves and ttings
7.1 Resistance coecients
7.2 Flow coecients
7.3 Equivalent lengths
8 Nomenclature
9 References
10 Noteworthy papers in OnePetro
11 External links
12 See also
Piping design
The minimum basic parameters that are required to design the piping system include, but are not limited to, the following.
The characteristics and physical properties of the uid.
The desired mass-ow rate (or volume) of the uid to be transported.
1 ofThe
14 pressure, temperature, and elevation at Point A.
03/19/2014 09:39 PM
The pressure, temperature, and elevation at Point B.
The distance between Point A and Point B (or length the uid must travel) and equivalent length (pressure losses) introduced by
valves and ttings.
These basic parameters are needed to design a piping system. Assuming steady-state ow, there are a number of equations, which are
based upon the general energy equation, that can be employed to design the piping system. The variables associated with the uid (i.e.,
liquid, gas, or multiphase) aect the ow. This leads to the derivation and development of equations that are applicable to a particular
uid. Although piping systems and pipeline design can get complex, the vast majority of the design problems encountered by the
engineer can be solved by the standard ow equations.
Bernoulli equation
The basic equation developed to represent steady-state uid ow is the Bernoulli equation which assumes that total mechanical energy
is conserved for steady, incompressible, inviscid, isothermal ow with no heat transfer or work done. These restrictive conditions can
actually be representative of many physical systems.
The equation is stated as
(/File%3AVol3_page_319_eq_001.PNG) (Eq. 1)
where
Z
= elevation head, ft,
= pressure, psi,
= density, lbm/ft3,
= velocity, ft/sec,
= gravitational constant, ft/sec2,
and
HL = head loss, ft.
Fig. 2 presents a simplied graphic illustration of the Bernoulli equation.
Fig. 2Sketch four Bernoulli equation
(courtesy of AMEC Paragon).
Darcys equation further expresses head loss as

and
where
HL = head loss, ft,
f
L
D
V
= Moody friction factor, dimensionless,

= pipe length, ft,
= pipe diameter, ft,
= velocity, ft/sec,
= gravitational constant ft/sec2,

P = pressure drop, psi,
g
3
2 of=14
density, lbm/ft ,
and
03/19/2014 09:39 PM
dPressure
= pipe inside
in. along pipelines drop diameter,
evaluation
Reynolds number and Moody friction factor

The Reynolds number is a dimensionless parameter that is useful in characterizing the degree of turbulence in the ow regime and is
needed to determine the Moody friction factor. It is expressed as
where
= density, lbm/ft3,
= pipe internal diameter, ft,
V = ow velocity, ft/sec,
and
= viscosity, lbm/ft-sec.
The Reynolds number for liquids can be expressed as

where
d
SG
Ql
= viscosity, cp,
= pipe inside diameter, in.,
= specic gravity of liquid relative to water (water = 1),
= liquid-ow rate, B/D,
and
V = velocity, ft/sec.
The Reynolds number for gases can be expressed as
where
= viscosity, cp,
d = pipe inside diameter, in.,
S = specic gravity of gas at standard conditions relative to air (molecular weight divided by 29),
and
Qg = gas-ow rate, MMscf/D.
The Moody friction factor, f, expressed in the previous equations, is a function of the Reynolds number and the roughness of the internal
surface of the pipe and is given by Fig. 3. The Moody friction factor is impacted by the characteristic of the ow in the pipe. For
laminar ow, where Re is < 2,000, there is little mixing of the owing uid, and the ow velocity is parabolic; the Moody friction factor
is expressed as f = 64/Re. For turbulent ow, where Re > 4,000, there is complete mixing of the ow, and the ow velocity has a
uniform prole; f depends on Re and the relative roughness (/D). The relative roughness is the ratio of absolute roughness, , a
measure of surface imperfections to the pipe internal diameter, D. Table 9.1 lists the absolute roughness for several types of pipe
materials.
Fig. 3Friction-factor chart (courtesy
of of
AMEC
3
14 Paragon).
Table 1
03/19/2014 09:39 PM
If the viscosity of the liquid is unknown, Fig. 4 can be used for the viscosity of crude oil, Fig. 5 for eective viscosity of crude-oil/water
Pressure drop evaluation along pipelines http://petrowiki.org/Pressure_drop_evaluation_al...
mixtures, and Fig. 6 for the viscosity of natural gas. In using some of these gures, the relationship between viscosity in centistokes
and viscosity in centipoise must be used
where
= kinematic viscosity, centistokes,

