Water in Transformers

Water in Transformers
TVPPA E&O CONFERENCE AUGUST 79, 2013
SPX TRANSFORMER SOLUTIONS, INC.
Water in Transformers
Rich Simonelli
Territory General Manager Southeast
SPX Transformer Solutions, Inc.
Office 919-300-1522
Email Rich.Simonelli@spx.com
Rich joined SPX in January 2005, bringing with him

over 20 years of experience in the power systems
industry. As the national service manager, Rich was
responsible for leading the Waukesha Service group
in providing and implementing creative field service
solutions on electrical equipment used in power
generation, transmission and distribution, mass transit
and industrial processes, while maintaining customer
satisfaction, quality, environmental and safety systems
and processes. In 2011, Rich was promoted to
Territory General Manager where he has complete
commercial responsibility for all products and services,
business development, sales strategies and customer
relationships in the southeast region.
Water in Transformers August 2013

TRANSFORMERS | SERVICE | TRAINING | COMPONENTS
Agenda
Effects of water in
transformers
How does water get in?
How to estimate water
content in transformers
What can you do about it?
Effects of Water in Transformers

Water in Transformers is Bad

Cellulose is highly hygroscopic.
Influence of the temperature over water absorption of 3 mm

high-density pressboard at 50% relative humidity
Source: Water Absorption of Cellulosic Insulating Materials used in Power Transformers
HP. Gasser, Ch. Krause and T. Prevost, Weidmann Transformer Board Systems
Water in Transformers is Bad (cont.)

Moisture lowers the dielectric strength of oil.
Source: ABB IL 48-500-11, 2002


Moisture lowers the dielectric strength of solid insulation.
Source: Tom Prevost, EHV Weidmann, 2006


Moisture raises the dielectric power factor and increases
the risk of thermal breakdown of solid insulation.
Source: Tom Prevost, EHV Weidmann, 2006


Moisture lowers the lowest hot-spot temperature range for
possible bubble formation.
190
Kobayashi rapid heating

Kobayashi slow heating
Temperature
170
150
Davydov
130
Oommen gas free
110
Oommen gas saturated
90
70
50
0
10
WCP % w/w
Source: TV Oommen, EPRI Reports:

EL-6761, March 1990; EL-7291, March 1992
Comparison of critical bubble temperature vs.

water content in paper by three researchers
10
Aging Acceleration Factor
Moisture accelerates thermal aging of paper insulation.

10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
5.5
Moisture in Paper (%)
IEEE Std C57.91-1995
Source: Sam Mehta, Tom Golner, SPX Transformer

Solutions, 2000 TJH2B presentation
11

Moisture can be the root cause of a catastrophic failure.
12
How Does Water Get In?

13
Many Ways for Water to Enter Transformers

Inadequate dry-out at factory
Leaks gaskets and welds
Breathing in outside air during
oil temperature changes
Defective oil preservation
system
14
Water is Also Produced as a By-Product

Even if a transformer
is leak-free and the
oil preservation
system is performing
flawlessly, water is
PRODUCED as
a BY-PRODUCT of
the normal cellulose
aging process!
Carbon Monoxide
Carbon Dioxide
Heating
OH
CH2OH
O
Section of
Cellulose
Molecule
OH
O
H
OH
O
CH2O
Heating
O
H
Water
Degradation of Cellulose
15
Once Inside, Where Does It Go?

Once water is inside, the molecules are stored in various
parts of the insulation:
Thin
Thick 2%
5%
Winding
3%
Winding
22%
Thin
22%
Oil
1%
Thick
55%
Oil
90%
Insulation Weight Distribution
Water Distribution
Source: J. Aubin, 2005 Weidmann-ACTI Conference, San Antonio, TX

16
How Do We Measure / Estimate Water Content

in Transformers?

