Harnessing Untapped Hydropower 79

Harnessing Untapped Hydropower
79
X2
This chapter has its foundation in papers given at the IEEE PES Summer Meeting,
Vancouver, British Columbia in 2001. Since that conference, the world has embraced more
strongly a new awareness of the challenge of global warming. In reviewing the
opportunities to address the problem of climate change, hydroelectric power generation
may be seen in a more positive light compared to other alternative power generation
technologies, not withstanding the responsible attention that the hydro industry must
continue pay to the environmental and social consequences of the construction and
operation of a major hydroelectric project.
In the light of the ongoing review of economic development and the dominant role that
electricity generation takes in such progress, this chapter seeks to review the opportunities
for hydropower development in selected countries/locations worldwide. The authors are
well aware that no single volume or chapter can fully catalogue the potential, but this is an
attempt to record some of the aspects of the technology that influence the opportunities for
development and some examples from the more promising markets.
There are a number of unique benefits from hydropower, rarely found in other sources of
energy. Debates continue on the emissions from reservoirs, but on balance, few would now
argue that the environmental benefits of hydropower are less than fossil-fuel power
generation. The calculated savings of Greenhouse Gases (GHG) in 1997 by the operation of
hydropower were equivalent to all the automobiles on the planet (in terms of avoided fossil
fuel generation).
Development of all the remaining hydroelectric potential could not hope to satisfy total
future world demand for electricity, but implementation of even half of this potential could
have enormous environmental benefits in terms of avoided generation of GHG by fossil
fuels.
With the mature technologies available to mankind, a combination of Nuclear power,
hydropower and pumped storage could be the basis for addressing the issues of global
warming.
2.1 General
Carefully planned hydropower development can make a vast contribution to improving
living stands in the developing world (Asia, Africa, Latin America), where the greatest
potential still exists. Approximately 2 billion people in rural areas of developing countries
are still without an electricity supply.
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Electricity Infrastructures in the Global Marketplace
In the context of this chapter, large hydro is defined as a plant capacity between 10
megawatts (MW) and 18,000 MW, while small hydro is defined as a plant capacity between
1 and 10 MW. While focusing on large hydro, it is acknowledged that, in the recent past,
much emphasis has been put on the environmental integration of small hydro plants into
river systems in order to minimize environmental impacts, incorporating new technology
and operating methods.
As the most mature and important of the clean, renewable energy options, hydropower is
often one of a number of benefits of a multipurpose water resources development project.
As hydro schemes are generally integrated within multipurpose development schemes, they
can often help to subsidize other vital functions of a project. Typically, a dam and its
associated reservoir results in a number of secondary benefits associated with human wellbeing, such as secure water supply, irrigation for food production and flood control, and
societal benefits such as increased recreational opportunities, improved navigation, the
development of fisheries, cottage industries, etc. This is not the case for any other source of
energy.
As indicated, existing hydropower represents a significant potential contributor to world energy
resources. In 2007 renewables (excluding large hydro) accounted for 3.4% of world energy
generation, while large hydro accounted for 15% [1]. This reference indicates that this was
down from 19 percent a decade ago. Large hydro grew during the five-year period
20022006 at a global average of 3 percent per year (less than 1 percent in developed
countries). China has seen the highest growth, at over 8 percent per year during the period.
At the commencement of the period reviewed (2002) 44% of the worlds hydropower was
generated in four countries. The largest generators were Canada with 315 GWh and China
with 309 GWh, followed closely by Brazil with 282 GWh[2] and the United States with 255
GWh. By continents, Asia accounted for 24% of the worlds hydro generation, with 618
GWh, followed by North America with 23% or 595 GWh and Europe with 20% or 537 GWh.
At the end of the period studied;
The top five hydropower producers [in 2006] were China (14 percent of world production),
Canada and Brazil (12 percent each), the United States (10 percent), and Russia (6 percent).
Chinas hydro growth has kept pace with its rapidly growing power sector, with about 6
Gigawatt (GW) of large hydro and 6 GW of small hydro added in 2006. Many other
developing countries continue to actively develop hydro.
Asia is constructing more and more hydropower capacity as its economies mushroom and
although Canadian hydro generation is also growing, China has already overtaken Canada,
to become the largest hydro generator in the world [3]. Russia lies in fifth place with 180
GWh and Norway is sixth with 125 GWh. Norway is regarded by many as having the best
managed hydro system in the world, which accounts for 99.3% of the total power generated
in that country.
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An additional US $1520 billion continues to be invested annually in large hydropower. 12

to 14 GW was added in 2006 for a world total of 770 GW added in 2006.
The contribution of hydro reflected by the above numbers are however difficult to monitor
because of the lack of a central register.
Notwithstanding the reliance on hydropower by the northern European countries, overall,
on a regional basis, hydroelectricity contributes the highest proportion to total electricity
supply in Central and South America where it accounts for 68% of electricity produced.
Hydropower provided at the beginning of the new Millennium 20% (2600 TWh/year) of the
electricity world consumption (12900 TWh/year). It plays a major role in many countries. Of
175 countries, which have available data, more than 150 have hydropower resources. For 65
of them, hydro produces more than 50% of electricity; for 24, more than 90% and for 10,
practically the total.
According to the Hydropower & Dams Atlas
follow:
Gross hydro potential:

Technically feasible:
Economically feasible:
[4],
untapped world hydro potential is as
40,500 TWh/year
14,300 TWh/year
8,100 TWh/year
The remaining exploitable capacity represents 1500 GW (producing 5500 TWh/year). It is

estimated that by the middle of this century, the consumption of electricity in the world will
be multiplied by a factor of 2.5 to 3.0. For the power generation sector, large hydropower
remains an available energy technology and will contribute largely to this development,
although environmental constraints, resettlement impacts, and the availability of sites have
limited further growth in many countries. Particularly attractive hydropower sites i.e. high
capacity factor sites are often used to directly supply high demand heavy industries such as
smelters.
It is possible to harmonize the implementation of hydro plants with conservation of the
environment and to ensure that the plants represent a net benefit to those affected by their
construction.
The main advantages of hydroelectricity can be summarized briefly as follows:
It is a reliable and mature technology, proven by one century of construction and

operation.
It is easily accessible, particularly for developing countries.
It plays a major role in reducing greenhouse gas emissions in terms of avoided
generation by fossil fuels.
The fact that unit speeds are slow, and other design factors, contribute to a very
low operation and maintenance costs.
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It is competitive and the kWh cost (once completed) does not depend on variations
in combustible costs and on international economic politics.
It is an important factor in supporting energy and economic independence for a
country, because of the effective zero fuel costs and absence of reliability on foreign
fuel sources.
Finally, hydropower stations are very often integrated within multipurpose schemes, which
satisfy other fundamental human needs (irrigation, domestic and industrial water supply,
flood protection) and hydropower can help finance these other functions.
A drawbacks of large hydro development is the generally longer construction lead time,
higher construction cost compared to combustion turbines and some other fossil fuel plants,
although in some countries coal and oil plants (and of course nuclear plants) also have long
lead times. The long lead times with the correspondingly long payback is a severe
constraint to utilization of non-government funding.
The impact of higher construction cost is more than offset by zero fuel cost and hence, hydro
power plants generally yield higher operating margins. Overall returns should better match
those of thermal plants.
2.2 System Benefits
The overriding challenge of global warming will likely factor heavily into system planning
throughout the developed and developing world, and indications are that hydro power will
have a strong part to play in the various system portfolios.
Almost all power generation technologies already developed, and those under development
suffer from one or both of the following constraints that do not affect hydropower lack of
flexible response without significant effects on efficiency, or lack of sustainability because of
the energy source. The efficiency penalties associated with ramping up output apply to the
(generally) polluting technologies that need to be maintained at the highest efficiencies to
lower their carbon imprint (such as coal fired generation) while the relative unpredictability
of wind power and solar power and the intermittent (while predictable) nature of tidal
power three of the promising new technologies necessitates some form of energy
storage.
For all the above technologies, as well as nuclear generation which may turn out to be the
only way to maintain the required level of energy generation to maintain current standards
of living in the developed world and to increase standards to an acceptable level in the
developing world the benefits of the flexibility of hydropower and the storage potential
are, at present irreplaceable.
The degree to which hydropower contributes to the system stability and response will depend
on the economic growth and the change in standard of living - in each country. As countries
develop, three drivers (among many) affect their requirements for system flexibility; the mix of
heavy industry that the economy embraces; the speed at which constant (residential) heavy
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power users such as refrigerators and air conditioning are installed; and the adoption at
different times of technology with intermittent heavy power demands such as recharging of
battery operated cars. The relative lack of flexibility of some of the other power sources
ensures that hydropower stations, either river based or off-stream pumped storage seems
certain to continue to be vital in system operation. The only counter trend to this driver would
seem to be the interconnection of systems either through land connections or undersea
HVDC transmission, which also must continue and accelerate.
Hydropower provides vital benefits to an electrical system. When water is stored in large
quantities in the reservoir behind a dam, or has been pumped up to the upper reservoir of a
pumped storage scheme, it is immediately available for use when required. Pumped
storage technology has been developed sufficiently to minimize the losses in storage, which
principally arise because of the hydraulic losses in the conduit system. The difference
between the value of the energy during the pumping cycle and the value during the
generating cycle are usually large enough to overcome the efficiency penalties, making the
technology ideal for smoothing the output of a large base load plant such as a nuclear
station. Thus the benefits of hydro extend beyond simple generation.
The first and most obvious benefit is the flexibility of a large hydro power station to provide
large amounts of power within a minute or so of demand (sometimes seconds depending on
how the plant is configured and operated). This flexibility and the flexibility of ramping,
allow the hydro plant to respond to the demand curve, and to efficiently lop the peaks of
demand allowing other fossil plants to operate at their constant efficient output. Pumped
storage can of course act on the obverse of this problem by converting excess power from
the fossil plants to stored energy.
The second benefit is truly a family of benefits, known as secondary benefits. These
secondary benefits include:
Spinning reserve - the hydropower plant can operate at a zero load (and of course
zero fuel consumption) while synchronized to the electric system. When loads
increase, additional power can be loaded rapidly into the system to meet demand.
Non-spinning reserve - Hydropower has a quick start time measured in seconds
or minutes, compared with as much as 30 minutes for other turbines and hours for
steam generation.
Voltage support Hydro is very useful in providing reactive power, thereby
assuring that power will flow from generation to load.
Regulation and frequency response - the ability to support the system during
moment-to-moment fluctuations in system power requirements is met by a
hydropower' plants fast response characteristic making the technology especially
desired to provide regulation and frequency response in a system with sensitive
equipments.
Black start capability most hydro power plants have the ability to start generation
without an outside source of power enabling the system to be brought up during
catastrophes and providing auxiliary power to more complex generation sources
that could take hours or even days to start.
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2.3 Situation at Present
Fig. 2.1 Earth at Night