= absolute viscosity, cp,
and
SG = specic gravity.
Fig. 4Standard
Fig. 5Eective viscosity of an
viscosity/temperature charts for liquid oil/water mixture (courtesy of AMEC
petroleum products (courtesy of
Paragon).
ASTM).
Fig. 6Hydrocarbon-gas viscosity vs.

temperature (courtesy Western Supply
Co.).
Pressure drop for liquid ow

General equation
Eq. 3 can be expressed in terms of pipe inside diameter (ID) as stated next.
where
d
f
L
Ql

= length of pipe, ft,
= liquid ow rate, B/D,
SG = specic gravity of liquid relative to water,

and
P = pressure drop, psi (total pressure drop).
Hazen Williams equation

The Hazen-Williams equation, which is applicable only for water in turbulent ow at 60F, expresses head loss as
where
HL
= head loss because of friction, ft,
L
= pipe length, ft,
C
= friction factor constant, dimensionless (Table 2),
d
4 of 14
Ql = liquid ow rate, B/D,
and
03/19/2014 09:39 PM
gpm
= liquiddrop
ow evaluation
rate, gal/min.along pipelines Pressure
Table 2
Pressure drop can be calculated from

Pressure drop for gas ow

General equation
The general equation for calculating gas ow is stated as
where
w
= rate of ow, lbm/sec,
= acceleration of gravity, 32.2 ft/sec2,
= cross-sectional area of pipe, ft2,
V1 = specic volume of gas at upstream conditions, ft3/lbm,

f
= friction factor, dimensionless,
L = length, ft,
D = diameter of the pipe, ft,
P1 = upstream pressure, psia,
and
P2 = downstream pressure, psia.
Assumptions: no work performed, steady-state ow, and f = constant as a function of the length.
Simplied equation
For practical pipeline purposes, Eq. 11 can be simplied to
where
P2 = downstream pressure, psia,
S = specic gravity of gas,
Qg = gas ow rate, MMscf/D,
Z = compressibility factor for gas, dimensionless,
T5 of=14
owing temperature, R,
f
03/19/2014 09:39 PM
dPressure
= pipe ID,
in., evaluation along pipelines drop
and
L
= length, ft.
The compressibility factor, Z, for natural gas can be found in Fig. 7.
Fig. 7Compressibility of
low-molecular-weight natural gases
(courtesy of Natl. Gas Processors
Suppliers Assn.).
Three simplied derivative equations can be used to calculate gas ow in pipelines:

The Weymouth equation
The Panhandle equation
The Spitzglass equation
All three are eective, but the accuracy and applicability of each equation falls within certain ranges of ow and pipe diameter. The
equations are stated next.
Weymouth equation
This equation is used for high-Reynolds-number ows where the Moody friction factor is merely a function of relative roughness.
(/File%3AVol3_page_327_eq_002.png) (Eq. 13)
where
Qg = gas-ow rate, MMscf/D,
d = pipe inside diameter, in.,
L = length, ft,
T1 = temperature of gas at inlet, R,
S = specic gravity of gas,
and
Z = compressibility factor for gas, dimensionless.
Panhandle equation
This equation is used for moderate-Reynolds-number ows where the Moody friction factor is independent of relative roughness and is
a function of Reynolds number to a negative power.
where
E = eciency factor (new pipe: 1.0; good operating conditions: 0.95; average operating conditions: 0.85),
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03/19/2014 09:39 PM
d
= pipe ID, in.,
PPressure
psia,along pipelines 1 = upstream
droppressure,
evaluation
Lm = length, miles,
T1 = temperature of gas at inlet, R,
S
= specic gravity of gas,
and
Z
= compressibility factor for gas, dimensionless.
Spitzglass equation

where
Qg
= gas-ow rate, MMscf/D,
hW = pressure loss, inches of water,

and
d
= pipe ID, in.
Assumptions:
f
= (1+ 3.6/ d + 0.03 d ) (1/100),
T = 520R,
P1 = 15 psia,
Z = 1.0,
and
P = < 10% of P 1 .
Application of the formulas