17
Variety of Assessment Methods Available

Different methods can be used to assess water content
in transformers:
Karl Fischer Titration of Insulation Sample
Moisture Equilibrium Curves
Dew point
Vapor Pressure Curve
Recovery Voltage Method
Dielectric Frequency Response
Power Factor
Cold Trap
IEEE C57.106 Limits
18
Temperature ( C )
Moisture in Paper ( %)
Moisture Equilibrium Curves
Moisture in Oil (ppm)
Source: Oommen 1983/2003

19
Moisture Equilibrium Curves (cont.)

Challenges with Moisture Equilibrium Curves
Source: IEEE C57.106-2008

20
Dew Point
21
Dew Point (cont.)

Challenges with dew point to moisture content conversion:
At best, calculation is only an average surface moisture
content measurement
Difficult to achieve equilibrium due to temperature changes;
conversion is temperature and pressure sensitive
Difficult to measure/estimate insulation temperature
Moisture distribution is not uniform in insulation
Transformer must be without oil to get measurement
Despite these issues, dew point to moisture content

conversion is widely used as an acceptance test because
calculations are done without having to open the transformer.
22
Vapor Pressure Curve

Vapor Pressure Rise/
Vacuum Drop Loss Method
Developed to monitor progress during
vacuum dry out operations.
Equilibrium vapor pressure from the absolute
pressure in the transformer tank can be obtained
during the time condensed moisture is being
removed from the vapor trap. The transformer is
isolated from the vacuum pump and vapor trap.
A pressure rise (vacuum loss) test is then
conducted:
1. Leak rate of the transformer tank.
2. Outgassing rate for insulation and solid
components inside transformer (from change
in slope of pressure rise curve).
3. Pressure rise during the first minute after the
isolation valve is shut (rate of moisture
evaporation).
4. Intercept of the pressure rise curve with zero
time axis (equilibrium vapor pressure).
Vapor Pressure Curve (cont.)

Challenges with Vapor Pressure Rise / Vacuum Drop Loss
Problems/Factors directly
effect equilibrium of the vapor
pressure measurement:
Atmospheric air leaking into
transformer tank
Dissolved gas (air) released
from residual oil on the tank
bottom and/or oilimpregnated insulation,
causing a rise in absolute
pressure (outgassing)
Moisture evaporating out of
the insulation
Application and calibration
errors in pressure and temp
measuring sensors
Temperature variations
RVM / DFR Tests

Recovery Voltage Method (RVM)
Testing the dielectric properties of the
oilpaper insulation.
DC voltage (usually 2000V) is applied
across the insulation for a period of time
(charge time)
This DC voltage causes polarization of
the molecules in the insulation material
Test piece is then discharged via short
circuit for a period equal to half the
charge time
Polarized insulation material then tries to
revert to the original state which gives
a characteristic response, known as the
recovery voltage
Recovery voltage is measured and key
points are notedvoltage, time and slope
Specimen is then discharged, ready for the next test cycle
25
RVM / DFR Tests (cont.)

Recovery Voltage Method (cont.)
Tests are repeated for charge times
ranging from 20 ms up to
10,000 seconds
These points can then be plotted on
a series of graphs with varying
charge times
The most important of these graphs
is called the polarization spectrum,
which is obtained by plotting peak
recovery voltage vs. charge time
The time at which this peak occurs is known as a dominant time

constant and is dependent on properties of the insulating materials
This value directly reflects the moisture content of the oil-paper
insulation system
26

Dielectric Frequency Response test
Used to assess the integrity of a transformers
insulation system. The test attempts to determine the
volume of moisture and presence of contaminants in the
solid insulation as well as the conductivity and power
factor of the oil
With the support of Omicron, DFR test have gained popularity
in recent years as a diagnostic tool for transformer insulation
system testing. The DIRANA uses a combination of the time
and frequency range method (Polarization Depolarization
Current [PDC] and Frequency Domain Spectroscopy [FDS]).
27

Challenges with RVM and DFR:
Difficult to achieve equilibrium due to temperature changes
Difficult to get accurate insulation temperature
Oil permittivity and conductivity change with aging of
insulation system
Moisture distribution is not uniform in insulation
Construction details are not always available
Transformer must be de-energized for a long time before

reaching equilibrium, making for a long test time duration
28
Transformer Power Factor