In reviewing the world energy demand, it is useful to examine Figure 2.1 showing the world
from space at night. It can immediately be seen that almost the whole of Africa, most of the
South American continent and large parts of China are without lights. This immediately
underscores the main long-term markets for the utilizing of untapped hydro.
Hydropower is not the largest available renewable primary source. This mantle is held by
biomass, but hydropower is the largest renewable source of electricity generation.
Hydropower accounts for 6% of primary energy supply and 17% of electricity generation.
Although there are hydroelectric projects under construction in many countries, most of the
remaining hydro potential may be found in the developing countries particularly in South
and Central Asia, Latin America, and Africa. Other countries with significant remaining
hydropower potential are Canada, Turkey and Russia.
Hydropower constitutes about 20% of the world's electricity generating capacity. The
theoretical potential of worldwide hydropower is 2,800 GW, about four times greater than
that which has been exploited.
However, the actual amount of electricity that will ever be generated by hydropower will be
much lower than the theoretical potential, because of the environmental concerns and
economic constraints.
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A study by the Utility Data Institute, USA, predicts that a world total of 695 GW of new
electricity capacity will come on line in the next ten years from all sources, 22 per cent of
which will be hydro, 26 per cent gas, and 27 per cent coal, with the remainder coming from
a variety of sources.
The worlds total technical feasible hydro potential is estimated at about 14 300 TWh/year,
of which about 8080 TWh/year is currently considered economically feasible for
development. About 723 GW (or about 2600 TWh/year) is already in operation, with a
further 108 GW under construction (Table 2.1) [4].
Area
Technically feasible
In operation & under

construction
Asia
4,225,479
699,636
China
1,923,304
198,700
Lao
210,000
3,037
Myanmar
160,000
1,450
Japan
129,840
91,654
83,000
CIS & Russia
2,105,600
323,760
North America
1,007,713
601,791
South & Central America
3,933,770
550,658
Peru
1,091,540
12,615
Europe
1,158,029
486,819
Africa
1,590,828
64,043
206,366
42,637
14,227,785
2,769,344
Cambodia
Oceania
World total
Table 2.1 Hydropower Potential (GWh/year)[5]
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The majority of the remaining hydro potential is found in developing countries in the
regions mentioned, South and Central Asia, Latin America and Africa. In most of the
European countries the economically feasible hydropower potential has mostly been
harnessed.
A number of countries, such as China India, Iran and Turkey, are currently undertaking
large-scale hydro development programs, and there are projects under construction in about
80 countries. According to the recent world surveys, a number of countries see hydropower
as the key to their future economic development. Examples include Sudan, Rwanda, Mali,
Benin, Ghana, Liberia, Guinea, Myanmar, Bhutan, Cambodia, Armenia, Kyrgyzstan, Cuba,
Costa Rica, and Guyana.
In North America, hydropower is the most widely used form of renewable energy. The
installed hydropower capacity amounts to 175 GW (67 GW in Canada, 99 GW in the US, and
10 GW in Mexico).
Hydropower accounts for 57% of the electricity generated in Canada, 7% in the US (the US
uses hydropower for peaking not base load) and 12% in Mexico. Canadas economical
hydropower potential is second only to that of Brazil in the Western Hemisphere and still
has several projects under either construction or planning, amounting to 6.6 GW.
Latin America has a very large hydropower potential. Many countries rely heavily on
hydropower for their electricity supply. For instance, hydropower makes up 80% of Brazils
electricity generation.
Brazil has plentiful hydropower resources. Its installed hydropower capacity is already 64
GW. The capacity under construction or planning is more than 25 GW. One of the
hydropower plants under construction is the giant 11.18 GW Belo Monte power plant.
Capacity under construction or planning in other South American countries, particularly
Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Guyana, Peru, and Venezuela, amounts to 9.7 GW
together with 4.4 GW of hydropower capacity under construction or planning in Central
American countries.
China has the largest hydropower resources in the world, with a host of rivers. Its installed
hydropower capacity rested at 83 GW at the end of 2002. A large number of hydropower
plants are under construction or planning, amounting to 77.7 GW. The giant 18.2 GW Three
Gorges Dam with a dam height of 181 m on the Yangtze River (the countrys longest river) is
the worlds largest hydropower project so far.
Russia holds fifth place with 180 GWh and Norway in sixth with 125 GWh. Norway is
regarded by many as having the best managed hydro system in the world, which accounts
for 99.3% of the total power generated in that country.
2.4 Prior Development Methods
The approach for development of hydropower generation worldwide has progressed
through three significant phases since the beginning of the 19th century. These phases have
been observed in all regions of the world and correlate directly with the historical
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developmental phases (colonial, independent and multilateral etc), the type of projects
selected for development, and the resources available for implementation.
In general, the phases can be described as follows:
Phase I can be thought of as the birth of modern power systems and comprises the
time from the first development of the electric generation industry through to the
major expansions required after the Second World War. This period was
characterized by project development by largely private sector utilities, colonial
development in discrete parts of territories and industrial companies seeking to
meet immediate demands. Development was often managed or controlled by
engineers due to the unique nature of the projects and the state of knowledge in the
industry. Financing was limited and projects were developed as needed, often for
specific industrial projects in the developing world or for the limited demand from
colonial outposts. The configuration and capacity of the projects considered was
driven by economic and technical factors usually leading to modest scale projects
that could be financed from the resources of the relatively small utilities in existence
at that time. The developed world was creating interconnecting grids during this
process but typically in the developing world, the grids remained isolated because
of the limited colonial development objectives.
Phase II was ushered in by the rapid economic growth and industrialization
following the Second World War as well as decolonization and independence.
Energy use expanded significantly in this period as development accelerated in the
already industrialized societies and spread internationally. The rate of growth
envisaged and promoted by economic planners exceeded the capability of the
nascent private utilities to finance the required generation expansion. Accordingly,
many governments in the developed world started to take a direct role in the power
sector through the formation and/or expansion of publicly owned utilities.
Regulation of the power sector accompanied this transition as governments sought
to control the price of retail energy. In the developing world, the major financing
needs in this period were supported by the multilateral financing agencies such as
the World Bank. During the 1960s and 1970s utilities embarked on a program of
building much larger projects supported by government financing resources, in an
effort to keep pace with development and in many cases to foster development in
emerging economies. Many projects were configured to be very large. They were
often multi purpose designed to meet several needs including water supply, flood
control and irrigation as well as power generation, and were intended to be national
development engines as well as for the simple purpose of generation.
Unfortunately, many of the difficulties that have been assessed by the World
Commission on Dams in the selected review projects relate to these mega projects.
In the most recent Phase III that has evolved in the last ten to fifteen years, the
world has in many ways returned to the development model used during the
emerging years of the power industry. This can be characterized the world over by
the privatization of power generation and distribution systems and the
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implementation of private projects driven by investors as well as a retreat by

multinationals from direct funding of large hydropower. One of the most important
elements driving this transition is the realization that foreign direct investment
under appropriate conditions can be an important source of financing the large
capital requirements of power sector expansion. In many ways, this reflects on the
success of the efforts described here as Phase II. Multi-lateral financing has
ensured that many nations have matured politically and commercially so that largescale foreign private investment has becoming more viable. This current phase has
several variants and the extent to which each country has moved down the road of
market driven investment governs investment strategy adopted by private power
developers. Today energy sales from independent power projects use various
vehicles ranging from direct power purchase agreements with a utility at the outset
of privatization to a sophisticated power pool or merchant market in the more
developed markets. Though investment in power generation and in distribution has
been significantly influenced by privatization, the creation of large-scale
transmission interconnection has not attracted the market funds necessary for
realization.
It is also conceivable that the private capital market may not be able to supply
capital at the rate needed to address the issues of global warming.
The three phases of development orientation and philosophy presented above and reflected in
the activity in the regions is of course a generalization and, perhaps, an oversimplification of
the complex circumstances of national and international economic development. However,
there is no question that during this period there has been a relatively linear chronological
progress. This movement from initial limited and focused utility investment through focus
on major economy-stimulating projects and, currently, back to a more market-driven
investment profile is evident throughout most of the developing nations in the world and
most certainly in Asia. An indication of the extent of dam building (which approximates to
hydropower development) during these phases can be gained from Figure 2.2.
8000
PHASE I
7000
Asia
PHASE II
North America
6000
Europe
5000
PHASE III
4000
3000
Africa
2000
South America
1000
0
1900
Australasia
1910
1920
1930
1940
1950
1960
1970
(Source: ICOLD, 1998. Excludes the time-trend of dams in China)
1980
Fig. 2.2. Extent of Dam Building Worldwide (1900~2000)[6]
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The urgent challenges of global climate change, and the general acceptance that energy
generation must relay less on fossil fuels in the future, together with the realization that
economic development is a forceful factor in the stabilization of the political world now
necessitates a reconsideration of hydro development and consideration of the benefits of the
sort of larger projects that cannot be funded by private financing, including large scale
transmission interconnection.
2.5 Review of Selected Regional Prospects
Hydro is a mature technology, and has been developed all around the world. Resources are
being developed at a rate of approximately 2.5% per annum, and the USA has achieved the
greatest development of its resources with a total installed hydro capacity of 73,500 MW.
The World Energy Council estimated that in 1990 world energy demand was approximately
12,000 TWh, and postulates that in 2020 it will be nearly double at 23,000 TWh.
In 1990, hydro contributed 2,240 TWh of energy, representing 18.5% of the total, and if 50%
of the total economically feasible resources were developed, in 2020, hydro would
contribute approximately 28% of energy generation worldwide.
Table 2.2 indicates world hydro potential (in TWh) of each region:
Europe
Asia
Africa
America
Oceania
Total
Gross
5,584
13,399
3,634
11,022
592
34,231
Economic
2,070
3,830
2,500
4,500
200
13,100
Feasible
1,655
3,065
2,000
3,600
160
10,480
Table 2.2. World Hydro Potential by Region

Hydropower development in the regions reflects, as expected, economic development
achieved by each region. The total hydro developed as of 1997 as a proportion of the
economic hydro potential is shown in Table 2.3.
Africa
South
and
America
Asia
Oceania
North America
Europe
Central
Table 2.3. Proportion of Hydro Developed, by Region
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6%
18 %
18 %
22 %
55 %
65 %
90
There are commercially available sector reports noting in detail the various projects that
have been identified region-by-region and nation-by-nation. These commercial reports are
recommended for those developers seeking the viable opportunities particularly in the
prospective markets in Africa, Asia and Central and South America. It is not the scope of
this chapter to repeat the sector reports but merely to address some of the interesting aspects
of development in particular regions.
The following sections provide an overview of recent and upcoming possibilities in a few
markets.
2.6 Canada
About half of the Canadian provinces are responsible for the majority of hydroelectric
energy production in Canada, with Quebec being a market leader. 60% of the countries
electricity is supplied by hydropower and the total installed capacity is approximately
72,000 MW. The largest producers are provincially-owned electric utilities such as:
Hydro-Quebec
BC Hydro
Manitoba Hydro
Ontario Power Generation
Newfoundland and Labrador Hydro.
These utilities have already developed a series of large-scale hydro sites across the country.
One of the most significant hydroelectric developments in the world is La Grande complex
on the Quebec side of James Bay. It has a capacity of over 15,000 MW. Some of the other
large-scale hydro sites in Canada include:
Churchill Falls station in Labrador

Manicouagan-Outardes complex on the Quebec North Shore
Sir Adam Beck station on the Niagara River in Ontario
Nelson River development in Manitoba
Gordon Shrum station in Northern British Columbia
Columbia River complex in the southern part of British Columbia.
Electric utilities are the main generators of hydroelectric energy, however there are other
electrical producers of hydroelectric energy. Several industrial companies own and operate
hydroelectric facilities for their own use.
Canadas remaining (economic and environmentally acceptable) potential is spread
throughout the country but is predominantly in the provinces of Alberta (12,000 MW), and
Quebec and the Maritimes (25,000 MW). The others have approximate potential for about 4
to 5000 MW each.
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Major projects are under construction in Quebec:
and Ontario:
Eastmain 1
- 480 MW
Chte-Allard/RDC - 138 MW
Pribonka
- 385 MW
Niagara Tunnel - C$ 600 M
Near term projects in Qubec & Manitoba include:
Eastmain 1A Wuskwatim
888 MW
200 MW
Planned Projects include:
Qubec
Manitoba
La Romaine - 1550 MW
Keeyask
620 MW
Conawapa 1250 MW
Newfoundland & Labrador
Lower Churchill (Gull Island) - 2000 MW