As previously discussed, there are certain conditions under which the various formulas are more applicable. A general guideline for
application of the formulas is given next.
Simplied gas formula

This formula is recommended for most general-use ow applications.
Weymouth equation
The Weymouth equation is recommended for smaller-diameter pipe (generally, 12 in. and less). It is also recommended for shorter
lengths of segments ( < 20 miles) within production batteries and for branch gathering lines, medium- to high-pressure (+/100 psig to
> 1,000 psig) applications, and a high Reynolds number.
Panhandle equation
This equation is recommended for larger-diameter pipe (12-in. diameter and greater). It is also recommended for long runs of pipe ( >
20 miles) such as cross-country transmission pipelines and for moderate Reynolds numbers.
Spitzglass equation
The Spitzglass equation is recommended for low-pressure vent lines < 12 in. in diameter (P < 10% of P 1).
The petroleum engineer will nd that the general gas equation and the Weymouth equation are very useful. The Weymouth equation is
ideal for designing branch laterals and trunk lines in eld gas-gathering systems.
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Multiphase ow
03/19/2014 09:39 PM
Flow
regimes
Pressure
drop evaluation along pipelines -
Fluid from the wellbore to the rst piece of production equipment (separator) is generally two-phase liquid/gas ow.
The characteristics of horizontal, multiphase ow regimes are shown in Fig. 8. They can be described as follows:
Bubble: Occurs at very low gas/liquid ratios where the gas forms bubbles that rise to the top of the pipe.
Plug: Occurs at higher gas/liquid ratios where the gas bubbles form moderate-sized plugs.
Stratied: As the gas/liquid ratios increase, plugs become longer until the gas and liquid ow in separate layers.
Wavy: As the gas/liquid ratios increase further, the energy of the owing gas stream causes waves in the owing liquid.
Slug: As the gas/liquid ratios continue to increase, the wave heights of the liquid increase until the crests contact the top of the
pipe, creating liquid slugs.
Spray: At extremely high gas/liquid ratios, the liquid is dispersed into the owing-gas stream.
Fig. 8Two-phase-ow patterns in

horizontal ow (courtesy of AMEC
Paragon).
[1]
Fig. 9 shows the various ow regimes that could be expected in horizontal ow as a function of the supercial velocities of gas and
liquid ow. Supercial velocity is the velocity that would exist if the other phase was not present.
Fig. 9Horizontal multiphase-ow
map (after Grith).[1]
The multiphase ow in vertical and inclined pipe behaves somewhat dierently from multiphase ow in horizontal pipe. The
characteristics of the vertical ow regimes are shown in Fig. 10 and are described next.
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03/19/2014 09:39 PM
Fig. 10Two-phase-ow patterns in
vertical ow (courtesy of AMEC
Paragon).
Bubble
Where the gas/liquid ratios are small, the gas is present in the liquid in small, variable-diameter, randomly distributed bubbles. The
liquid moves at a fairly uniform velocity while the bubbles move up through the liquid at diering velocities, which are dictated by the
size of the bubbles. Except for the total composite-uid density, the bubbles have little eect on the pressure gradient.
Slug ow
As the gas/liquid ratios continue to increase, the wave heights of the liquid increase until the crests contact the top of the pipe, creating
liquid slugs.
Transition ow
The uid changes from a continuous liquid phase to a continuous gas phase. The liquid slugs virtually disappear and are entrained in
the gas phase. The eects of the liquid are still signicant, but the eects of the gas phase are predominant.
Annular mist ow
The gas phase is continuous, and the bulk of the liquid is entrained within the gas. The liquid wets the pipe wall, but the eects of the
liquid are minimal as the gas phase becomes the controlling factor. Fig. 11 [2] shows the various ow regimes that could be expected in
vertical ow as a function of the supercial velocities of gas and liquid ow.
Fig. 11Vertical-multiphase-ow map
(after Yaitel et al.).[2]
Two phase pressure drop

