CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

AND
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
Dr. M. P. Chhaya

Preface
Curriculum Is a Set of Influences Which Envelopes and Shapes Childrens Lives in The Classroom This
book attempts to explain a rationale for viewing, analysing and interpreting thecurriculum and instructional
programme of an educational institution. It is not a textbook,f o r i t d o e s n o t p r o v i d e
comprehensive guidance and readings for a course. It is not amanual for
curriculum construction since it does not describe and outline in detail thesteps
to be taken by a given school that seeks to build a curriculum. This book
o u t l i n e s one way of viewing an instructional programme as a functioning instrument of education.The
teacher is encouraged to examine other rationales and to develop his own conceptionof the elements and
relationships involved in an effective curriculum.T h e r a t i o n a l e d e v e l o p e d h e r e b e g i n s w i t h
i d e n t i f y i n g f o u r f u n d a m e n t a l q u e s t i o n s , which must be answered in developing any curriculum
and plan of instruction. These are:1 . W h a t e d u c a t i o n a l p u r p o s e s s h o u l d t h e s c h o o l s e e k
to attain?2 . W h a t e d u c a t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e s c a n b e p r o v i d e
d t h o s e a r e l i k e l y t o a t t a i n t h e s e purposes?3 . H o w
can these educational experiences be effectively organised?4.How can we
determine whether these purposes are being attained?T h i s b o o k s u g g e s t s
methods for studying these questions. No attempt is made
toanswer these questions since the answers will vary to some
e x t e n t f r o m o n e l e v e l o f education to another and from one school to another. Instead of
answering the questions,a n e x p l a n a t i o n i s g i v e n o f p r o c e d u r e s b y w h i c h t h e s e
q u e s t i o n s c a n b e a n s w e r e d . T h i s constitutes a rationale by which to examine problems of
curriculum and
instruction.T h i s b o o k d o e s n o t s u g g e s t a n y o n e a p p r
o a c h t o c u r r i c u l u m r e s e a r c h a n d development, but to put
a g r e a t d e a l o f d i v e r s e m a t e r i a l i n t o a n e w o v e r a l l f r a m e w o r k . The aim is to give
teachers an initial sense of the field of curriculum studies and a
feelf o r i t s c o n c e r n s a n d c o m p l e x i t i e s . I t p r o v i d e s a s p r i n g b o a r d
f o r f u r t h e r s t u d y a n d reflection rather than a definitive all -encompassing
a c c o u n t . T h e p u r p o s e i s t o p r o v i d e teachers with a mode of inquiry that will allow them to
explore curriculum designs and toconsider how these influences might be used to achieve educational
purposes.O u r g o a l i s t o h a v e c l a s s r o o m t e a c h e r s b e c o m e e x p e r t d e s i g n e r s i n t h e i r
own right; because it is the classroom teacher who converts curriculum blue
p r i n t s i n t o c l a s s r o o m instruction. School committees and superintendents set policy and manage the
curriculume n t e r p r i s e f r o m a d i s t a n c e , b u t i t i s t h e t e a c h e r w h o i s a t

t h e h u b o f a c t i v i t y . I t i s t h e classroom teachers leadership, which

d e t e r m i n e s t h e r e a l i s a t i o n o f c u r r i c u l u m i n f a c t . Curriculum plans are most effective when
they are made and applied from the bottom uprather than from the top down.To me, a curriculum consists
in:

the planned structuring of the educational ideals of a s c h o o l i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e

p s y c h o l o g i c a l n e e d s o f t h e p u p i l s , t h e f a c i l i t i e s t h a t a r e available, and the cultural
requirements of the time.
M.P.Chhaya