Lower Churchill (Muskrat Falls) 824 MW.
For the purposes of this chapter, we examine three projects in planning by Manitoba Hydro.
Potential projects considered include three smaller or mid range hydro plants at Gull Rapids
on the Nelson River, Notigi on the Rat River and Wuskwatim on the Burntwood River.
The three hydro options considered are all low impact projects with potential of 600 MW at
Gull and 1300 MW at Conawapa (and possibly 1900 MW more) on Nelson River. Notigi
potential is 100 MW and 200 MW at Wuskwatim. There is possibly 650 MW more on
Burntwood River. Other potential from partially developable hydro sites in the province
amounts to about 4000 MW.
Wuskwatim and Gull can be constructed to minimize their environmental impacts. Flooding
would be less than 1-km square at Wuskwatim, Gull would be in the order of 48-km square, and
Notigi Plant would have no additional flooding as the water control structure already exits.
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Methyl mercury production due to flooding would be minimal and Green House Gas
(GHG) emissions would essentially be zero.
Construction cost including the transmission cost would be in the order of $ 500 million for
Notigi, $1,000 million for Wuskwatim, and $3,000 million for Gull. By comparison
additional combustion turbines with a generation capability of 140-280 MW would cost
about $100 -$200 million. The larger hydroelectric plant at Conawapa would cost about
$5,000 million including transmission to the load centers in the south.
Historic variability of water supply in the Nelson and Churchill Rivers Drainage basin over
the last 80 to 100 years shows a range of percent average flow from a low of 55% to a high of
160%. Manitoba Hydros long term planning criteria must consider the lowest historical
level for power resource planning, but plant structures including the spillways must be
designed for maximum flood conditions.
Figure 2.3 shows the Manitoba Hydro hydraulic system with respect to the elevation levels
along with the existing plant locations indicated. Figure 2.4 shows an illustrative view of
Burntwood and Nelson Rivers areas in reference to potential new generation.
Transmission is a major consideration. Drivers for Manitoba Hydro include strong growth
in its export sales, while provincial requirements are growing steadily. Export revenues
grew almost 50 percent in the four years from 1996 to 2000 from $250 million to $376 million.
Regulatory changes in the U.S. market, coupled with a burgeoning economy and a lack of
new generation and transmission in the U.S. have meant steadily increasing prices for
wholesale electricity exported to the U.S. from Canada.
Manitoba Hydro was been able to benefit from these changes, and now has the ability to market
to approximately 35 export customers, compared to seven export customers in 1996. With
domestic electricity consumption in Manitoba growing slowly but steadily, this means that over
time the utility will have less and less available energy to sell on the export market. If it wants to
maintain its current level of export sales, it will have to build new sources of generation.
Strong export sales have been a key reason that electricity rates in Manitoba have not risen as
strongly as they might (for industrial customers, the rates remained stable for nearly ten years).
Manitoba Hydro has the capability of a number of east - west interconnection schemes
which have been studied in the past such as the Manitoba Ontario connection that
included new generation in northern Manitoba with a north south HVDC line. This project
had an estimated cost of $2 B.
Another east - west scheme that is viable is a 500 kV HVDC multi terminal concept that
covered Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta Provinces, also known as western grid.
There has also been a number of north south interconnection studies in the past to the
States of Minnesota, North Dakota, Nebraska and Wisconsin. One current project which has
recently been completed is a 230 kV connection between western Manitoba and central
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North Dakota with a transmission line length of 200 km (and a cost of $55 million). This
project will re-establish Manitoba Hydros import capability to 500 MW; it will also increase
the import and export capabilities by 200 MW.
M anitoba H ydro S ystem
La
ke
Lak
e of
th e
W ood
s
ds
M A N ITO B A SA S KA TC H E W A N
BORDER
W in n ip e g R iv
er
ive
P o inte
is
in te du Bo
B ois
Sla ve F
a lls
Fa
Se ven Sis te
rs
ters
Sa
ve
Ri
Ce
C e da r
Lake
La ke
La
ke
Lak
e
W in n ip
eg
ipe
M cA
rthu r
cArthu
P ine
in e F a lls
ew
ch
at
sk
an
Ch
R
ll
hi
rc
er
iv
R ein
e in dee
deerr
La
ke
Lak
e
G ra n d R apids
a pids
La u rie R iv er I & II
Jen peg
N o tigi C o n tro l
So u th ern
e
e rn In d ian Lak
La ke
U
ppe
Up
perr N elso n R iv er
M issi Fa lls
C o n tro l
K elsey
O N TA R IO - M A N ITO B A B O R D E R
Lo w er N elso
e lso n R iv er
Ste
ph
Step
h ens
Lak e
C h u rch ill
R iv
err
ive
K ettle
Lo ng Spruce
Spru ce
Lim esto
e
es to n
ne
H u dso n
B ay
ay
Fig. 2.3. Manitoba Hydro System
Potential New Generation
Illustrative View of Burntwood / Nelson River Area

Southern Indian
Lake
Limestone GS
Long Spruce GS
Tataskweyak
First Nation
Burn wood
t
Nelson House
First Nation
Wuskwatim
Site
Split
Lake
Kettle GS
r
ve
Ri
Keeyask
(Gull) Site
City of
Thompson
Fox Lake
First Nation
War Lake
First Nation
Kelsey
GS
Ri v
er
Notigi
Control
Stephens
Lake
York Factory
First Nation
Up
per
Ne
ls o
n
Churchill
River
Missi
Outflow
Fig. 2.4. Potential New Generation- Burntwood/Nelson River Area
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2.7 South and South East Asia

South and South East Asia, encompasses the SE Asian Tigers - with strong development and
industrialization that will continue to ensure a strong power market together with the
Indian subcontinent and its peripheral countries, which are also poised to contribute to
Indias power. Notable potential exists (2005/2006 figures) as follows:
2.7.1 Bhutan
Development in Bhutan has resulted in an installed capacity of 445 MW, with a further 1,020
MW under construction. The capacity in planning which varies from report to report is
between 1660 MW and 7,805 MW. Notable projects in planning include Bunakha (180 MW)
& Wang Chu (900 MW), both in the Wang Chu River valley. A further potential project
Sankosh (of installed capacity 4,060 MW) has been identified.
2.7.2 India
Indias economy is developing fast - with the consequent necessity for generation and the
country is endowed with economically exploitable and viable hydro potential assessed to be
about 148,700 MW installed capacity. The major enterprise charged with developing it is
National Hydropower Corporation but the National Thermal Power Corporation is
developing Kol Dam and power plant and there are private power companies in the sector.
As of 2005, the installed capacity in India is 31,982 MW with an additional 13,245 MW under
construction. The largest projects under construction are Subansari lower (2,000 MW)
Parbati (800 MW), and Omkareshwar (520 MW). 8,860 MW are planned approximating to 17
schemes.
2.7.3 Laos
Laos is developing hydro in order to provide power to the Thai and perhaps Vietnam grids.
There are various private power companies developing sites and there are some substantial
projects in construction and in the later stage of development. In 2005 the installed capacity
was 673 MW with a further 2,011 MW under construction. Between 3,000 and 5,000 MW are
planned.
2.7.4 Malaysia
The installed capacity in 2005 was 2,078 MW. Most of the hydro potential of peninsular
Malaysia has been developed and the potential now remains in Sarawak and Sabah.
Although Ulu Terengganu is proceeding on the peninsular, the massive Bakun project
which has an installed capacity of 2,400 MW is the prime project under construction.
Bakun has been under development for many years, and at various times an HVDC cable to
peninsular Malaysia has been proposed. It appears that this cable may be implemented in
the near future, most notably because existing gas supplies supporting combustion turbines
are being depleted, rendering hydropower from Sarawak a desirable energy option. A new
Sarawak Corridor of Renewable Energy (SCORE) has been announced including Murum
(900 MW), Limbang (150 MW), Barang (1,000 MW), and Baleh (1,000 MW) all planned for
development in the near to medium future.
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2.7.5 Myanmar
The installed capacity in Myanmar is 745 MW, with an additional 1780 MW under
construction. The Myanmar Electric Power Enterprise has identified the potential for nearly
40,000 MW but capacity additions that are in planning, though unlikely to be realized in the
foreseeable future are limited to approximately 8,000 MW.
2.7.6 Nepal
Nepal has very limited installed capacity, some 560 MW in 2005, with 69 MW under
construction. However, as a result of the Himalayan topography, the hydro potential is
enormous some 43,000 MW is postulated. Although the 2007 World Energy Survey
records no planned hydro, a cursory examination of the project list from the Nepal
Electricity Authority indicates many projects, including West Seti, Arun, Kali Gandaki
Pansheswar and many other projects of 200 MW plus. The limited financial capacity of
Nepal is a brake on development.
2.7.7 Pakistan
Pakistan had in 2005 an installed capacity of some 6,499 MW, dominated by the installations
at Tarbela and Mangla. The potential economical installed capacity has been identified as
41,722 of which 734 MW is under construction and some 8,900 to 27,000 MW are in various
stages of planning. To date, large scale hydro has been dominated by the Indus basin treaty
signed between India and Pakistan in 1960, but projects such as Neelum Jhelum (969 MW)
which will commence design this year, Dasu (2,712 MW) Bunji (1,500 MW), Pattan (1,172),
Thakot (1,043 MW) and Kohala (740 MW) are included in the 8,900 MW planning figure.
Kalabagh dam was conceived in 1953 and remains feasible for 2,400 MW installed capacity increasing to 3,600 MW. However there remains significant social difficulty in implantation.
Another large project, Bashar could have an installed capacity of 3,600 MW,
2.7.8 Vietnam
The potential in Vietnam is put at 300,000 GWh/yr with an economically feasible potential
of about 80,000 GWh/yr. Total installed capacity in Vietnam is approximately 4,198 MW,
and some 20 plants totaling 7,768 MW are currently reported to be under construction. In
planning are another 4,600 MW.
2.8 Africa
As noted only 4 % of Africas technically feasible hydroelectric power has been developed.
This is symptomatic of the continents lack of economic growth. At present only 10% of
Africans have access to electricity with the lowest per capita consumption in the world
(450 kWh, compared to the world average of 2,326 kWh) - and there is an uneven
distribution of power supply.
The existing infrastructure is under strain. The bulk of the regions generating capacity and
transmission network was built in the 1950s and 1960s, and continued under investment in
maintenance and renewal has left, in many countries, a system creaking. Technical and nontechnical losses typically exceed 20%. Power outages, brown outs, and power surges are
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commonplace, whilst load shedding in times of drought are routine. A prolonged drought
in 1999/2000 led to severe power outages in Kenya and Ethiopia, for example, whilst silting
up of dams has led to a steady decline in capacity and concerns about dam failure. It is
estimated that some of Kenyas dams are up to 70% silted and Malawis, up to 80%.
Africas power sector is dominated by South Africa in Southern Africa, Egypt and Morocco
in North Africa, and Nigeria in West Africa. 82 % of Africas power comes from the northern
and southern regions alone, with three-quarters coming from five countries - Egypt, South
Africa, Libya, Morocco and Algeria. Current production in Africa is of the order of 76
TWh/yr, of which the leading producers are Egypt and Mozambique with 11 TWH/yr.
The gross theoretical potential is 4,000 TWh/yr, while the technically feasible potential is
1,750 TWh/yr. The economically feasible potential is 1,000 TWh/yr. Current installed
capacity is 20,300 MW and Hydro under construction is greater than 2,400 MW.
The region possesses some of the largest watercourses in the world (the Nile, the Congo, the
Niger, the Volta, the Zambezi), and whilst hydroelectricity is by far the single largest source
of electricity in a number of countries (see below), the resources remain largely untapped.
An example is that of Cameroon which has hydro potential of up to 115 TWh/yr and yet
installed hydro capacity currently stands at less than 800 MW.
The feasible hydroelectric potential in the Democratic Republic of Congo alone is reported
to be sufficient to provide three times as much power as Africa presently consumes.
Approximately 50 % of power in Africa is generated from coal-based facilities, although this
figure is projected to decrease to 36 % by 2020. Hydro is the significant contributor in many
countries and can be a major contributor to the future growth in generation. Current
contribution is seen in Figure 2.5.
Fig. 2.5. Contribution of Hydropower to net Electricity Generation 2002[7]
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There are significant barriers to development, among them the lack of transmission facilities,
the somewhat unpredictable weather patterns in parts of the Continent, and the low level of
development at present.
Power sharing, through transmission interconnection will provide a substantial boost to the
continents development. It is becoming more prevalent in recent years. Development in
regional economies, such as the formation of the Southern African Democratic Community
(SADC) and the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) has also
encouraged the export and import of power. South Africa, who has surplus power, is able
to operate more efficiently.
Regional sharing has occurred on an informal basis, and on a more formalized basis, such as
with the Southern African Power Pool (SAPP), where a number of countries have been
linked and purchase power at regulated prices. Countries linked through the SAPP network
are: South Africa, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Namibia, Botswana, the Democratic
Republic of Congo, Swaziland, Tanzania, Lesotho and Malawi. Kenya and Tanzania may
connect to the Zambian power grid, which would bring Kenya into the SAPP. Ongoing
connection is a goal of projects initiated and implemented by the New Partnership for
Africa's Development (NEPAD), an initiative that sees investment in Africa's infrastructure
as a high priority. All NEPAD power projects are aimed at boosting electrical power
generation, distribution and transmission in Africa.
South Africa, Ghana and Zambia are the biggest net exporters of power.
Further discussion on transmission can be found later.
The extremes of precipitation also constitute a problem for the development of hydroelectric
in parts of Africa. Droughts in East Africa in 1999-2000 had a serious impact on the
hydroelectric facilities in the region, with Kenya in particular suffering from severe power
shortages. Ghanas existing large hydroelectric facilities (Akosombo and Kpong) were also
adversely affected by droughts during the late 1990's. However, droughts tend to affect
regions, and countries, at different times to others. Improved transmission would allow
countries experiencing power shortages to import electricity from other regions recouping
the cost of these imports when hydroelectric power production attains its design level by
exporting.
The low level of economic development also presents a challenge to power developers a
chicken and egg situation. Africas electricity consumption is expected to grow at a rate of
4.4 % per year over the next 25 years, which is low compared to that experienced by the
South East Asian (Tiger) economies, but will nevertheless require capacity expansions of 270
GW by 2030. The expansion is of course dependent on the robustness of the regional
economies, which - in the case of sub Saharan Africa - have had recent growth rates in
excess of 4%. Renewed interests in the region's oil sector, with the United States and China
in particular vying to take significant portion of their oil from Africa, is expected to reinforce
this growth.
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The potential for hydro is mainly focused in central and eastern Africa. Potential for hydro
capacity growth is everywhere, but completely dominated by the Democratic Republic of
the Congo, Ethiopia, Madagascar, and the Cameroons as seen in Figure. 2.6.
Fig. 2.6. Estimated Potential for Hydropower in Selected African Countries (TWh/yr)
The overwhelming potential (of 774 TWh/yr) of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
deserves a special mention.
The enormous potential of the Congo River could play an important role in providing
power to Central and Southern Africa, as well as exporting electricity to North Africa and
possibly Southern Europe. The Congo River accounts for nearly 30% of Africa's surface
water reserves
The lions share of the available potential of the Congo River is at the series of rapids at
Inga. Development at Inga is preferred because the specific topography leads to relatively
benign environmental impacts, the ultimate capacity of 39,000 MW is attractive, and the
huge area of the drainage basin is a guard against overwhelming drought.
The Democratic Republic of Congo currently has 1,775 MW of capacity at its two Inga
hydroelectric facilities completed in 1972, and in 1982 respectively. Inga provides power to
the DRC, the Republic of Congo's (Congo) and Southern Africa - including Zambia,
Zimbabwe and South Africa.
The Energy Ministry, DRC estimates that the country earned $500,000 monthly in 2001 from
its energy exports.
Increasing the generating capability of the Inga facility is high on the priority list.
Completion of the upgrading of Inga 1 and 2, together with the construction of Inga 3 slated
to have a capacity of 3,500 MW would provide enough excess generating capacity for the
creation of a new regional electricity export scheme.
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At the heart of the Inga proposals however is the proposed Grand Inga scheme that would
be the largest generating facility in Africa. The construction of Three Gorges Dam, in China,
has reawakened hope that Grand Inga can be constructed. The project with a capacity of
39,000 MW, in 53 units, would be nearly as large as South Africa's existing generating
capacity, and provide the possibility for a pan-African electricity-exporting project.
The World Energy Council has articulated the goals as
The ultimate objective of Grand Inga is to bring affordable and clean energy to the African
continent to facilitate economic development to improve the standards of living. It offers a
unique opportunity to move the African continent closer to achieving its sustainable
development goals.'
There are other proposed regional hydro projects but the potential is focused on Grand Inga
2.8.1 Ethiopia
Ethiopia has a potential for approximately 161 TWh/yr and has embarked on a series of
projects to try to develop its enormous potential. The resources are second only to the
Congo in Africa.
Substantial hydro capacity is set to be developed. Hydro schemes already contribute 670
MW out of the 713 MW of capacity on the national grid but the government has finally
succeeded in attracting investment in new hydro projects. Currently the 435 MW Beles, 420
MW Gilgel Gibe II and 300 MW Tekeze hydro projects are all being developed by private
sector companies.
Ethiopia possesses a host of other potential large-scale hydro sites and so could become a
massive electricity provider to large swathes of Africa that are currently power poor. The
Ministry of water resources estimates the country has more than 30,000 MW of untapped
economically feasible hydroelectric potential. Two that have recently been funded for study
are the 896 MW Baro scheme and the 1,000-1,600 MW Karadobi project. The Chemoga Yeda
I and II (440 MW), Halele Werabesa I and II (374 MW) and Aleltu East (189 MW) are also
currently in the planning stage.
2.8.2 Uganda
Uganda already has two hydroelectric schemes on the stretch of Nile within the country
between Lake Victoria and the Sudanese border: the 180 MW Nalubaale project, previously
called Owen Falls, and the 120 MW Kiira dam scheme, which was brought on stream in
1999. The Bujagali project is set to be completed by 2011 at an estimated cost of US$ 800 M
2.8.3 Zambia
Zambia continues to seek ways to increase generating capacity through public/private
partnerships. Construction of the Kafue Gorge Lower Hydroelectricity facility (installed
capacity 750-900 MW) is estimated to cost more than US$1 B and development partners
have been called upon to support the Government in implementation.
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The existing 900 MW Kariba North Bank power station is to be expanded by an additional
360 MW. In addition the 120 MW Itezhi-Tezhi will be initiated shortly.
2.8.4 Mozambique
Cahora Bassa northern expansion (550 MW). Mozambique is seeking to embark on the
construction of a 1,400 MW hydropower plant on the country's Zambezi River at Mphanda
Nkuwa which is estimated to cost US$ 1.1 B to add to the Cahora Bassa station, which lies
upstream of the new site. The Chinese have pledged to provide funding.
2.8.5 Ghana
Ghana has identified 17 Hydropower sites, but only two have so far been developed,
principally for Aluminum production (Akisombo 1,038 MW and Kpong 160 MW). The
government of Ghana has created a development company to implement 400 MW of the
hydro project at an estimated cost of US$ 620 Million. The 400 MW But hydro project at an
estimated cost of US$ 620 Million. The rest of the potential remains to be implemented.
2.9 Latin America
Latin America is the third of the major regions that provides significant and valuable
development opportunities for hydropower implementation.
Of all regions, perhaps the developing economies of Latin America and particularly South
America are most reliant on Hydropower, but there remain many exploitable resources
untapped.
As mentioned Brazil is one of the countries with the most reserves, but there remains many
projects in Brazil and in these other principal markets:
2.9.1 Argentina
Argentinas gross theoretical hydropower potential is reported to be 354,000 GWh/yr, and
so far about 26% of the potential has been developed. At present there are 9,921 MW of
installed capacity, with a significant part of the capacity in the projects it shares with
Uruguay (Salto Grande) and with Paraguay (Yacyreta). Although it is reported that there are
no projects presently under construction, some 2,400 MW of capacity is in planning again
focused on bi-national schemes with Brazil and Paraguay. Argentina provides an excellent
example of developments that can be achieved across borders.
2.9.2 Brazil
Brazil gross theoretical capacity exceeds 3,000 TWh/yr of which it is postulated that 800
TWh/yr can be developed. Brazil has an installed capacity of approximately 71,000 MW,
including the massive Itaipu project (shared with Paraguay), and some other very large
installations. Approximately 5,000 MW of hydro capacity is under construction, and
approximately 36,600 MW is in planning stages.
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2.9.3 Chile
The installed hydro capacity in Chile is approximately 4,700 MW with only 300 MW under
construction. 3,000 MW more capacity is in planning, including Baker (1,000 MW) Pascua
(1,200 MW), Neltume (400 MW), Choshuenco (150 MW) and Punilla (100 MW).
2.9.4 Colombia
Colombia is relatively well developed with 9,000 MW of installed capacity and another
10,000 MW in planning. The country enjoys a theoretical potential of 1,000 TWh/yr, but the
exploitable is only 20% of that. The current construction will only add 660 MW however.
The capacity under planning includes Sogamoso (840 MW), Nechi (750 MW), Miel II (410
MW) and Andaqui (705 MW).
2.9.5 Venezuela
Venezuela gross theoretical capacity of 320 TWh/yr has only 130 TWH/yr that is
economically exploitable. At present approximately 74% of the load is supplied by hydro.
Venezuela has invested heavily, most notably in Guri, which includes 10,000 MW of
installed capacity. The countrys total installed capacity is 14,413 MW with some 2,250 MW
under construction. Planned projects total 12,100 MW including Tocoma on the lower
Caroni with a projected installed capacity of 2,160 MW.
2.10 China
The potential for hydropower in China is huge. The possible capacity is estimated as 402GW
of which only 28% is currently (2005) utilized. The Government plans to triple hydro
capacity from the 2004 level (105GW) to approximately 300GW by 2025, and some 50,000 +
MW is under construction. The 2004 and 2005 installed capacity includes approximately 34.5
GW and 38.5 GW respectively indicating an addition of some 7,000 MW of large hydro. The
projected 300 GW of hydro in 2025 will represent 30% of total capacity.
The potential for development in China is so large that it is difficult for this chapter to do justice
to the countrys resources and plans, so it will concentrate on Southwest China, including the
projected AC transmission at 750kV and UHV and HVDC at +/-600kV and higher.
The abundant hydropower resources in Southwest China will be exploited in large-scale in
the next three decades. Among a number of large hydropower projects in this region to be
completed during the period is a project with two large hydropower stations approximately
90 km apart on the located on the Jinsha River, the upper reach of Yangtze, named Xi Luodu
and Xiang Jiaba. The design of this project has been commenced recently with one hydro
power station having the same total capacity as the Itaipu Power Station in Brazil and the
other with close to half the capacity of the first. More than half of their power will be
transmitted to East China, a distance of close to two thousand kilometers, and the remainder
will be transmitted to Central China, a distance about one thousand kilometers. Moreover,
further hydropower projects in the region will be developed with the requirement for
transmission of large blocks of power too. The merits and drawbacks of different schemes,
such as 750kV or 1150kV AC power transmission as well as the +/-600kV or +/-750kV DC
power transmission, have been discussed over many years.
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2.10.1 Precipitation and Topographical Conditions in Southwest China