Power Factor has been used for many decades to assess the
drying process of transformers using a low voltage test or by the
use of probes and models to assess the condition of the solid
insulation.
Pros and Cons
Can be used for acceptance testing and at completion

of field drying after oil filling to ensure a dry unit
Can be used to detect pockets of water that may be deeply
imbedded and missed by other methods that
rely on equilibrium conditions to be accurate
No direct correlation between power factor and
moisture content
29
Cold Trap Method

The Cold Trap method involves measuring the amount of water
collected in a trap over a four to six hour period and then calculating
the amount of water collected per hour. If the amount of insulation
and its initial moisture content are known, the
amount of water removed can provide
a sense of the insulation dryness.
Pros and Cons

Collecting the water in a trap prevents
it from collecting in the vacuum pump
Sometimes initial dryness and mass of insulation is difficult
to ascertain
Must have a cold trap available that efficiently catches the
majority of the water so it can be measured
30
Classification of Service Aged Oils

Test
Standard
Unit
Dielectric
Breakdown
ASTM-D1816
w/ 1mm gap
min, kV
Neutralization
Number
ASTM-D974
max, mg
KOH/g
Interfacial
Tension
ASTM-D971
min,
Dynes/cm
Voltage
Group 1
Group 2
Group 3
Group 4
< 69 kV
69 - 288 kV
> 345 kV
< 69 kV
69 - 288 kV
> 345 kV
< 69 kV
69 - 288 kV
> 345 kV
23
28
30
0.2
0.15
0.1
25
30
32
<23
<28
<30
-
>0.2
>0.15
>0.10
<25
<30
<32
>0.5
>0.5
>0.5
<18
<18
<18
35
20
12
0.5
0.5
0.5
>35
>20
>12
-
>0.5
>0.5
>0.5
>1.0
>1.0
>1.0
max, PPM
< 69 kV
ASTM-D1533 @60C Avg.
69 - 288 kV
Oil Temp.
> 345 kV
< 69 kV
Power Factor ASTM-D921
max, %
69 - 288 kV
> 345 kV
Moisture
Content
Source: IEEE C57.106-2006

31
Why is Moisture Content So Difficult to Measure?

Current measurement practices assume a state of equilibrium.
Does Equilibrium
Ever Occur?
Varying Temperatures:
Top oil temp
Bottom oil temp
Winding temp
32
Does Equilibrium Ever Occur? (cont.)
Source : Transformer Moisture Content/Cold Weather Dew Point Measurement,

Doble Client Conference 2009; Rich Simonelli, SPX / Phil Prout, NGRID / Lance
Lewand, Doble / Brian Anderson, CSU
33
Does Equilibrium Ever Occur?

Factors Directly Affecting Equilibrium
Equilibrium, by definition, is a state of balance between opposing forces or
actions that is either static (as in a body acted on by forces whose resultant is
zero) or dynamic (as in a reversible chemical reaction when the rates of reaction
in both directions are equal).
Where continuously varying conditions exist (internal and external), the
equilibrium curves cannot be applied directly.
In a Transformer:
Temperature stratification/unstable thermal environment
Non-uniform moisture distribution in the insulation
Only an average surface moisture content measurement
achievable with any method (best case scenario)
Varying thicknesses of insulation structures directly affecting
the rates of diffusion and adsorption
34
Does Equilibrium Ever Occur? (cont.)

Factors Directly Affecting Equilibrium in a Transformer (cont.)
Under Ideal Conditions:
Vapor Diffusion is already impeded because water
molecules are physically deterred from moving rapidly by
the labyrinth of micro capillaries
De-sorption of water molecules from the surface of active
sites on the cellulose surface occurs more slowly
because energy is required to break the bond
The film of oil coating the surfaces of the insulation adds
another diffusion process
35
What Can Be Done About Water in

Transformers?

36
What Should You Do About the Moisture?

Select the most suitable measurement method that
allows you to minimize error-producing variables,
continue using the same method over a long period of
time and monitor changes
Support industry-wide R&D initiatives to develop ways

to measure moisture content of working transformers
accurately and reliably
37
What Can Be Done to Limit Water Ingress?