Chapter 1The Scope and Purpose of Curriculum Studies

Introduction
Recent years have seen a great interest in what is taught in schools and what ought to betaught there. This
interest has arisen for a number of reasons. There have been changes insociety, in its attitudes and values.
There have been moves towards greater social equalityand away from social discrimination of all kinds,
whether on the grounds on sex or colour or creed. Social relationships are now less constrained
and less authoritarian than oncethey were. Alternative, and less conventional, ways of
living together in society have become acceptable.Changes in society and in peoples views
about what is permissible and what is notare only two areas of change which affect what people
think should be taught in
schools.E c o n o m i c a n d t e c h n i c a l c h a n g e s a l s o i n f l u e n c e w h a t p e o p l e t h i n k
t h e c o n t e n t o f education should be. This century, developments in science and
technology have beenlargely responsible for the rise in material prosperity, which most Western
countries haveenjoyed, and on which they continue to depend. Because of this knowledge of
scienceand very recently, technology has come to be considered as essential an ingredient in
theeducation of most children as reading, writing and mathematics.Science and technology have not
only brought prosperity, they have also brought problems problems of pollution and the
potential destruction of the world in which wel i v e . A t t h e h e a r t o f s u c h p r o b l e m s l i e m o r a l
i s s u e s a b o u t h o w m a n s h o u l d u s e h i s knowledge and the resources of the world in which he
lives, and how he should treat hisfellow men. Should we not teach the young how to confront such
problems? has been a
q u e s t i o n r a i s e d b y ma n y e d u c a t i o n i s t s i n
r e c e n t y e a r s . T h i s h a s b e e n b e h i n d t h e a t t e mp t s t o
h a ve s o c i a l s t u d i e s a n d mo r a l
e d u c a t i o n t a u g h t i n s c h o o l s , a n d h a s influenced the development of
humanities courses.Interest in the content of education, in the curriculum, is not simply a
contemporary p h e n o m e n o n . I t h a s m a n y h i s t o r i c a l c o u n t e r p a r t s . O v e r
2 0 0 0 y e a r s a g o P l a t o w a s interested in what the leaders of an ideal state
s h o u l d b e t a u g h t , a n d s o h a v e b e e n m a n y philosophers and statesmen since, when they came
to consider the educational problemso f t h e s o c i e t y . T h e r e a s o n f o r t h e i r
i n t e r e s t i s s i m p l e : t h e c o n t e n t o f e d u c a t i o n , t h e curriculum, is at
t h e h e a r t o f t h e e d u c a t i o n a l e n t e r p r i s e . I t i s t h e m e a n s t h r o u g h w h i c h education is
transacted. Without a curriculum education has no vehicle, anything throughwhich to transmit its
messages, to convey its meanings, to transmit its values. It is mainly because of the crucial role, which the
curriculum plays in educational activities that it isworthy of study.
Themeaningofcurriculum
Scholars in the curriculum field have sometimes become lost in arguments
a b o u t t h e semantics of curriculum definitions. A definition commonly used during the thirties

andf o r t i e s w a s t h e c u r r i c u l u m o f a s c h o o l i s a l l t h e e x p e r i e n c e s t h a t p u p i l s
h a v e u n d e r t h e guidance of that school. A counter definition, generally considered to be too broad,
was a c h i l d s c u r r i c u l u m i n a g i v e n d a y o f h i s l i f e i s a l l t h a t h e o r s h e
experiences from
them o m e n t o f w a k i n g t o t h e m o m e n t o f f a l l i n g a s l e e p .
T h e o t h e r d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e curriculum is the planned a
nd guided learning experiences and intended learningo u t c o m e
s , f o r mu l a t e d t h r o u g h t h e s y s t e ma t i c r e c o n s t r u c t i o n
o f k n o w l e d g e a n d experience, under the auspices of the school, for the
l e a r n e r s c o n t i n u o u s a n d w i l f u l growth in personal-social competence.Persons have interpreted
the term curriculum very differently over the years. Oliva(1988) provides us with an interesting
range:Curriculum is that which is taught in school.Curriculum is a set of subjects.Curriculum is
content.Curriculum is a set of materials.Curriculum is a set of performance objectives.Curriculum is that
which is taught both inside and outside of school directed by theschool.Curriculum is that which an
individual learner experiences as a result of schooling.Curriculum is everything that is planned by school
personnel.To define curriculum as what is taught in schools is of course, very vague. Personsoften talk
about the school curriculum in this general way and they tend to mean by thisthe range of subjects
taught and the amount of instruction time given to each in terms of hours or minutes.Curriculum defined
as content is an interesting emphasis and brings into questionanother term, namely the syllabus. A
syllabus is usually a summary statement aboutthe content to be taught in a course or unit, often linked to
an external examination. Thise m p h a s i s o n W H A T c o n t e n t t o b e t a u g h t i s a
critical element of a syllabus but a

relations are essential.

Adequate time, facilities, and resources should be provided.

Curriculum workers should attempt to solve problems that seem real andimportant.

Effective communication about plans, policies, procedures, and achievementsshould be established and
maintained among persons who have a stake in the projects.

Curriculum development should be considered a continuous, normal activity andnot a stop-and-start

activity.

All persons affected by a given project should be involved in it in some way.

Nothing of real importance should be undertaken without developing anunderstanding of its purpose.

Continuous evaluation of improvements should be built into the design of each project.

Balanced must be achieved in both the types of activities to be performed andtheir positions on the
ongoing experience of learners.