The calculation of pressure drop in two-phase ow is very complex and is based on empirical relationships to take into account the
phase
changes that occur because of pressure and temperature changes along the ow, the relative velocities 03/19/2014
of the phases,09:39
and
9 of 14
PM
complex eects of elevation changes. Table 3 lists several commercial programs that are available to model pressure drop. Because all
are based to some extent on empirical relations, they are limited in accuracy to the data sets from which the relations were designed. It
is not unusual for measured pressure drops in the eld to dier by 20% from those calculated by any of these models.
Table 3
Simplied friction pressure drop approximation for two phase ow

Eq. 16 provides an approximate solution for friction pressure drop in two-phase-ow problems that meet the assumptions stated.
where
P
f
L
W
= friction pressure drop, psi,

= length, ft,
= rate of ow of mixture, lbm/hr,
M = density of the mixture, lbm/ft3,

and
d = pipe ID, in.
The formula for rate of mixture ow is
where
QL = liquid ow rate, B/D,
S
= specic gravity of gas at standard conditions, lbm/ft3 (air = 1),
and
SG = specic gravity of liquid, relative to water, lbm/ft 3.
The density of the mixture is given by
where
P
= operating pressure, psia,
= gas/liquid ratio, ft3/bbl,

= operating temperature, R,
SG = specic gravity of liquid, relative to water, lbm/ft 3,

S
= specic gravity of gas at standard conditions, lbm/ft3 (air = 1),
and
Z = gas compressibility factor, dimensionless.
The formula is applicable if the following conditions are met:
P is less than 10% of the inlet pressure.
10 of
14 or mist exists.
Bubble
There are no elevation changes.

There is no irreversible energy transfer between phases.
03/19/2014 09:39 PM
Pressure Drop Because of Changes in Elevation

There are several notable characteristics associated with pressure drop because of elevation changes in two-phase ow. The ow
characteristics associated with the elevation changes include:
In downhill lines, ow becomes stratied as liquid ows faster than gas.
The depth of the liquid layer adjusts to the static pressure head and is equal to the friction pressure drop.
There is no pressure recovery in the downhill line.
In low gas/liquid ow, the ow in uphill segments can be liquid "full" at low ow rates. Thus, at low ow rates, the total pressure
drop is the sum of the pressure drops for all of the uphill runs.
With increased gas ow, the total pressure drop may decrease as liquid is removed from uphill segments.
The pressure drop at low ow rates associated with an uphill elevation change may be approximated with Eq. 19.
where
PZ = pressure drop because of elevation increase in the segment, psi,
SG = specic gravity of the liquid in the segment, relative to water,
and
Z = increase in elevation for segment, ft.
The total pressure drop can then be approximated by the sum of the pressure drops for each uphill segment.
Pressure drop caused by valves and ttings