For a new unit:
Specify maximum
allowable moisture
content at delivery
and determination
method
Specify proper oil
preservation system
Specify raised
flange for
all openings
Specify gasket material and suitable seal design
Consider specifying optional accessories that help maintain integrity
of the unit
38
What Can Be Done to Limit Water Ingress? (cont.)

For an existing unit:
Maintain the integrity of the unit keep it sealed
Standardize on methods to monitor moisture content monitor,
observe, record
Implement loading policy to minimize
the aging process
Consider adding accessories that
help maintain integrity of the unit
Corrective Actions:
If it tests wet for your application,
dry it out
Off-line field drying: Fast, but costly
On-line field drying: Slow, but economical
Natural ester retrofill
39
Transformer Drying Theory

Vapor Pressure
At atmospheric
pressure, you must
heat water in a
transformer to higher
than 212F (100C)
for water to boil off
When lowering the
pressure by pulling
vacuum, we can boil
water off without
heating (as long as
the temperature is
above freezing)
40
Transformer Drying Theory (cont.)

Why Add Heat?
Heat required for a phase change
comes from the surrounding
oil and transformer parts
As heat moves from the
insulation into the water, the
temperature of the insulation
and transformer drops
Therefore, replacement heat is
added by continuously reheating
the oil and pumping it into the
transformer
If the heat is not replaced,
freezing can eventually occur
VIDEO
41
Off-Line Field Dry Out Methods

Multiple methods exist for field drying a transformer if the
moisture content is found to be above acceptable limits:
Vacuum
Vacuum with hot air
Short circuit and vacuum

High vacuum with hot oil
42
Off-Line Field Dry Out Methods (cont.)
Vacuum
Good method for
removing small amounts
of residual moisture
Transformer is subjected
to high vacuum and held
for a period of time
Efficiency of method is
increased at higher temperatures
Cold traps can be used in vacuum line to measure
moisture extraction
43
Off-Line Field Dry Out Methods (cont.)

High vacuum and hot oil
Evacuate tank
Introduce oil to heat core/coil
assembly
If capable, limit oil volume to
10% of total or enough to
establish oil circulation
Otherwise, cover core/coil
assembly
Circulate oil under vacuum until

outlet oil temperature reaches
desired temperature
Drain oil from transformer
Continue to pull vacuum and monitor moisture through cold trap,
if desired
44
On-Line Field Dry Out Methods

Dry out process is slow
due to the diffusion rate of
water from cellulose to oil
Moisture content of oil
will decrease quickly
Higher operating
temperatures make
process more effective
Safety concerns should
be considered
45
Natural Ester Fluid Retrofill
Hydrolysis converts
moisture and natural
ester fluid into long
chain free fatty acids
Water Absorption of Dielectric Fluids

Exposed to Ambient Air (1 of 2)
600
Absolute Water Content (ppm)
Natural ester fluid holds

more water in solution,
enhancing moisture
migration into the fluid
500
400
300
Envirotemp FR3 fluid
conventional transformer oil
200
100
Trans-esterification
combines some of these
Exposure Time (hrs)
fatty acids with the OH group
in cellulose, strengthening the cellulose chain and making it
less likely to break
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
Source: Cooper Power Systems (prior to FR3 product line purchase by Cargill)
46
Natural Ester Fluid Retrofill (cont.)
Water Saturation
Dielectric Strength
5000
80
D1816 Dielectric Breakdown Strength (kV)
273 T
Water Saturation Point (mg/kg)
Saturation(T ) 10
4000
3000
Envirotemp FR3 fluid: A = 5.3318, B = 684

from Doble Engineering
mineral oil: A = 7.0895, B = 1567
from IEEE C57.106
2000
1000
70
FR3 Fluid
Mineral Oil
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
100
Temperature (oC)
200
300
400
500
600
700
Water Content (mg/kg)
47