Consistency must be maintained between the means and the ascribed ends of each
project.P e r s o n s w h o u n d e r t a k e c u r r i c u l u m i m p r o v e m e n t s h o u l d n o t a c c e p t t h a t
g r e a t changes would necessarily occur within a period of a few months. Initially, growth maycome only
in the form of peoples sensitisation to themselves, to one another, and to thenature of the curriculum
and its changes. Values, attitudes, and skills change to some extent almost immediately, but

progress of lasting significance takes time.An interesting way of projecting the curriculum into the future
is to raise questionsconcerning how the curriculum is to be viewed. Answers to the
questions may suggest metaphors such as:(1)the curriculum as medicine for educational
ills;(2)the curriculum as a greenhouse that encourages growth;(3)the curriculum as a
route for travelling to a destination;(4)the curriculum as a means of production;
and(5)the curriculum as a resource for develop ing and using human abilities.
23
Chapter 4Curriculum Design
The task of creating new courses of study or new patterns of educational activity
for p u p i l s i n s c h o o l s r e q u i r e s c u r r i c u l u m d e s i g n . T h e d e s i g n o f s u c h i n t e n d e d
curriculai n v o l v e s a m u l t i t u d e o f f a c t o r s
i d e o l o g i c a l , t e c h n i c a l , e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l , a n d psychological, to name
b u t t h e s o m e . D e v e l o p i n g c u r r i c u l a i n a s y s t e m a t i c w a y , a s opposed to piecemeal,
one-off modifications to current practice, is still relatively new andin consequence is both tentative and
primitive.T h r e e p r i n c i p a l c u r r i c u l u m d e s i g n m o d e l s h a v e b e e n p r o d u c e d t o f u r t h
e r t h i s enterprise. It is important to note that these three the objectives, the process,
and thes i t u a t i o n a l m o d e l s d o n o t d e s c r i b e h o w c u r r i c u l a a r e
i n f a c t d e s i g n e d b u t m a k e recommendations for design. Their
recommendations or prescriptions involve differingconceptions of the teaching/planning task,
and all three are in need of further
refinementa n d e l a b o r a t i o n . T h e f o l l o w i n g g u i d e l i n e s p r o v i d e f r a m e w o r k
s t h r o u g h w h i c h conceptions of education can be given tangible form as curriculum proposals.
The objectives model and its variants
24

The design model, greatly influenced by behavioural psychology and

systematisedi n t o a c o h e r e n t r a t i o n a l e b y T y l e r h a s d i r e c t e d a
g r e a t a m o u n t o f t h e o r i s i n g a n d practical activity, especially in USA. The Tyler rationale as it
has been called, centres onfour major stages, which Tyler considers essential in the development of any
curriculum.The first of these involves getting clear about goals i.e. what it is hoped the
curriculumwill achieve. According to his view, if such goals are to be clearly
formulated, vaguelystated aims are not sufficient.Statements of goals need to indicate both
the kind of behaviour to be developed inthe pupil and the area of content in which the
behaviour is to be applied. Such closelyformulated statements of intent are termed as
objectives. It is very important to notehere that such objectives are to be specified
before the remaining components of the design model are considered (i.e. objectives are to be prespecified). In the light of suchobjectives the learning experiences offered children are selected at stage
two. As a
thirds t a g e t h e s e e x p e r i e n c e s a r e o r g a n i s e d t o r e i n f o r c e o n e a n o t h e r a
n d t o p r o d u c e a cumulative effect. The last stage is that of evaluation, which examines the extent
to whichthe objectives are realised in practice, thereby indicating in what respects the curriculumis
effective and in what respec ts it requires modification. This basic four -stage
model(Figure 4.1), which is cyclic in that evaluation feeds back to objectives, is often
termedthe rational planning model on the grounds that it is rationale to specify the ends of
ana c t i v i t y b e f o r e e n g a g i n g i n i t . A n a l t e r n a t i v e t e r m s o m e t i m e s u s e d i s m e a n
s - e n d s planning.
2. SELECTION OF LEARNING EXPERIENCES 1. AIMS / OBJECTIVES 3. ORGANISATION
OF LEARNING EXPERIENCES 4. EVALUATION OF LEARNING EXPERIENCES
Figure 4.1
The Tyler model for curriculum
planningS i n c e i t s f o r m u l a t i o n m u c h w o r k b y e d u c a t i o n i s t s s u c h a s P o p h a m , M a
g e r a n d Gronlund has been concentrated on making the first stage as clear-cut as possible in order t o
provide clear goals towards which pupils and teachers can work and in order
t o facilitate the measurement and evaluation of the results of the curriculum. Both of theseconcerns
have led to an emphasis on behavioural objectives which specify in terms of observable
behaviours what a pupil should be able to do, think or feel as a result of
ac o u r s e o f i n s t r u c t i o n . F o r t h e p u r p o s e o f a s s e s s i n g w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e y h a v e
b e e n achieved such objectives have to be specific, measurable and unambiguous