Exploitable hydropower resources in Southwest China account for 53% of China's total. The
precipitation and topographical conditions that contribute to hydropower resources in
Southwest China are, in summer, the southeast monsoon originating from the Pacific Ocean
and the southwest monsoon originating from the Indian Ocean heavy laden with moisture.
Annual precipitation is 1500-2000 mm in this region. The topography of China is high in the
West and low in the East. The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau has an average elevation of 4000 m
above sea level with the worlds highest mountains, the Himalayas, on its southwestern
border. Many rivers originating from the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau or other high mountain
ranges flow down to the low plains in the East. Thus, the rivers passing through Southwest
China present great opportunities for hydropower development.
In the region, many rivers possess both abundant runoffs and very steep slopes; especially
the Jinsha river system in this region, including its main tributaries such as the Yalong and
Dadu rivers, which are very rich in hydropower resources and possesses about 40% of the
countrys total exploitable hydropower resources.
2.10.2 Prospective Large Projects in Southwest China
The exploitable hydropower resources of the Jinsha River System are shown in Table 2.4.
Among them the Xi Luodu Hydropower Station will contain 18 generating units, 700 MW
each, and the Xiang Jiaba Hydropower Station will contain 8 generating units, 750 MW each.
Some others in Southwest China are shown in Table 2.5.
River
Length
km
Total Head
m
5142
Economically
feasible
capacity (GW)
58.91
Annual
Energy
TWhr
323.4
Jinsha main
stream
Lower Jinsha
Yalong main
stream
Dadu main
stream
3481
1326
1571
1680
3870
50.33
22.16
274.7
135.5
1062
4177
20.46
108.8
Table 2.4. Exploitable Hydropower Resources of the Jinsha River System

River
Length
km
Total Head
m
Wujiang
Yuanshui
lancang
1310
1022
2153
3418
1462
4583
Economically
feasible
capacity (GW)
8.56
3.49
20.88
Annual
Energy
TWhr
42.1
15.6
113.3
Table 2.5 Exploitable Hydropower Resources of other River Systems in SW China
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On the Yalong main steam, near the confluence of the Yalong and the Jinsha, there exists
already a large project Ertan, containing six units, 550 MW each. Hydropower developments
along the Jinsha River System over the next three decades are depicted in Table 2.6.
Project
Xi Luodu
Xiang Jiaba
Hutiaoxia
Baihetan
Wudongde
Jinping
Pubugou
Capacity
12.6
6.0
6.0
12.5
7.4
3.8
3.3
Commissioning
2020
2025
undecided
undecided
undecided
Around 2020
Around 2020
Table 2.6. Major Developments in the Jinsha River System

2.10.3 Associated Transmission
Different schemes for the transmission of hydropower from the two power stations have
been discussed in recent years including an all HVDC, and all HVAC and a hybrid with
HVDC being used for transmission to East China, while Central China receives power via
HVAC. The selection of which system to use is critical, particularly in the light of the very
large blocks of power to be moved. Some important correlated issues, such as the rational
overall arrangement for nationwide power grid interconnections, determination of the
highest voltage level going to be introduced in the coming three decades, etc., will be
investigated and studied more carefully, and more widely debated before selecting the
alternatives for the power transmission.
2.11 Transmission
Although all large-scale generation have constraints on location, such as ease of delivery of
high volumes of fuel, and the desirability to be remote from centers of population, hydro is
significantly constrained by the topographical requirements of the development. Thus the
transmission of power from hydro projects often assumes greater importance (than for a
fossil fuel project) in the assessment of feasibility and in the final cost of a project.
It is a challenge for any single hydro plant other than those massive developments - to
support the transmission infrastructure required for the overall utilization of hydro in a
region or country, so mechanisms must be found to enable this infrastructure to be put in
place independent of the individual generation investments.
In addition regional initiatives and joint investments by governments and international
agencies can result in more attractive investments for those considering generation investment.
In additions interconnection of national and regional systems allows generation to iron out
different demand patterns and different generation mixes to the communal benefit of all. A
prime example of this cooperation is the interconnected transmission on the west coast of
the USA enabling the USA and Canada to jointly benefit from the development of the upper
reaches of the Columbia River, and the firming of the power in the lower reaches.
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The countries of the EU are also significant exporters and importers of power even though
each of them has a different architecture of their power generation.
Table 2.7 indicates the percentage of each countrys production that is imported and
exported:
Nation
Export/
Production
Import/
Consumption
Germany
6.5%
7.4%
France
14.7
0.7
UK
0.0
4.7
Italy
0.5
13.9
Spain
1.9
4.5
Sweden
6.4
5.3
Netherlands
0.7
13.0
EU Total
6.3
6.9
Table 2.7. Import and Export of Power in Europe [8]