Aged Paper at 3% Water Content
o
(aged at 85 C)
800
Paper in FR3 Fluid
Water in FR3 Fluid
Water in Mineral Oil
Paper in Mineral Oil
% Water in Paper
600
3
400
2
200
1
Dissolved Water in Fluid (ppm)
0
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Aging Time at 85oC (hrs)

Source: Steve Moore, Transformer Insulation Dry Out By Retrofilling With Natural Ester
Dielectric Coolant, IEEE 2012
48

7
Envirotemp FR3 fluid - water content
6
Envirotemp FR3 fluid - acid number

water in paper
400
4
200
2
Water in Paper (wt%)
Acid Number (mg KOH/g)
Water in Fluid (mg/kg)
600
6
0
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
0
3000
Time at 85oC (hr)
Source: Steve Moore, Transformer Insulation Dry Out By Retrofilling With Natural Ester
Dielectric Coolant, IEEE 2012
49

Life Extension Potential with Natural Ester Fluids
Natural Ester
Mineral Oil
Sealed Tube Test - ML 152-2000

Upgraded Paper 500 hr @ 170C
Natural Ester
Mineral Oil

Natural Ester
Mineral Oil

Natural Ester
Mineral Oil

50
Questions?

51

Water in Transformers

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Water in Transformers

TVPPA E&O CONFERENCE AUGUST 79, 2013

SPX TRANSFORMER SOLUTIONS, INC.

Rich joined SPX in January 2005, bringing with him

Water in Transformers August 2013

TRANSFORMERS | SERVICE | TRAINING | COMPONENTS

Water in Transformers August 2013

SPX Transformer Solutions, Inc.

Effects of Water in Transformers

Water in Transformers August 2013

Water in Transformers is Bad

Influence of the temperature over water absorption of 3 mm

TRANSFORMERS | SERVICE | TRAINING | COMPONENTS

SPX Transformer Solutions, Inc.

Water in Transformers is Bad (cont.)

Source: ABB IL 48-500-11, 2002

Water in Transformers August 2013

SPX Transformer Solutions, Inc.

Water in Transformers is Bad (cont.)

Source: Tom Prevost, EHV Weidmann, 2006

Water in Transformers August 2013

SPX Transformer Solutions, Inc.

Water in Transformers is Bad (cont.)

Source: Tom Prevost, EHV Weidmann, 2006

Water in Transformers August 2013

SPX Transformer Solutions, Inc.

Water in Transformers is Bad (cont.)

Kobayashi rapid heating

Source: TV Oommen, EPRI Reports:

Comparison of critical bubble temperature vs.

TRANSFORMERS | SERVICE | TRAINING | COMPONENTS

Water in Transformers August 2013

SPX Transformer Solutions, Inc.

TRANSFORMERS | SERVICE | TRAINING | COMPONENTS

Water in Transformers August 2013

SPX Transformer Solutions, Inc.

Water in Transformers is Bad (cont.)

Aging Acceleration Factor

Moisture accelerates thermal aging of paper insulation.

Moisture in Paper (%)

IEEE Std C57.91-1995

Source: Sam Mehta, Tom Golner, SPX Transformer

TRANSFORMERS | SERVICE | TRAINING | COMPONENTS

Water in Transformers August 2013

SPX Transformer Solutions, Inc.

Water in Transformers is Bad (cont.)

TRANSFORMERS | SERVICE | TRAINING | COMPONENTS

Water in Transformers August 2013

SPX Transformer Solutions, Inc.

How Does Water Get In?

Water in Transformers August 2013

Many Ways for Water to Enter Transformers

TRANSFORMERS | SERVICE | TRAINING | COMPONENTS

Water in Transformers August 2013

SPX Transformer Solutions, Inc.

Water is Also Produced as a By-Product

TRANSFORMERS | SERVICE | TRAINING | COMPONENTS

Water in Transformers August 2013

SPX Transformer Solutions, Inc.

Once Inside, Where Does It Go?

Insulation Weight Distribution

Source: J. Aubin, 2005 Weidmann-ACTI Conference, San Antonio, TX

Water in Transformers August 2013

SPX Transformer Solutions, Inc.