Studies of attitude change in teachers reveal that

h u m a n e l y c o n d u c t e d staff evaluations can serve as a starting point. Also, arranging helpful
contacts withother persons fellow teachers, counsellors, consultants and community members can
offer new perspectives.
(b) Quantity and quality of personnel
A stimulating, friendly climate and helpful work ing conditions are
a i d e d b y t h e presence of able personnel in sufficient numbers to accomplish
w o r t h w h i l e t a s ks . S u r ve y s o f t h e s t a f f i n g o f t h e s c h o o l s a n d s c h o o l s ys t e m s u s u a l l y
r e ve a l t h a t m o r e w o r k i s b e i n g a c c o m p l i s h e d b y l i m i t e d n u m b e r s o f
persons than even the
mostconservative of personnel analysts expect. Often these persons
a r e d i s c h a r g i n g r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s t h a t s h o u l d n o t b e t h e i r s o r a r e d i s c h a r gi n g

t h e i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s i n ineffective ways.In s p i t e o f t h e f a c t t h a t p r e s e n t -d a y s c h o o l s
a r e f r e q u e n t l y u n d e r s t a f f e d i n t h e f i e l d s o f s u p e r vi s i o n a n d c u r r i c u l u m s e r vi c e s ,
t h e q u a l i t y o f a s s i s t a n c e t h a t c l a s s teachers are receiving could be improved in at least three
respects:

The very best available persons should be utilised to discharge eac

h m a j o r responsibility. Some times the teachers are made part time specialists in the fields inwhich
they may have received only limited preparation.

T h e r o l e o f t h e s c h o o l i n t h e t o t a l c o m m u n i t y s h o u l d b e e x a mi n e d a t i n t e r va l s . This
determines whether all the functions of the school have adopted truly belong toan educational institution.

Special teachers should be assigned in different, more helpful ways. Varied andso me t i m e s
q u e s t i o n a b l e u s e s a r e b e i n g m a d e o f s p e c i a l t e a c h e r s i n s u b j e c t s s u c h a s physical
education. Specialists should ask themselves a key question: How can we provide the greatest long-term
help to classroom teachers in helping them to becomecompetent identifiers and eradicators of common
subject difficulties?T w o a d d i t i o n a l s o u r c e s o f p e r s o n n e l t o i m p r o ve t e a c h i n g a n d
l e a r n i n g a r e ( 1 ) t h e staff of universities, state departments of education, board education offices, and
schoolsystems other than ones own and (2) well-informed lay persons who give advice strictlywithin
their own specialities. These two sources provide part-time consultants who may be called upon for a few
hours or days of assistance at almost any time.Many school systems maintain resource files of community
citizens who
volunteer t h e i r h e l p i n i n s t r u c t i o n a l f i e l d s r a n g i n g f r o m t h e p h y s i c a l s c
i e n c e s a n d t h e a r t s t o c i t i ze n s h i p e d u c a t i o n . T h e c l a s s r o o m t e a c h e r s a r e
u s u a l l y t h e b e s t j u d g e s o f w h i c h l a y persons are most effective in reaching pupils with the
content they have to teach.O f c o u r s e , n o s u b s t i t u t e s h a ve b e e n f o u n d f o r c o m p e t e n t
c l a s s r o o m t e a c h e r s w h o w o r k p a t i e n t l y a n d i n s i g h t f u l l y w i t h c h i l d r e n d a y a f t e r d a y.
T h e q u a l i t y o f t h e s c h o o l s depends chiefly on the quality of the classroom teachers who teach in
them.T h e mo r a l e o f a b l e t e a c h e r s c a n b e i m p r o ve d b y r e d u c i n g t h e l o a d o f c l e r i c a l
andcustodial duties that now burden many of them. Obviously professional
e mp l o y m e n t carries with it responsibility for certain routine operations, but studies of the duties of
thec l a s s r o o m t e a c h e r s o f t e n r e v e a l n u m e r o u s a n d s o m e t i m e s u n n e c e s s
a r y c l e r i c a l a n d custodial loads. An enlightened school administration seeks to free competent
persons for a c t i v i t y a t t h e i r h i g h e s t l e v e l o f p e r f o r m a n c e . S c h o o l
officials will need to be more
59
certain than they are at present that teachers are using th
e i r t i m e t o m a x i m u m advantage.
(c) Peers tutors and helpers
It is possible to increase the personnel resources of a school
geometrically by preparing a cadre of pupil tutors and helpers who
teach their peers and learn byteaching. Such a programme tap the
strengths of youngsters, many of them
mayotherwise have become bored and obstructive. Young people can
o f t e n s u r p a s s t e a ch e r s i n c o m m u n i c a t i n g w i t h o t h e r y o u n g p e o p l e . F o r t h i s
r e a s o n s o m e s c h o o l s involve all the pupils they can in teaching and helping. Certainly the adoption of
peer t e a c h i n g c a n l e a d t o r e s t r u c t u r i n g o f t e a c h e r r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s a n d
o f t h e u s e s o f building space and time.P e e r t e a c h i n g a n d h e l p i n g s h o u l d n o t
e n d w i t h p u p i l s . T h e i d e a o f c o l l a b o r a t i o n includes interaction among adults for