In considering the harnessing of untapped hydro throughout the world, the requirement for
and the potential for long distance transmission of electrical energy is paramount.
As noted elsewhere, energy transmission may be achieved through HV AC or DC lines. For
more than half a century, after the struggle between AC and DC for universal production,
transmission and utilization of electrical energy had been won by AC; this position
remained unchallenged until the 1950s. At that time the availability of large, high powered,
mercury arc rectifiers gave birth to a new interest in the application of DC for transmission
purposes. One of the primary drivers for this reawakening of interest was cost - the
historical justification for many of the early HVDC schemes.
The explanation is illustrated in Figure 2.7, which plots the cost of AC and DC transmission
against distance. Because DC requires only two conductors (or only one if ground return is
used) compared to three for normal three-phase AC transmission, the incremental cost of
conductors is reduced in the same ratio. The cost of the supporting towers and insulators is
correspondingly also reduced. Finally the transmission losses are also reduced in a similar
fashion. These reduced incremental cost advantages are offset, however, by the greatly
increased cost requirements of DC converter stations in comparison to AC substations.
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Nevertheless, if the transmission distance is sufficiently long a breakeven distance is

reached beyond which HVDC becomes more economical than AC.
Depending on the prices of copper and aluminum as well as other materials, the threshold
distance changes year by year, but the approximate breakeven point is 800 km for EHV
overhead lines. However, for underground or submarine cables, which cost an order of
magnitude more than overhead lines, the breakeven distance is only of the order of 50km
Hence the new technology was born and was given greater impetus, both technically and
economically, by the introduction of thyristor technology and other subsequent
developments.
However, it is not only for cost reasons that HVDC proves beneficial to the transmission
process. Sometimes it presents the only possible option:
Long sea crossing (Cable charging current prevents the use of AC transmission
over distances > 75-100km, depending on voltage)
Frequency conversion (i.e., 50Hz to 60Hz)
Where synchronization is impossible (i.e., due to stability reasons or frequency
control regimes).
AC power transmission sometimes exhibits stability problems in long overhead

transmission lines.
Examples from past, present and future of how HVDC has and might benefit long distance
transmission - and the inclusion of substantial hydro in the generation mix - are presented below.
Cost
Break-even
Distance
DC
HVDC
Convertor
Stations
AC
Substations
AC
800 km
Overhead
Line
50 km
Submarine
Cable
Distance
Fig. 2.7. Comparison of Costs of HVDC and HVAC transmission

Planners and interested parties have developed many proposals throughout the world for
the creation of HV grids, and the interconnection of these grids, to facilitate export and
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import of electricity. Many such exports and imports would be provided by Independent
power producers.
A legacy of the colonial period in the developing world has been that the transmission
networks of each state are often isolated from those of neighboring countries. Since
independence, many national power companies have struggled to maintain power supplies
to the main towns and progress on extending power grids has suffered, with the
development of cross-border transmission interconnectors well down the priority list.
Malaysia and Singapore are an example however of countries that interchanges electricity at
peak times. Cross border transmission could have great benefit Japans annual load factor
is for example approximately 55% leading to great inefficiencies in supply capability for the
peak demand. Typical advantages articulated for the extension of the Indian grid described
below also apply to inter countrys connection;
Economic
Shared peak generation and exchange of energy means reduced generation plant
margins in each region
Peak load diversity permits export of surplus energy and operation of thermal
plant at base load with higher efficiency
Investment in new generation is avoided (or postponed) at a cost of only one fifth
Improved reliability of the AC system through availability of emergency power
Reduced industrial disruption due to load shedding.
Environmental
Fuller use is made of seasonal high rainfall run-off, transferring extra hydro
capacity to the other regions/nations
By importing thermal energy in time of drought precious hydro resources are
conserved and more efficiently managed
Less coal burning is achieved in non hydro countries/regions if secondary energy
from the hydro resources can be imported
Construction of fewer generating stations is possible by sharing generation
reserves for outages and peaks, reducing environmental impact in all
regions/nations.
Some countries are focusing on the transmission aspect of development, such as Laos
because "Electric power production contributes both foreign currency accumulation and domestic
social progress.
Within countries some major transfers of electricity are in various stages of development,
including the proposed cable between Sarawak (east Malaysia) and peninsular Malaysia.
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2.11.1 North America

The largest capacity HVDC scheme in North America, and one of the two earliest, is the
Nelson River Scheme in Canada (Figure 2.8). The two bi-poles of this scheme carry 3,800MW
over a distance of 900km from the hydro stations on the Nelson River in northern Manitoba
to Dorsey Converter Station near Winnipeg. Some of this energy is dispatched further south
into the industrial heartland of the US Midwest. The original bi-pole 1 employed mercury
arc valves, but Pole 1 was refurbished and upgraded in 1990-1992 with modern thyristor
technology. Not only does this HVDC scheme provide long distance bulk power transfer
but also Power Oscillation Damping to assist with frequency control and stability of the
receiving AC system.
Contemporary with the Nelson River Scheme is the Pacific Intertie that transports 3,100 MW
of Columbia River hydro energy from Celilo in Oregon to Sylmar, near Los Angeles,
1,400km to the south. This HVDC tie runs in parallel with EHV AC transmission and can
also be used to provide additional control and stabilization to the Pacific Coast AC system.
Similar capabilities are provided by the 1,920 MW Inter Mountain HVDC Project, which
brings hydro energy from the Boulder Dam on the Colorado River across 800 km into Los
Angeles.
The final North American example is the 2,250 MW Quebec New England HVDC Project
that taps the rich hydro resources of the James Bay region of northern Quebec. This scheme
is unusual for being multi-terminal: feeding its power not only 1500km south to Sandy Pond
in New England, but also providing vital supplies to the metropolis of Montreal via an
intermediate converter station at Nicolet.
Nelson River Scheme

3800MW, 900km
Pacific Intertie
3100MW, 1400km
Winnipeg
Inter Mountain Project

1920MW, 800km
Los Angeles
Fig. 2.8 Canadian HVDC Transmission
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Quebec-New England
Project
2250MW, 1500km
Boston
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2.11.2 South America

South America is the location of the worlds largest power station, the hydroelectric
installation at Itaipu on the border of Brazil and Paraguay. Originally 12,000 MW, but
recently upgraded to 13,400 MW by the addition of two 700 MW generating units, the bulk
of this capacity is fed to the industrial center of Brazil near Sao Paolo. The distance is 800km
and around half of the energy is transmitted by two 750kV AC circuits. However, for
stability reasons it is not possible to transmit the total output by AC and 6,300 MW is
supplied over two bi-poles of 600kV, which is the worlds highest DC voltage to date. The
stabilizing effect of HVDCs fast acting controls ensures the stability of the overall
transmission. Note also the ability of DC to transmit a similar capacity at a lower voltage
than AC and in a smaller transmission corridor.
Brazil is presently experiencing a crisis of energy supply and is in urgent need of
reinforcement from both internal and external resources. Some of its neighbors (Argentina,
Uruguay and Venezuela) are rich in hydro capacity, but suffer from problems of extreme
remoteness and/or a different operating frequency. Brazil, a minority among South
American nations, employs 60Hz whereas its neighbors operate at 50Hz. Thus, the many
recent and proposed in feeds to Brazil, whether from near or far, are by means of HVDC
both long distance and back-to-back. These include existing and future interconnections
with Argentina and Uruguay, together with proposed links with Venezuela. There has also
existed for many years a Brazilian dream to tap the vast untapped hydro resources of the
Amazon region, for which HVDC would be the prime choice on account of the extreme
distance. Brazil, however, is not alone in South America in having its hydro resources
located remote from the load centers. Chile is rich in hydro in the Andes Mountains of
Patagonia in the south of that exceptionally long country. The Chileans are therefore
studying the economics of transmitting this energy by means of HVDC to the capital
Santiago.
2.11.3 Scandinavia
Scandinavia, the mountainous north of Europe, is rich in hydro potential tapped and
untapped. Continental European industry, far to the south, is hungry for cheap energy and
has looked to these resources for many years. In this case the distances are not extreme in
overhead line terms but the difficulties remain two-fold:
In some cases lengthy sea crossings
In most cases unsynchronized AC systems.
All of the examples considered necessitate sea crossing by submarine cable. Although the
shorter crossings are of insufficient length to either justify or necessitate the use of DC the
complication exists that the large Scandinavian power pool (Nordel) cannot be synchronized
to the Western European power system due to differences in operating regimes and, in
particular, in frequency control strategies. Hence HVDC is in all cases the only option for
tapping these hydro resources.
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The existing schemes in the category of hydro deliverers are five. There are also other
HVDC schemes that are not discussed, as their functions are simply interconnectors. The
five are (Figure 2.9):
Skagerrak,
1,190 MW,
240 km
Konti-Skan,
550 MW,
180 km
Fenno-Skan,
500 MW,
200 km
Baltic Cable,
600 MW,
260 km
Sweden-Poland,
600 MW,
230 km.
Four of these have their primary purpose as the delivery of cheap hydro energy to
continental Europe. Their secondary purpose, for which they are employed on a seasonal
basis when water levels are low in the summer months and on a daily basis in winter when
the domestic electric storage heating loads are high in Scandinavia, is to utilize available
European thermal resources to conserve hydraulic stocks in a cost-effective manner. The
exception to this pattern is the Fenno-Skan link whose purpose is to deliver hydro energy
from Finland to Stockholm in Sweden.
The recent deregulation and privatization of European utilities has encouraged the increase
in cross-border energy trading. Thus, many new projects have been initiated to deliver the
abundant hydro resources of Scandinavia to industrial Europe. Moreover, advances in cable
technology now permit much greater lengths of submarine cables, permitting delivery to
even further destinations. Of the following three projects the first two have been ordered but
not yet commenced and the third is currently at the bidding stage:
NorNed,
600 MW,
650km
Viking Cable,
800 MW,
600km
North Sea Interconnector, 1,200 MW or 800 MW,
700km.
The final example is uncertain until economic circumstances change, on account of the
distance involved and the difficulty of the cable route due to extreme depth and currents in
the Faroes Trench. This is the long discussed Iceland to Scotland link (950km) for which a
single cable would permit the transport of 800 MW and two cables 1600 MW. Iceland has
vast untapped hydro resources together with substantial geothermal reserves, but access
thereto must continue to remain some way in the future.
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1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Skagerrak, 1190MW
Konti-Skan, 550MW
Fenno-Skan, 500MW
Baltic Cable, 600MW
SwePol, 600MW
NorNed, 600MW
Viking Cable, 800MW
North SeaInterconnector,
800MW
9 Iceland-Scotland, 800~1600MW
Iceland
9 (?)
Finland
Sweden
Norway
Scotland
8
6
Denmark
England
Netherlands
Germany
Poland
Fig. 2.9. Scandinavian Connections

2.11.4 India
In the case of India the examples of HVDC facilitating the release of hydro resources are of a
completely different nature to those that have been considered so far. India comprises four
distinct regions each with its own independent electric power system operating nominally
at 50Hz but, because of an endemic national energy shortage, these systems are subjected to
sustained variations in frequency between 47Hz and 52 Hz on a daily basis. Historically
these regional systems were not interconnected because, although regional interconnections
are vitally necessary to share scarce national resources, it was not possible to connect them
synchronously because of their disparate frequency control regimes and for reasons of
stability. The PowerGrid Corporation of India was charged by the Indian government with
establishing a National Grid to facilitate the sharing of resources in order to avoid or
minimize the problems of energy shortage. The only solution was to base the grid on
asynchronous, HVDC interconnections. In this case the interconnections are of zero
distance, with the AC-DC-AC converters located in the same station in a Back-to-Back
configuration. To date the following ties link the regions (Figure 2.10):
Vindyachal,
500 MW
Chandrapur,
2 x 500 MW
Visakhapatnam,
500 MW
Sasaram,
500 MW (entered service 2002).
Repeat installations are planned for Visakhapatnam and Sasaram, with the bidding process
already initiated. The South region is relatively rich in hydro resources while the generation
in the other regions is essentially based on thermal with limited capacity. The benefits
introduced by these links are as both economic and environmental:
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Vindhyachal
Vindhyachal500
500MW
MW
1989
1989
Chandrapur
Chandrapur
22xx500
500MW
MW
1997
1997
111
Sasaram
Sasaram500
500MW
MW
2002
2002
Future
Future
Visakhapatnam
Visakhapatnam500
500MW
MW
1998
1998
Fig. 2.10. Indian HVDC Connections