One of the most important parameters aecting pressure drop in piping systems is pressure loss in the ttings and valves, which is
incorporated in the system. For piping systems within production facilities, the pressure drop through ttings and valves can be much
greater than that through the straight run of pipe itself. In long pipeline systems, the pressure drop through ttings and valves can
often be ignored.
Resistance coecients
The head loss in valves and ttings can be calculated with resistance coecients as
where
HL = head loss, ft,
Kr = resistance coecient, dimensionless,
D = pipe ID, ft,
and
V = velocity, ft/sec.
The total head loss is the sum of all Kr V2/2g.
The resistance coecients Kr for individual valves and ttings are found in tabular form in a number of industry publications. Most
manufacturers publish tabular data for all sizes and congurations of their products. One of the best sources of data is the Crane Flow
of Fluids, technical paper No. 410. [3] The Natural Gas Processors Suppliers Assn. (NGPSA) Engineering Data Book [4] and IngersollRands Cameron Hydraulic Data Book[5] are also good sources of references for the information. Some examples of resistance
coecients are listed in Tables 4 and 5.
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03/19/2014 09:39 PM
Table 4
Table 5
Table 5 (Cont'd)
Table 5 (Cont'd)
Table 5 (Cont'd)
Flow coecients
The ow coecient for liquids, CV, is determined experimentally for each valve or tting as the ow of water, in gal/min at 60F for a
pressure drop of 1 psi through the tting. The relationship between ow and resistance coecients can be expressed as
In any tting or valve with a known CV, the pressure drop can be calculated for dierent conditions of ow and liquid properties with
Eq. 22.
where
QL = liquid-ow rate, B/D,
and
SG = liquid specic gravity relative to water.
Again, the CV is published for most valves and ttings and can be found in Crane Flow of Fluids, [3] Engineering Data Book,[4] Cameron
Hydraulic Data Book,[5] as well as the manufacturers technical data.
Equivalent lengths
The head loss associated with valves and ttings can also be calculated by considering equivalent "lengths" of pipe segments for each
valve and tting. In other words, the calculated head loss caused by uid passing through a gate valve is expressed as an additional
length of pipe that is added to the actual length of pipe in calculating pressure drop.
All of the equivalent lengths caused by the valves and ttings within a pipe segment would be added together to compute the pressure
drop for the pipe segment. The equivalent length, Le, can be determined from the resistance coecient, Kr, and the ow coecient, CV,
using the formulas given next.
12 of 14
and
03/19/2014 09:39 PM
Pressure drop
evaluation along pipelines - (Eq. 25)
(/File%3AVol3_page_341_eq_003.PNG)
where
Kr = resistance coecient, dimensionless,
D
= diameter of the pipe, ft,
d = pipe ID, in.,

and
CV = ow coecient for liquids, dimensionless.
Table 6 shows equivalent lengths of pipe for a variety of valves and ttings for a number of standard pipe sizes.
Table 6
Nomenclature
Z
P
= elevation head, ft,

= pressure, psi,
= density, lbm/ft3,
= velocity, ft/sec,
= gravitational constant, ft/sec2,
HL
= head loss, ft.
f
L
D
P

= pipe length, ft,
= pipe diameter, ft,
= pressure drop, psi,
= viscosity, lbm/ft-sec.
SG = specic gravity of liquid relative to water (water = 1),

Ql = liquid-ow rate, B/D,
S
Qg
= specic gravity of gas at standard conditions relative to air (molecular weight divided by 29),
Ql
= kinematic viscosity, centistokes,

= absolute viscosity, cp
w
P1
= rate of ow, lbm/sec
P2
= downstream pressure, psia.
= gas-ow rate, MMscf/D.
= liquid ow rate, B/D,