teaching and learning within schools and schools ys t e m s . T h e d a ys o f t h e r e c l u s i ve t e a c h e r

s h o u l d b e l o n g g o n e . W e c a n n o t a d m i r e teachers who erase their chalkboards quickly lest other
teachers or supervisors borrowand disseminate their ideas. If knowledge is the wealth of school systems,
it should beshared at least within the systems.(d)
Availability of physical resources and materials
Studies of working conditions in schools have revealed that teachers feel satisfactionin having varieties of
usable instructional materials at hand and in understanding howt o u s e t h e m . W h e n
materials and equipment accord with the requirements of
t h e i n s t r u c t i o n a l p r o g r a m m e , a n d w h e n t h e p e r s o n s w h o u s e ma t e r i a l s a n d
equipmenth a v e a m a j o r p a r t i n c h o o s i n g t h e m , t h e u s e f u l n e s s o f t h e s e
r e s o u r c e s i s u s u a l l y ensured.The school that seeks to improve the curriculum for its pupils,
searches continuouslyf o r m a t e r i a l s a n d e q u i p m e n t t h a t w i l l b e s t t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e
r a n ge o f i n d i vi d u a l differences the school encounters. The principal of a school of this sort tries to
make p h y s i c a l r e s o u r c e s q u i c k l y a v a i l a b l e t o t e a c h e r s b y a r r a n g i n g f
or purchase of materials as they are needed and by moving them to
p o i n t s o f u s e a s s p e e d i l y a s possible. One of the major complaints of classroom teachers is
that administrators
failt o m o v e m a t e r i a l s t o a r e a s o n a b l e s c h e d u l e . A n a d d i t i o n
a l h a z a r d o f s c h o o l administration is the tendency of principals to become overzealous
about amplifyings y s t e m s a n d e l e c t r o n i c m a c h i n e r y g e n e r a l l y a n d t h u s t o
s p e n d p r e c i o u s f u n d s i n p u r c h a s i n g e q u i p me n t t h a t t e a c h e r s w o u l d gl a d l y
t r a d e f o r m a t e r i a l s o f mo r e d i r e c t use to them.(e)
Absence of undue pressure and influence
Studies of teacher morale clearly show that the effectiveness of a
s c h o o l c a n b e r u i n ed b y t h e c o n n i vi n g a n d b e t r a ya l o f i r r e s p o n s i b l e p o l i t i c i a n s .
P r o mi s e s t h a t a r e made and not kept are one of the major sources of trouble. The government
controlleds c h o o l s i n t h e h a n d s o f m u n i c i p a l a n d s t a t e g o ve r n m e n t o f f i c i a l s
experience more political interference with schools and teachers. The unfortunate
e f f e c t s o f u n d u e influence and pressure should be reduced and avoided at almost any cost.R e s e a r c h
a n d e x p e r i e n c e s h o w t h a t i f c u r r i c u l u m c h a n ge s a r e r e a l l y t o go i n t o effect, varied
actions must be taken to support teachers, personnel must be designated
60
to do the supporting, and ample
t i m e m u s t b e a l l o w e d f o r t h e e f f e c t u a t i n g process to be completed.
Achieveandmaintainappropriatetempo
A second major action that facilitates curriculum improvement is achieving andmaintaining appropriate
tempo. Curriculum workers are soon compelled to learn that thetiming of curriculum improvement
activities is vital. Their fundamental problem is one of ma i n t a i n i n g b a l a n c e b e t w e e n
gr a d u a l i s m a n d r a p i d i t y. M a n y s c h o o l s ys t e m s w o r k s o gradually at improvement that they
scarcely make any effort to improve at all.T h e o p p o s i t e o f e x t r e m e g r a d u a l i s m i s
e x c e s s i v e a n d i l l - f o u n d e d s p e e d . M a n y a noble experiment has come to grief
because its supporters have moved ahead of the rank a n d f i l e o f c l a s s r o o m t e a c h e r s . C a r e f u l
w a t c h i n g o f t h e f o r c e s t h a t p r o m o t e o r i m p e d e improvement provides the only real guide to
appropriate speed. Good timing results fromresponding cautiously to questions like these:

Are we ready for this change?