2.11.5 China
China is a country of almost continental dimensions. Its energy resources, both hydro and
thermal, are located in the center or Far West whereas the centers of population and
industry are located essentially on the coast. The distances across which bulk energy must
be transported are enormous, ranging from hundreds of km to more than 2,000 km. The first
applications of HVDC link to provide access to remote hydro resources were (Figure 2.11):
Gezhouba - Shanghai,
Tian - Guang,
1,200 MW
700 km
1,800 MW 970 km.
However the biggest driver for expansion of this process has been the initiation of the Three
Gorges Dam project on the Yangtze River, exceeding Itaipu to become the worlds largest
power station, with a capacity of 18,000MW. In order to evacuate this vast capacity the
following schemes have been ordered or initiated:
Three Gorges - Shanghai (I),
3,000 MW
800 km
Three Gorges - Guangzhou,
3,000 MW
1,000 km
Three Gorges - Shanghai (II),
3,000 MW
800 km.
Export of Chinas resources to neighboring countries is also under consideration, utilizing

the ample hydro potential of Yunnan province to supply the needs of Bangkok in Thailand:
Yunnan - Bangkok,
2,000 MW
1,100 km.
Many more projects have already been identified and wait in their turn for the allocation of
the necessary priority and resources for development.
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1
2
3
4
5
6
Gezhouba - Shanghai,1200MW, 700km

Tian - Guang,1800MW, 970km
3 Gorges S - Shanghai, 3000MW, 800km
3 Gorges - Guangzhou, 3000MW, 1000km
3 Gorges N - Shanghai, 3000MW, 800km
Yunnan - Bangkok, 2000MW, 1100km
Beijing
Three Gorges
Project
China
1
5
Shanghai
4
2
6
Guangzhou
Fig. 2.11. Chinese HVDC Connections

2.11.6 Africa
Regional transmission projects in Africa are currently being supported by NEPAD.
The NEPAD strategic framework document arises from a mandate given to the five
initiating Heads of State (Algeria, Egypt, Nigeria, Senegal, and South Africa) by the
Organization of African Unity (OAU) to develop an integrated socio-economic development
framework for Africa. The 37th Summit of the OAU in July 2001 formally adopted the
strategic framework document).
Proposed Regional Transmission Projects many of which will be HVDC because of the
distances and the significant energy flow are shown on Figure 2.12 and include:
Upgrade of Zambia -DR Congo -S. Africa Interconnection

Zambia-Tanzania Interconnection
Namibia-Botswana Interconnection
W. Africa Grid Network and Power Pool.
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Fig. 2.12. African Transmission

2.11.7 South East Asia
A prime example of a regional project that is gradually moving forward is one sponsored by
ASEAN within which a Power Forum has developed a Memorandum to increase the
electricity trade. Within this forum, study groups are investigating the future of an ASEAN
power system (Figure 2.13).
Fig. 2.13. ASEAN Power System Interconnection
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2.12 Environmental
The development of water resources by humanity - including the development of hydro
resources - has a range of environmental effects beyond those intended. These effects can be
beneficial, or adverse, and are not simply limited to the aquatic environment. The
environmental lobby has driven the debate on these matters and there has been an almost
inexhaustible litany over the last few decades on the denigration that hydroelectric power
plants (and in particular the dams that are an integral part of many storage schemes) may
have reeked on the environment, fauna and flora and indigenous peoples. Meanwhile other
expanding forms of human activity - not least the generation of electricity using fossil fuels have inexorably continued to move mankind to the crisis that now overwhelms, in the form
of irreversible climate change.
The Energy Information Agency at the United States Department of Energy and the World
Energy Council monitor global energy consumption on a regular basis. EIA's report,
International Energy Outlook 2000 included a forecast that total energy consumption,
worldwide, from all sources, will grow by 60 percent between 1997 and 2020. Consumption
was expected to increase from 111,000 TWh/year to 178,000 TWh/year.
When the electricity share of total energy consumption is considered, the increase becomes
even more dramatic. The International Energy Outlook 2000 forecast that global
consumption of electricity would be 76 percent higher in 2020 than in 1997. Consumption
will increase from 12,000 TWh (1997) to 22,000 TWh (2020).
By the year 2050, the world population is expected to increase by 50 per cent, from 6 to 9
billion. Energy consumption per inhabitant per year is generally in correlation with the
standard of living of the population. Today the less developed countries in the world, with
2.2 billion inhabitants, have an annual per capita consumption of primary energy 20 times
less than those of the industrialized countries (with 1.3 billion inhabitants), and per capita
electricity consumption that is 35 times less.
World energy consumption, and especially electricity consumption, will increase
considerably during this century, not only because of the demographic pressure, but also
because of the development in living standards, The raising of overall global economic
prosperity continues to drive the consumption of energy (including generated electricity) to
record levels, with electricity consumption anticipated to increase at rates faster than overall
energy supply. The majority (80 per cent) of energy available today is provided from
thermal sources, i.e. coal, gas and oil; but there are growing global concerns regarding the
lack of sustainability of these forms of energy that casts doubts their use in a long-term
energy strategy.
Developed nations will probably seek more energy not least for plug
zero emission electric automobiles while the rest of the world (which
billion inhabitants by 2050 and 78 per cent of world population) will seek
consuming necessities of life that have been enjoyed for years in the West,
refrigerators, treated water, etc.
in hybrids and
will represent 7
the basic energy
such as lighting,
In this scenario it is not viable to simply exclude hydroelectric power, and methodologies
must be put in place to defuse and mitigate the environmental aspects of hydropower
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development. Essentially just as with all human activity - the concept of sustainability
must be significant part of the discussion of power generation as a whole. Under these
conditions the incorporation of the most mature renewable, hydro, into the system mix is
invaluable.
In comparison with hydropower, thermal plants take less time to design, obtain approval,
build and recover investment. However, they have higher operating costs, typically shorter
operating lives (about 25 years), are major sources of air, water and soil pollution and
greenhouse gases, while providing fewer opportunities for project economic spin-offs. A
comparison supplied by Manitoba Hydro is shown in Figure 2.14.
Comparison of Emission Intensities

- tonnes of CO2 equivalence per unit of energy
- the new hydro estimate.represents the average emission for the undeveloped Manitoba sites
1,400
Emissions (tonnes / GWh)
1,200
1146 t / GWh
1,000
800
600
407 t / GWh
400
200
<13 t / GWh <1 t / GWh
0
Coal
Existing Facilities
Natural Gas
Combined Cycle
Existing
Manitoba Hydro
(Theoretical)
New Hydro
(Theoretical)
Fig. 2.14 Comparison of Emissions (Manitoba)