= upstream pressure, psia
hW = pressure loss, inches of water,

W
= rate of ow of mixture, lbm/hr,
= density of the mixture, lbm/ft3

= operating pressure, psia,
P
R
= gas/liquid ratio, ft3/bbl,

= operating temperature, R,
T
13 of 14
PZ = pressure drop because of elevation increase in the segment, psi,
Z
= increase in elevation for segment, ft.
03/19/2014 09:39 PM
H
loss, ft,
L = headdrop
Pressure
evaluation along pipelines = resistance coecient, dimensionless
Kr
CV
= ow coecient for liquids, dimensionless.
Kr
= resistance coecient, dimensionless,
References
1. 1.0 1.1 Grith, P. 1984. Multiphase Flow in Pipes. J Pet Technol 36 (3): 361-367. SPE-12895-PA. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118
/12895-PA (http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/12895-PA).
2.0 2.1
2.
Taitel, Y., Bornea, D., and Dukler, A.E. 1980. Modelling ow pattern transitions for steady upward gas-liquid ow in
vertical tubes. AIChE J. 26 (3): 345-354. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/aic.690260304 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/aic.690260304).
3. 3.0 3.1 Crane Flow of Fluids, Technical Paper No. 410. 1976. New York City: Crane Manufacturing Co.
4.0 4.1
4.
Engineering Data Book, ninth edition. 1972. Tulsa, Oklahoma: Natural Gas Processors Suppliers Assn.
5.0 5.1
5.
Westway, C.R. and Loomis,A.W. ed. 1979. Cameron Hydraulic Data Book, sixteenth edition. Woodcli Lake, New Jersey:
Ingersoll-Rand.
Noteworthy papers in OnePetro

Use this section to list papers in OnePetro that a reader who wants to learn more should denitely read
External links
Use this section to provide links to relevant material on websites other than PetroWiki and OnePetro
See also
Piping and pipeline systems (/Piping_and_pipeline_systems)
Pipelines (/Pipelines)
Pipeline pigging (/Pipeline_pigging)
Pipeline design consideration and standards (/Pipeline_design_consideration_and_standards)
PEH:Piping and Pipelines (/PEH%3APiping_and_Pipelines)
14 of 14
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Pressure drop evaluation along pipelines -

Pressure drop evaluation along pipelines

Fig. 1Fluid-ow system (courtesy of

valves and ttings.

Pressure drop evaluation along pipelines -

= elevation head, ft,

= gravitational constant, ft/sec2,

Darcys equation further expresses head loss as

= Moody friction factor, dimensionless,

= gravitational constant ft/sec2,

Reynolds number and Moody friction factor

The Reynolds number for liquids can be expressed as

= kinematic viscosity, centistokes,

Fig. 6Hydrocarbon-gas viscosity vs.

Pressure drop for liquid ow

= pipe inside diameter, in.,

SG = specic gravity of liquid relative to water,

Hazen Williams equation

= head loss because of friction, ft,

Pressure drop can be calculated from

Pressure drop for gas ow

= rate of ow, lbm/sec,

= acceleration of gravity, 32.2 ft/sec2,

= cross-sectional area of pipe, ft2,

V1 = specic volume of gas at upstream conditions, ft3/lbm,

The compressibility factor, Z, for natural gas can be found in Fig. 7.

Three simplied derivative equations can be used to calculate gas ow in pipelines:

= pipe ID, in.,

= specic gravity of gas,

= compressibility factor for gas, dimensionless.

(/File%3AVol3_page_330_eq_002.PNG) (Eq. 15)

= gas-ow rate, MMscf/D,

hW = pressure loss, inches of water,

Application of the formulas

Simplied gas formula

Fig. 8Two-phase-ow patterns in

Pressure drop evaluation along pipelines -

Two phase pressure drop

Pressure drop evaluation along pipelines -

Simplied friction pressure drop approximation for two phase ow

= friction pressure drop, psi,

M = density of the mixture, lbm/ft3,

= specic gravity of gas at standard conditions, lbm/ft3 (air = 1),

= operating pressure, psia,

= gas/liquid ratio, ft3/bbl,

SG = specic gravity of liquid, relative to water, lbm/ft 3,

= specic gravity of gas at standard conditions, lbm/ft3 (air = 1),

There are no elevation changes.

Pressure drop evaluation along pipelines -

Pressure Drop Because of Changes in Elevation

Pressure drop caused by valves and ttings

Pressure drop evaluation along pipelines -

(/File%3AVol3_page_341_eq_002.PNG) (Eq. 24)

= diameter of the pipe, ft,

= Moody friction factor, dimensionless,

d = pipe ID, in.,

= elevation head, ft,

= gravitational constant, ft/sec2,

= head loss, ft.

= Moody friction factor, dimensionless,

SG = specic gravity of liquid relative to water (water = 1),

= kinematic viscosity, centistokes,

= rate of ow, lbm/sec

= downstream pressure, psia.