How fast can we comfortably move?

How does the speed at which we are effecting this change relate to the speeds atwhich we are making
other changes?

If we are not ready for a significant, timely change, how can we develop readiness for it?

Are there any ideas and actions that could be helped in sparking change?T e mp o o f c h a n g e
o r i mp r o ve m e n t r e l a t e s d i r e c t l y t o t h e t h o u gh t f u l n e s s w i t h w h i c h improvement is
sought. For instance, a group of teachers may write a course-guide duringsix weeks of occasional
meetings with little effect on the practices of other teachers whoare later introduced to the guide. Instead
an in-service project requiring three years may be directed to the same ends and the improvement
resulting from it may be profound andl o n g l a s t i n g . T h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e
t w o a c t i vi t i e s i s n o t o n l y i n t i m e e x p e n d e d b u t also in careful, early considerations of the
kinds of activities that might make a
genuinelyl a s t i n g d i f f e r e n c e . O n e o f t h e m a j o r f u n c t i o n s o f l e a
d e r s h i p i s t o e m p h a s i s e t h e i mp o r t a n c e o f c e r t a i n p r o j e c t s i n
r e l a t i o n s h i p t o o t h e r p r o j e c t s . T h o s e t h a t a r e r e a l l y important to teachers growth usually
deserve the most time for completion and the most p r e -p l a n n i n g o f t h e p r o c e d u r e s b y
w h i c h t h e y w i l l b e a f f e c t e d . F u r t h e r m o r e t h e t i me o f their initiation must depend chiefly
on how soon they have to be accomplished and on thenumber and nature of other tasks that must be
performed.
Specific problems of tempo
Practitioners of curriculum planning often encounter problems that affect the tempoo f t h e i r w o r k .
One of these is taking on too much because they fail to recognise
t h e varying sizes of the different tasks. Curriculum planners need to estimate the amount of time
particular tasks deserve. If the tasks are large, one, two, or three of them may be allthat a school can
undertake within a year. Usually some tasks look small and others look large. Of course, both big and
small tasks are being under taken in most school systems att h e s a m e t i m e . I t i s i m p o r t a n t
t o k e e p t h e t o t a l n u m b e r a n d t o t a l s i z e o f t a s k s s m a l l enough that
curriculum study can be thorough rather than superficial.A second problem of tempo relates to the
manageability of projects. Some projects are sol a r ge o r c o m p l i c a t e d t h a t t h e y s i m p l y c a n n o t
be dealt with by the personnel of a single
61

1
u
t
a
r
c
g
o

9
n
a
y
e
t

.
T
o
d
e
r
s
n
d
w
s
o
f
s
t
r
u
u
r
i
n
s
c
h
o
l
s
t
o
a
c
h
i
e
v
e
educational improvement2 0 . T o
b e
f a m i l i a r
w i t h
t h e
i d e a s
o f
d i f f e r i n g
s c h o o l s
o f
e d u c a t i o n a l
p h i l o s o p h y 2 1 . T o
k n o w
w h a t
c u r r i c u l u m
p l a n s
t o
p r o p o s e
f o r
y o u n g s t e r s
o f
d i f f e r e n t
l e v e l s of ability and for
youngsters with special handicaps2 2 . T o
b e
a b l e
t o