The average hydro power plant obviously has a place in a sustainable energy mix, but the
perceived problems must be addressed.
In the late 90s an attempt to air all the environmental issues associated with the construction
of dams was made by the assembly of the World Commission on Dams (WCD). This body
produced a report "Dams and Development - A New Framework for Decision Making" that
crafted some guidelines for development of dams. Essentially the guidelines are a
restatement of the importance of dialogue with all affected parties, which of course is a
central element of a mature democracy.
A recent perspective is that of sustainability, and embracing this approach may hold the key
to the implementation of hydropower.
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Key elements of sustainability seem to be hard to define. To date much of the debate around
what constitutes environmental friendly generation devolves into a debate as to the
definition of green energy, renewables and alternative energy, each with
characteristics that make them somehow preferable to conventional forms of generation,
such as coal-fired, nuclear, or large hydroelectric facilities. Much has been written on this
subject without ever finally resolving the question of what types of electric generation
technologies are best. Best, one might ask from whose point of view? Best, according to
what criteria? Such debate is endless and of little value. There is no answer to the question
how green is green? Most jurisdictions include wind power and solar power to be green,
but one state in the US (for example) considers combined-cycle gas turbines to be green.
And why - it is reasonable to ask - is large hydro not considered to be green by some. It is
overwhelmingly renewable. Large hydro has been attacked by various people for a host of
sins, including destruction of habitat, species extirpation, social upheaval, and being a
source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. It is simple to show that the benefits of large
oligotrophic reservoirs capable of multi-year storage of energy, created in steep-sided
valleys, vastly outweigh the damage done. Impacts can be amortized over many decades,
equal to the life of the facility. Eventually, the impounded riverine system that has become a
reservoir adapts to a new kind of ecological equilibrium as a quasi-liminetic system. In
contrast, thermal generation produces impacts through gaseous pollutants every hour that
the plant runs. Coal plants add ash disposal and mining-related impacts to the list.
Emissions can be scrubbed, but they cannot be amortized. Any hydro-based system,
whether large or small, has of course associated operating impacts due to flow restrictions,
fluctuating reservoir levels, blockage of fish passage and sometime-elevated levels of
mercury in reservoirs. These are difficulties that must be dealt with.
Other impacts of large hydro projects, such as habitat destruction and methane production
from the decay of submerged plant matter, are harder to deal with. Habitat destruction can
never really be compensated for, and any projects that contribute to the extirpation or
worse, extinction of species need to be very carefully considered. To put the problem in
perspective though, the amount of land areas sacrificed to reservoirs is minuscule compared
to that devoted to agriculture and habitation. Is it worse to cover existing habitat with
cornfields, parking lots, housing and factories than with water?
In the production of methane etc, all large hydro projects must not be treated equally.
Methane production is greatest in reservoirs in shallow, tropical regions, and least in steepsided valleys in cold climates. In fact the production of GHG may be less than some indicate.
Although there is decomposition of biomass in the waters of a reservoir, recent research in
North America [Gagnon, 1999] indicates that the GHG emission factor for hydro plants is
typically 30 - 60 times less than factors for fossil fuel generation. Development of half the
world's economically feasible hydropower could reduce GHG emissions by about 13 per
cent, together with beneficial avoidance of sulphur dioxide (SO2) emissions (the main cause
of acid rain) and nitrous oxide emissions. Even including the fuel required to build
hydropower stations, a coal-fired plant can emit 1000 times more SO2 than a hydropower
system. An analysis has been completed for the Tucurui plant in Brazil, including 'worst
case' assumptions concerning the decomposition of flooded biomass and even under these
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worst case assumptions, the emission factor for Tucurui would be five times lower than that
for coal plant.
Assuming that a sustainable generation policy includes significant hydro as argued herein
- those environmental effects that need to be addressed when planning and implementing
hydro are:
2.12.1 River Barriers
An obvious effect of a dam is to form a barrier to movement of fish and other aquatic
organisms up and downstream. This problem has been recognized for years, in terms of
both the barrier itself, the reduction in water velocity upstream of the dam and loss in
spawning habitat. These aspects affect different species and the different life cycle stages of
species in different ways. Systems to assist upstream movement, through fish ladders, lifts,
locks, trap and haul, etc. have had varying success around the world, and where species
numbers have dropped additional methods such as artificial spawning channels and
hatcheries have a place etc.
The attempts to assist various salmon species are most well known, but other species with
the reverse life cycle, known as catadromous species, including shrimps and eels need to be
considered so that the effects of dams minimized.
Much research has been done on the specific risks to different sizes and species of fish.
Measures commonly used include fish screens at turbine inlets, and many countries require
this by law. Finer meshed screens can be placed at times of year when fish are actively
migrating. Various types of self-cleaning screen have been developed to cope with the buildup of debris. Behavioral methods have also been developed to defer fish from the intake,
and guide them to the safety of a bypass channel. These include: louvre screens (which
generate turbulence), bubble curtains acoustic barriers, electrical fields, and underwater
lights [Turnpenny, 1999]. Well-designed behavioral systems (e.g., louvre screens or the latest
acoustic screening techniques), can achieve better than 90 per cent exclusion for certain
species. However, certain dams have proven to have significant impacts to native fish.
Knowledge from experimental studies about the mechanisms of fish damage in turbines has
in recent years led the development of 'fish-friendly' turbines. (Pressure and velocity
characteristics within a rotating turbine can be modeled and the probability of different risk
conditions estimated).
2.12.2 Alteration of Flow Regimes and Temperature
Alteration of the flow regime is particularly acute in large storage reservoirs in climactic
situations with accentuated wet and dry seasons, and somewhat less in those used for
peaking or daily storage operation. Of course run of river facilities have the least impact.
Alteration is further accentuated if as is often the case there is a diversion component of the
project such as for irrigation or water transfer.
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Methodologies and policies exist to try to mitigate these effects as far as possible and should
be considered. These methodologies include incremental flow in-stream methodology to
determine a reasonable in-stream flow to restrict the effects to downstream fisheries.
Water emerging from a dam tends to be colder, and often has altered levels of dissolved
gases, minerals and chemical content, different from those present prior to the dam. The
result, in some cases, is the native fish cannot tolerate the new conditions and are forced to
relocate, or suffer mortality losses. Temperature variations or excesses can sometimes be
mitigated by the drawing off of water from particular levels in the reservoir that avoids the
worst stress on indigenous species.
Consideration should be given to ramping rates, particularly for daily cycling and or
peaking plants. A downstream reregulating dam can mitigate this, but topography may not
allow this solution. It is reported that some success has been achieved by simply stepping
of ramping.
2.12.3 Flow Diversion
When a project includes a significant diversion such as a long canal, or as a secondary factor
water is drawn for irrigation or transfer, the problem of mortality of younger, weaker or
larval (or egg) states can sometimes be a danger. Proper siting of the diversion, and careful
screening will lessen the problem.
2.12.4 Sedimentation
Sedimentation from weathered rock, organic and chemical materials being transported in a
river can become trapped in a reservoir. Over time these sediments may build up and begin
to occupy a significant volume of the original storage capacity. In addition, since they are
trapped, the soils cannot continue to refresh the river system downstream of the dam. The
lack of the transported sediments may have adverse impacts to sustainable riparian
vegetation, and to the continued use of lands for agriculture. It is considered imperative to
assess as accurately as possible at the conceptual stage of a project the average annual
sediment load entering a reservoir, or passing through a run-of-river project, so that
appropriate measures can be taken. A number of measures can be taken such as periodic
flushing or dredging from reservoirs (successful flushing has been reported in many
countries, and especially in China).
2.12.5 Nutrients
The long-term operation of storage facilities can also influence the recruitment of not only
sediments but also nutrients and gravel into rivers downstream of reservoirs. The loss
affects river productivity; but can be offset by restoration programs.
2.12.6 Water Quality
Changes in water quality are potential outcomes from locating a dam in a river. Effects are
often experienced both upstream and downstream of a dam. Some of the effects can be
increased or decreased dissolved oxygen, increases in total dissolved gases, modified
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nutrient levels, thermal modification and heavy metal levels. Relatively few reservoirs have
acute problems, and mitigation measures can be adopted if necessary.
Again the effects are highly dependent on size, shape, depth and operation rules. Narrow
reservoirs with high inflows relative to outflows will tend to have minimal effects on water
quality. In contrast large reservoirs with greater storage capacity and large surface area
subject to seasonal solar gain allow development of seasonal stratification resulting in
significant changes in water quality at various depths. At depth - particularly if biomass is
present where light does not penetrate sufficiently for photosynthesis, oxygen levels can
become depleted.
Solutions to these complications include the removal of biomass by careful clearing before
impounding, the use of multi level intakes, and discharge through oxygenating facilities
such as Howell Bunger Valves.
Unfortunately an opposite problem may occur from that of lack of oxygen, that is an excess
of nitrogen. Deep spillway plunge pools can allow air-entrained water to plunge to a depth
at which the pressure is sufficient to supersaturate the water with nitrogen. Simplistically,
fish in the area can suffer similar afflictions to that sometimes-affecting deep-sea diver,
which is the bends, (known as gas bubble disease in fish).
The solution to this difficulty is to use turbines to discharge and to try to use energy
dissipation devices that avoid excessive plunging.
Despite the various attributes of reservoirs that must be addressed, many reservoirs provide
an excellent environment for fish that develop in the new, expanded aquatic ecosystems. In
several situations game management agencies have stocked fish in and below the reservoir,
with high economic or recreational value.
2.12.7 Social Aspects
As with other forms of economic activity, hydro projects can have both positive and
negative social aspects. Social costs are mainly associated with transformation of land use in
the project area, and displacement of people living in the reservoir area.
Relocating people from a new reservoir area is, undoubtedly, the most challenging social
aspect of hydropower, leading to significant concerns regarding local culture, reasonable
spreading of economic benefit and pain, religious beliefs, and effects associated with
inundating burial sites.
While there can never be a 100 percent satisfactory solution to involuntary and
resettlement, enormous progress has been made in the way the problem is handled.
Developed nations tend to ignore the fact that many of them addressed similar problems of
involuntary resettlement (or at least resettlement driven by unstoppable economic forces).
Human history has been punctuated by resettlement. The key to this problem is sensitivity
and fairness, accompanied by timely and continuous communications between developers
and those affected; adequate compensation, support and long term contact. It is vitally
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important to ensure that the disruption of relocation is balanced by some direct benefits
from the project.
The countries in Asia and Latin America, where resettlement is a major issue, have
developed strategies for compensation and support for people who are impacted, and an
increasing number of examples are demonstrating that current strategies may be proving
successful.
Although displacement by hydropower can be significant and must of course be well
handled, the reader must keep in mind that other electrical generating options can also
cause significant resettlement: coal mining and processing and coal ash disposal, also
displace communities. GHG-induced climate change may eventually cause massive
population migrations, if sea levels rise substantially.
As with the other environmental effects, social effects of hydro schemes are variable and
project specific. A private developer must closely work with national and regional
governments to provide for this aspect early in the planning stage of a project mobilizing
sufficient resources and ensuring that the plan aligns directly with established national
political and social policy. It is appropriate for the national and/or regional host
government to lead and direct the required relocations. Whenever adverse impacts cannot
be avoided or mitigated, compensation measures can be implemented.
A developer can often ensure that benefits are distributed, at least in the short term by
utilizing local labor for the construction phase of a hydro scheme (which often lasts several
years). Required access roads lead to easy influx of outside labor and the development of
new economic activities, with resulting tensions if local and potentially resettled
populations in the area are unprepared.
2.12.8 A Sustainable Portfolio
In conclusion, the environmental disbenefits, and benefits of hydro and the development of
hydro around the world must be considered in the light of the sustainability of any given
energy generation portfolio, whether the sample is restricted to an individual nation or is
regional.
Some authorities have described four system conditions that allow us to test whether a
generation portfolio meets the conditions for sustainability, at least with respect to its
environmental dimension. The four system conditions are:
Substances from the earth's crust must not systematically increase in nature
Does a generating system including hydro meet this test? Yes. The greenhouse gas
intensity of our system is substantially driven by fossil fuel generation. As an example
BC Hydro, which is substantially hydro based, contributes only 42 tonnes CO2e/GWh
(carbon dioxide equivalent per gigawatt hour) compared to the Canadian average of
230 and the US average of 610. As an example outside of the North America, it is
reported that fossil-fuel generation, in China, contributed 23 million tons of SO2 in
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1995, causing 40 per cent of the total land area to be seriously affected by acid rain. The
resulting damage to crops, forests, materials and human health was calculated, in 1995,
to be more than US$ 13 billion.
In North America the consumption of coal is at approximately the same level, though
with somewhat more advanced emission scrubbing.
Substances produced by society must not systematically increase in nature
Does a hydros generating system meet this test? Yes -again using the example of BC
Hydro, the only significant pollutants other than CO2 from the BC Hydro generation
system is nitrogen oxides (NOx). Efforts are ongoing to substantially reduce NOx
emissions using with selective catalytic reduction technology.
The physical basis for the productivity and diversity of nature must not systematically
be diminished
Does Hydro generation meet this test? Yes- although undoubtedly, reservoirs have
diminished productivity and diversity to some extent. Properly organized mitigation
programs that enhance habitat productivity and diversity using techniques like
spawning channels and minimum flows go a long way to keeping impacts within
tolerable bounds.
Fair and efficient in meeting basic human rights
Does hydro generation system meet this test? It is difficult to say in general. To pass
this test, the principles discussed above with respect to relocation, etc. must be
addressed. Hydro generation clearly provides long term affordable energy to meet
economic and lifestyle objectives, and with appropriate attention to the societal effects
by responsible governments can be minimized.
2.13 Project Development
Although hydropower perfectly fulfils the requirements of sustainable development and is a
major tool to reduce global warming, the technically feasible global potential is very little
used at present (see Section. 2.2). Hydropower development is mainly hindered by the high
and long-term investments required and by the fact that potential hydropower sites are
often located at great distances from the dense consumer areas. Furthermore, large projects,
especially these with large reservoirs, invoke severe discussions concerning their
environmental impacts.
The strategies to overcome these disadvantages in the competition market in energy sectors
are as follows:
Privatization of the energy market and innovative financing of hydropower

projects for example on the basis of BOO (Build-Operate-Own) and BOT (BuildOperate-Transfer) models.
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Developing hydraulic schemes as multipurpose projects and splitting the costs.

Development of revolutionary technologies based on superconductors for the
transportation of electricity over long distances with insignificant loss.
Taking into consideration of environmental and socio-economical issues from the
very beginning of prefeasibility studies and involvement of ecologists as well as of
all persons concerned by the project at its early stage of design.
2.14 The Future

This chapter has highlighted the three phases of the development of hydropower and has
examined some of the opportunities to harness the untapped potential of the world.
Two facts are well understood by economists; first that of the world infrastructure stocks,
the electricity sector needs to form a greater percentage (compared with for example roads
and railways) and secondly that as a percentage of those infrastructure stocks, higher and
middle income countries demonstrate nearly twice the value in the electricity sector than
low income countries. A third aspect, highlighted in this chapter is the relative abundance of
hydro potential in those countries in most need of power, and the final part of the equation
is the fact that hydro is relatively benign to the climate compared to other generation.
The world has become increasingly aware of the overall damage being inflicted on the
environment from a plethora of activities of mankind. Although hydro has drawbacks in
terms of inundation, interruption of sedimentation, water quality etc., mankind has begun
to understand that climate change and environmental degradation is a complex topic,
perhaps - at present - too complex for any of us to fully understand, and perhaps hydros
advantages outweigh its disadvantages.
In the context of the scientific communitys recognition that perhaps the main threat to
biodiversity and food production is global climate change, the main issue appears to be to
what degree will society accept some local impacts of hydropower, in order to mitigate the
global impacts of climate change and other environmental threats from thermal pollution. In
short we cannot afford to dismiss any form of renewable energy from the supply, and
power generation solutions must be found that have the minimal impact on the climate.
Unfortunately in this period when there should be a beneficial acceleration of hydro
development, the retreat of the major international agencies - such as the World Bank from
participation in major hydro development, in no small part because of the eloquence of the
environmental community, has created a hiatus in the flow of funding of development, at
least that funding based in the West.
Meanwhile the demand for increased power generation continues to climb, particularly in
those regions of the world striving to catch up with the standard of living of the West.
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There are only four main forms of finance available for the construction of hydropower:
Reinvested capital from existing utilities (both private and public)

Host nation government capital
Multilateral agency capital
Private finance both from within the host country and from without.
There are challenges in attracting capital from these four sources to hydro that affect all of
them to one extent or another:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Significant investment is required for rehabilitation of existing facilities and for

catch up maintenance
The necessity of investing almost 100% of the capital before any return (compared
to pay as you go for fossil fuel)
Uneconomic and unbalanced tariff structures, rendering the whole power sector
financially unstable
Lack of creditworthiness in customers whether they are government institutions,
industry or private purchasers
Significant associated infrastructure development needs such as access roads and
transmission.
Small markets
The necessary addressing of environmental issues, often aggravated by external
groups.
In the developing nations that have the greatest hydro potential, reinvested capital from the
existing utilities and capital from the host nation government are often not available.
Governments encouraging development have huge demands for capital from all sectors of
infrastructure both for new works and for rehabilitation. The lack of such capital has been a
key problem for development and often responsible for the challenges facing the power
generation industry, and many governments have realized that public sector funds are
simply inadequate concluding that the payment burden needs to be shifted as far as possible
from taxpayer to user. But constraints to private sector investment are many and progress
on regulatory, restructuring and privatization reform has yet to bring the dividends that are
needed
As discussed the private sector has been invited to invest in hydro in the developing world
but there are significant difficulties for private financing. It is well known that hydro
engineering has reached a level of sophistication and maturity such that, given previous
experience in the development of hydro, most technical difficulties of hydro implementation
are well understood and can be solved (at a price). The main difficulties pertain to
accurately forecasting and quantifying the risks and associated costs of each individual
project. Numerous different factors control whether and to what extent private funding is
available for a development in this Phase III of hydropower project development
throughout the world.
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One of the difficulties with attracting private investment and finance to hydropower
projects is the need for a higher return on equity than was traditionally sought by utilities
and the multi lateral agencies. This has led to a system where heavy debt leveraging is
essential. The large size of power sector investments and the shorter-term outlook of private
investors also affect the nature of the projects that can be undertaken in the private sector.
With the necessity of attracting private finance, controlling factors in development of power
generation, and particularly of hydro are: (i) the scale of the capital investment, (ii)
possibility for an attractive return on equity and minimum feasible debt service
characteristics, (iii) security of project revenue during debt service, and (iv) management of
the major project risk factors.
Table 2.8 indicates the principal risks associated with a hydro development.
Political/Economic
Commercial
Currency
Technical (Geology and
Hydrology)
Environmental
Social
Return on Investment
Construction Time
Government Rules and Regulations