r e c o g n i s e
t h e
p r e s e n c e
o r
a b s e n c e
o f
s e q u e n c e ,
b a l a n c e ,
a n d other features of a suitable curriculum2 3 . T o
k n o w
o n e s
p h i l o s o p h i c a l
b e l i e f s
a b o u t
h u m a n
p o t e n t i a l
a n d
s c h o o l i n g 2 4 . T o
b e
a b l e
t o
r e c o g n i s e
v a l i d
r e s e a r c h
d a t a
a n d
c o n c l u s i o n s 2 5 . T o
k n o w
w h e r e
t o
f i n d
h e l p
w i t h
d i f f i c u l t
c u r r i c u l u m
p r o b l e m s In the arena of skill/competence, curriculum
practitioners need:1
.
T
o
b
e
c
o
m
p
e
t
e
n
t
i
n
r
e
a
d
i
n
g
a
n
d
u
n
d
e
r
s
t
a
n
d
i
n
g
t
h
e
l
i
t
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
o
n
t
e
a
c
h
i
n
g
,
learning and the curriculum2 . T o
b e
c o m p e t e n t
i n
w r i t i n g
c o g e n t l y
a n d
a t
l e n g t h
a b o u t
c u r r i c u l u m
m a t t e r s 3 . T o
b e
a b l e
t o
s t a t e
c l e a r l y
w o r t h y
a i m s ,
g o a l s
a n d
o b j e c t i v e s
o f
s c h o o l i n g 4
.
T
o
b
e
a
b
l
e
t
o
a
n
s
w
e
r
t
h
e
q
u
e
s
t
i
o
n
s
o
f
t
e
a
c
h
e
r
s
a
n
d
o
t
h
e
r
p
e
o
p
l
e
a
b
o
u
t
t
h
e
details of the curriculum5
.
T
o
b
e
s
k
i
l
l
e
d
i
n
w
o
r
k
i
n
g
w
i
t
h
p
a
r
e
n
t
s
a
n
d
o
t
h
e
r
c
o
m
m
u
n
i
t
y
m
e
m
b
e
r
s
o
f
differing backgrounds, abilities and cultures6
.
T
o
b
e
s
k
i
l
l
e
d
i
n
c
o
n
f
e
r
r
i
n
g
w
i
t
h
t
e
a
c
h
e
r
s
a
n
d
c
u
r
r
i
c
u
l
u
m
s
p
e
c
i
a
l
i
s
t
s
a
b
o
u
t
difficult aspects of the
curriculum7
.
T
o
d
e
m
o
n
s
t
r
a
t
e
c
o
m
p
e
t
e
n
c
e
i
n
p
r
o
p
o
s
i
n
g
a
n
d
d
e
v
e
l
o
p
i
n
g
o
r
i
g
i
n
a
l
curriculum
designs8
.
T
o
e
x
h
i
b
i
t
s
k
i
l
l
i
n
d
i
r
e
c
t
i
n
g
a
n
d
b
r
i
n
g
i
n
g
t
o
c
o
m
p
l
e
t
i
o
n
v
a
r
i
e
d
p
l
a
n
n
i
n
g
enterprises9
. T o
b e
c o m p e t e n t
i n
t e a c h i n g
o t h e r

p r o f e s s i o n a l s
a n d
l a y
p e o p l e
t o
p l a n 1 0 . T o
b e
s k i l l e d
i n
l e a d i n g
d i f f e r i n g
g r o u p s 1 1 . T o
d e m o n s t r a t e
s k i l l
i n
p r a c t i s i n g
m e t h o d s
o f
i n s t r u c t i o n a l
s u p e r v i s i o n 1 2 . T o
b e
a b l e
t o
s p e a k
c o n v i n c i n g l y
t o
t h e
p u b l i c
a b o u t
c u r r i c u l u m
p r o p o s a l s 1 3 . T o
d e m o n s t r a t e
s k i l l
i n
c o u n s e l l i n g
c o w o r k e r s
a n d
a s s i s t a n t s
14.
T o
s h o w
c o m p e t e n c e
i n
p l a n n i n g
a n d
i m p l e m e n t i n g
i n - s e r v i c e
a n d
s t a f f
development
programmes1 5 . T o
s h o w
f a m i l i a r i t y
w i t h
a v a i l a b l e
i n s t r u c t i o n a l
m a t e r i a l s 1
6
.
T
o
b
e
c
a
p
a
b
l
e
o
f
h
e
l
p
i
n
g
t
e
a
c
h
e
r
s
a
n
d
o
t
h
e
r
s
d
e
v
i
s
e
n
e
w
a
n
d
d
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
t
instructional
materials1 7 . T o
b e
c o m p e t e n t
i n
c r e a t i n g
c r i t e r i o n r e f e r e n c e d
t e s t s 1
8
.
T
o
b
e
s
k
i
l
l
e
d
i
n
s
c
h
e
d
u
l
i
n
g
a
n
d
c
o
o
r
d
i
n
a
t
i
n
g
c
u
r
r
i
c
u
l
u
m
i
m
p
r
o
v
e
m
e
n
t
activities1
9 . T o
d e m o n s t r a t e
s k i l l
i n
r e c o n c i l i n g
v i e w p o i n t s
o f
f e l l o w
p l a n n e r s
a n d
i n identifying and over coming barriers to
planning2 0 . T o
b e
a b l e
t o
w o r k
w i t h
o f f i c i a l s
o f
s t a t e
o r
n a t i o n a l
e d u c a t i o n a l
a g e n c i e s
i n the interest of curriculum improvement2 1 . T o
d e m o n s t r a t e
s k i l l
i n
f a c i l i t a t i n g
r e g i o n a l
a n d
s t a t e
e v a l u a t i o n s
o f
t h e curriculum and of the improvement programme2 2 . T o
b e
a b l e
t o
g u i d e
c u r r i c u l u m
p l a n n e r s
t o m
s i g n i f i c a n t
s o u r c e s
o f
e v i d e n c e
86
2
e
t
o
p
v
l

3
d
i
o
r
e n
a y

T
i
g

n
l
o
t

o
n

f
i
p

o
e

n
r

s
e
s
s

b
o
y
s
a
o n

r
n
s
s
n
s

e
e
t
i
d
2

e
o
m e
. T

s
r
s
m
n
e
o

k
e

a
t

s
s
a
l
g s

l
e
c
t
c

l
n
h
o
o

n
f

d e m o n s t r a t e
s k i l l
i n
w o r k i n g
w i t h
l e a r n e r s
i n
c l a s s r o o m s
t o
s h o w
t h e worth of
new curriculum plans2 5 . T o
d e m o n s t r a t e
g r a c e
a n d
e a s e
a t
s o c i a l
a n d
p r o f e s s i o n a l
f u n c t i o n s
w h e r e the reputation of the school countsYou
may use this inventory as you wish, adding to it or subtracting from it at will. It may p r o v e
u s e f u l
f o r
s e l f - a n a l y s i s ,
o r
i t
m a y
f o r m
a
b a s i s
f o r
g r o u p
d i s c u s s i o n .
S u f f i c i e n t
p r e p a r a t i o n
w i l l
h e l p
y o u
a d v o c a t e
v a l i d
c u r r i c u l u m
p l a n s
a n d
p r o p o s a l s
a n d
t h e r e b y make lasting contributions to a significant field of
endeavour.
87
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A
xM
le
ik
Z
r,Jh
a
ln
o
Curriculum theory
B
l,D
e
i
n
a
The reforming of general education
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ck,A
la
e
o
rn
K
d
ib
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kl
n
ra
it,F
b
o
How to make a curriculum
B
m
ra
r
o
h
,T
ld
e
Patterns of educational philisophy
B
t,R
d
n
ra
lS
o
Content of the curriculum
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m
,Jo
e
n
ru
S
e
The process of education
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o
scin
a
-S
,Je
vg
Systems approach to curriculum & instructional improvement
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m
le
o
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n
a
sS
e
Equality of educational opportunity
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lin
o
M
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rsh
a
lM
u
ris
o
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ly,M
e
n
o
l,C
e
a
ich
d
n
Teachers as curriculum planners
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y,S
re
o
n
h
tp
M
Action research to improve school practices
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m
re
w
a
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in
cA
re
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C
rly,E
e
b
u
d
w
P
o
Changing conceptions of education
D
vis,E
a
.
d
Teachers as curriculum evaluators
D
w
e
n
h
yJo
The child and the curriculum
D
w
e
n
h
yJo

The educational situation

D
w
e
n
h
yJo
The school and society
D
w
e
n
h
yJo
Democracy and education
D
w
e
n
h
yJo
Philosophy of education
D
w
e
n
h
yJo
The sources of a science of education
D
l,R
o
C
d
a
n
Supervision for staff development
D
l,R
o
C
d
a
n
Leadership to improve schools
D
l,R
o
C
d
a
n
,P
so
w
Harry
Organising for curriculum improvement
E
lm
,R
re
o
m
u
F
d
a
ich
n
a
The governance of curriculum
E
w
e
,F
lish
g
n
ckW
Curriculum management for schools, colleges,business
G
s,M
ile
cC
Zhiel
d
a
n
e
th
u
Exploring the curriculum
G
,A
rn
o
th
la
Curriculum leadership
G
y,M
lb
o
l,G
e
a
ich
w
n
re
,J
ld
a
Curriculum design and implementation
G
A
n
,Jh
la
d
o
A place called school
G
I
n
,Jh
la
d
o
The ecology of school renewal
G
m
d
o
,P
n
a
l
u
New Reformation
,P
n
rso
lve
a
h
u
M
balance in the curriculum
H
,e
rp
a
y
n
The changing curriculum
H
C
n
h
il,Jo
Curriculum evaluation for school improvement