Inflation
Tax rate Variations
Economic Force Majeure
Demand
Power Purchaser Credit
Power Purchaser Longevity
Interest
Refinancing
Capital and Credit Availability
Exchange Rates
Repatriation
Inundation and Loss of Land Base
Impacts on terrestrial and aquatic
Species
Approvals procedures
Resettlement
Public Attitudes to development
Project Area impacts and compensation
Schedule delays and associated costs
Table 2.8. Hydro Development Risks

All the difficulties must be addressed in order for private capital to be mobilized more fully,
and to more efficiently use the available government and multi lateral finance. Assistance is
needed from the international funding community if progress is to be made.
At the most basic level, hydropower participates in a worldwide intense competition for
capital. The capital market does not give preference to infrastructure and power
development as the World Bank and other multilateral and bilateral agencies have been doing.
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In fact power development, and particularly hydro is at a significant disadvantage compared

to many other investments. Hydro projects of necessity often require a relatively long period
of negative cash flow before any return can be realized, and investors must somehow be
tempted to invest preferentially in hydro instead of (for example) factories producing domestic
and export goods readily marketable and profitable in western countries.
Accordingly, the nature of the hydro projects to be undertaken in the private sector will be
different from the mega projects previously considered by the major national utility
companies. A review of the risks inherent in development can lead to an understanding of
the projects more likely to be attractive to investors
The multilateral agencies have in the last ten years been less enthusiastic in funding hydro
power, often as a result of the organized onslaught of criticism from opposition groups,
which have at times protested directly to potential contractors and suppliers associated in
providing implementation expertise.
The following characteristics are apparent in projects that have been demonstrated to be
bankable, or considered desirable by private investment:
High Head so that minimal amounts of water are needed, and Pelton wheels (i.e.
simple and easily maintained equipment) can be used. High head also tends to
require less reservoir area, which can reduce environmental impacts and approvals
procedures
Run of River so that diversion structures are small and storage is minimized, again
keeping costs low and reducing the environmental impacts associated with large
reservoirs
Surface Based Configuration to minimize the construction and geological risks
attendant to tunnels and underground powerhouse caverns
Compact so that the smallest stretch of river is affected
Appropriate Size to minimize exposure to potential future slowdown in the
regional electricity demand
Short development cycle and debt repayment.
Developers are no longer exclusively engineers and thus have had less exposure to the
technical aspects of development. In the contemporary scenario developers are often financial
experts with a focus on minimizing or avoiding risk that will look to a power project merely as
a business investment that can be evaluated on the same basis as any other competing
investment in other sectors of the economy. Such investors do not have an inherent technical
connection with the industry other than its opportunity to meet attractive investment
conditions. Therefore the typical developer will be seeking to offset risk, and place it with
appropriate parties (who can manage it) along with meeting investment objectives.
A developer will be fully prepared to pay for offsetting risk, on condition of course that
those placement costs can ultimately be recouped. As a result, development philosophy and
practice are currently directed toward the Engineer/Procure/Construct (EPC) form of
contracting in which much of the construction and design risk is placed on the contractor
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who is assumed to be more capable of managing this risk. It is also notable that the
contractor would be much more familiar with these risks than would be the investors who
often do not have long connections to the power or construction industry.
In general the ideal placement of commercial risk would be with the power purchaser (or
the market) while the political risk is managed by selecting investment locations meeting
minimum acceptable conditions. The remaining political risk may be mitigated by
purchasing some cover through insurers or from multilateral agencies such as World Bank,
Asian Development Bank, and other institutions.
Political and other market risks do typically decline as a host economy maintains its
development. It is, therefore, not surprising that the power generation sector is moving
forward more vigorously (in general) in those countries that have the potential to raise
significant or all the required debt in their own financial markets. In other cases, as noted,
the multilateral agencies have an important function that they are increasingly exercising in
accepting the political risks attendant to a particular development proposal.
The scale of projects that may be expected to be developed by private financing in a
particular locale or country is a subject of some interest. Given the list of desirables
characteristics described earlier, and developers orientation toward limiting their risk
exposure, it is not surprising that in general hydropower project developments in Asia have
been and can be expected to continue to be of limited size. Apart from one or two notable
exceptions, privately funded development to date tends to be less than about 180 MW. Few
privately funded projects larger than 250 MW are anticipated in the foreseeable future other
than under very special conditions where the national government may take a direct role in
risk management in partnership with the developer.
As economies become more developed, as power prices more fully reflect real investment
costs, and as the equity and reinsurance markets develop further, gradually larger projects
may be expected. However, it is worth noting that some of the geo-technical and cash flow
difficulties and risks that are attendant on hydro projects are less important for thermal
projects. Unless there are other constraints on thermal development, such as those related to
international agreements on global warming, thermal project proposals will continue to be
regarded by private developers as more viable than hydro and will take precedence.
What have been termed mega Projects (an arbitrary definition might be those above 1000
MW) clearly are not favored under the present scenario for private development, and will
for the moment remain outside of the pattern. Projects of this scope and size encompass
extraordinary market risk, often have significant geotechnical and construction risk, and of
course may become a lightning rod for enhanced political risk. However, as shown by the
example at Bakun, in many cases a mega project private development proposal is unlikely to
succeed in the absence of extraordinary support from the government and special power
purchase and contractual terms.
In the meantime, in the absence of funding from the international agencies and the
difficulties of attracting private finance, a powerful force has appeared that may facilitate
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127
rescue of major hydro development. The Chinese government through numerous agencies
such as the China Exim Bank and quasi government organizations such as Sinohydro, and
the Three Gorges Corporation, are supporting many projects particularly in Asia and Africa,
by financing, and constructing the projects.
As the other countries and international organizations shy away from hydropower
development assistance Chinese companies and banks are now involved in billions of
dollars worth of contracts and memos of understanding to construct nearly 50 major
projects in 27 countries. It has been reported that officially China does not attach strings to
its loans and grants.
In Southeast Asia alone, some 21 Chinese companies are involved in 52 hydropower projects
of various sizes, according to research issued this year at the China-ASEAN Power
Cooperation & Development Forum.
There will eventually be an end to Chinas largesse, and in order to mobilize finance from
the greater international community, it is imperative to make the environmental process
more predictable. Not only that, but the market must give clear price signals to the financial
community that the development of resources that have low emissions present less risk and
greater reward. Renewable Energy credits and carbon offsets can also help. In the various
markets in which Hydro plays a part some or all of the following challenges need to be
addressed:
Clear Energy Policy (National, regional and global)

Simplifying and streamlining regulatory requirements and approvals (the Decision
Making Process)
Furthering Public-Private Partnerships
Transparent and equitable regulation
Fully, but efficiently, engage stakeholders (including benefit sharing)
Provide fiscal incentives (tax holidays, tax credits, green credit (carbon offset)
programs)
Market signals favoring low emissions (consistent signals for sustainable
development)
Strengthening of local financial markets to allow for minimization of exchange rate
risks
Transmission infrastructure investment
Significant investment for rehabilitation and catch up maintenance
Reform of uneconomic and unbalanced tariff structures, which render electricity
markets financially unstable.
Attending to these aspects, cumulatively and with the global pricing signals, could form the
basis of guidelines for the development and management of hydropower projects and
constitute a sustainable approach to renewable hydropower resource development.
A significant number of developed countries now have legislation, regulations and
incentive packages to encourage the development of various renewable generation within
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128
their own countries perhaps now is the time to enhance the conditions for overseas
development assistance for renewables and medium to large scale hydro by similar
practices encouraging cross border hydro investment in developing nations.
As part of the restructuring of the energy markets, the creation of a spot market sometimes
occurs, but spot markets in energy are too volatile to signal investment in hydro with
perhaps the special case of pumped hydro which can take advantage of high differential
prices during the day.
Hydroelectric power has an important role to play in the future, and provides considerable
benefits to an integrated electric system. The worlds remaining hydroelectric potential needs
to be considered in the new energy mix, with planned projects taking into consideration
social and environmental impacts, so that necessary mitigation and compensation measures
can be taken. Clearly, the population affected by a project should enjoy a better quality of
life as a result of the project.
Any development involves change and some degree of compromise, and it is a question of
assessing benefits and impacts at an early enough stage, and in adequate detail, with the full
involvement of those people affected, so that the right balance can be achieved.
Two billion people in developing countries have no reliable electricity supply, and
especially in these countries for the foreseeable future, hydropower offers a renewable
energy source on a realistic scale.
2.15 Acknowledgement
This Chapter has been prepared by Brian Sadden, Consulting Civil Engineer, Montgomery
Watson, Harza, USA.with contributions by David. A. Balser (Manager Environmental
Group, BC Hydro, Canada), Olcay Unver (Regional Development, Southern Anatolia
Project, Turkey), the late Jan Veltrop (Commissioner, World Commission on Dams, USA),
Yang Haitao and Yao Guocan (EPRI, Beijing, China), Brian Gemmell (Marketing Manager
(North America), ALSTOM Power Electronic Systems, New York, USA), John Loughran
(GEC, Stafford, UK), and Hilmi Turanil (Manitoba Hydro, Canada).
2.16 References
[1] Renewables 2007 a global status report by Renewable Energy Policy Network for the
21st Century.
[2] Boletim Energia No 206, published by ANEEL, February 2006
[3] Powering Chinas Development: The Role of Renewable Energy, Eric Martinot, Li
Junfeng, November 2007[4. World Atlas and Industry Guide published annually by
the International Journal on Hydropower and Dams
[5] International Water Power & Dam Construction Yearbook (1997)
[6] ICOLD 1998
[7] International Energy Authority
[8] United Nations "Energy Statistics Yearbook, United Nations, 1995
www.intechopen.com

Edited by
ISBN 978-953-307-155-8
Hard cover, 802 pages
Publisher InTech
Published online 27, June, 2011
Published in print edition June, 2011

This book discusses trends in the energy industries of emerging economies in all continents. It provides the
forum for dissemination and exchange of scientific and engineering information on the theoretical generic and
applied areas of scientific and engineering knowledge relating to electrical power infrastructure in the global
marketplace. It is a timely reference to modern deregulated energy infrastructure: challenges of restructuring
electricity markets in emerging economies. The topics deal with nuclear and hydropower worldwide; biomass;
energy potential of the oceans; geothermal energy; reliability; wind power; integrating renewable and
dispersed electricity into the grid; electricity markets in Africa, Asia, China, Europe, India, Russia, and in South
America. In addition the merits of GHG programs and markets on the electrical power industry, market
mechanisms and supply adequacy in hydro-dominated countries in Latin America, energy issues under
deregulated environments (including insurance issues) and the African Union and new partnerships for Africa's
development is considered.
Thomas James Hammons (Fellow IEEE 1996) received the B.Sc. degree in Engineering (1st Class Honors),
and the DIC, and Ph.D. degrees from Imperial College, London, UK He is a member of the teaching faculty of
the School of Engineering, University of Glasgow, Scotland, UK. He was Professor of Electrical and Computer
Engineering at McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada in 1978-1979. He is the author/co-author of
over 440 scientific articles and papers on electrical power engineering and is Editor of a book on Renewable
Energy that was published by INTECH in December 2009. He has lectured extensively in North America,
Africa, Asia, and both in Eastern and Western Europe.
Dr Hammons is Past Chair of the United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland (UKRI) Section IEEE and Past Chair
of International Practices for Energy Development and Power Generation of IEEE. He is also a Past Chair of
the IEEE PES Task Force on harmonizing power-engineering standards worldwide and Past Permanent
Secretary of the International Universities Power Engineering Conference. He is a Chartered Engineer (CEng)
and a registered European Engineer in the Federation of National Engineering Associations in Europe.
How to reference
In order to correctly reference this scholarly work, feel free to copy and paste the following:
T. J. Hammons (2011). Harnessing Untapped Hydropower, Electricity Infrastructures in the Global
Marketplace, (Ed.), ISBN: 978-953-307-155-8, InTech, Available from:
http://www.intechopen.com/books/electricity-infrastructures-in-the-global-marketplace/harnessing-untappedhydropower
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