PROBLEM 13.

1
KNOWN: Various geometric shapes involving two areas A1 and A2.
FIND: Shape factors, F12 and F21, for each configuration.
ASSUMPTIONS: Surfaces are diffuse.
ANALYSIS: The analysis is not to make use of tables or charts. The approach involves use of the
reciprocity relation, Eq. 13.3, and summation rule, Eq. 13.4. Recognize that reciprocity applies to two
surfaces; summation applies to an enclosure. Certain shape factors will be identified by inspection.
Note L is the length normal to page.
(a) Long duct (L):

<

By inspection, F12 = 1.0

By reciprocity, F21 =

A1
A2

F12 =

2 RL

( 3 / 4 ) 2 RL

1.0 =

4
3

= 0.424

<

(b) Small sphere, A1, under concentric hemisphere, A2, where A2 = 2A

Summation rule
F11 + F12 + F13 = 1

But F12 = F13 by symmetry, hence F12 = 0.50

By reciprocity,

F21 =

A1
A2

F12 =

A1

0.5 = 0.25.

2A1

<
<

(c) Long duct (L):

By inspection,

F12 = 1.0

By reciprocity,

F21 =

A1
A2

F12 =

2RL

RL

1.0 =

Summation rule,

F22 = 1 F21 = 1 0.64 = 0.363.

Summation rule,

F11 + F12 + F13 = 1

= 0.637

<
<

(d) Long inclined plates (L):

But F12 = F13 by symmetry, hence F12 = 0.50
By reciprocity,

(e) Sphere lying on infinite plane

Summation rule,

F21 =

A1
A2

F12 =

20L
10 ( 2 )

1/ 2

0.5 = 0.707.
L

F11 + F12 + F13 = 1

But F12 = F13 by symmetry, hence F12 = 0.5

By reciprocity,

<
<

F21 =

A1
A2

F12 0 since A 2 .

Continued

<
<

PROBLEM 13.1 (Cont.)

(f) Hemisphere over a disc of diameter D/2; find also F22 and F23.

<

By inspection, F12 = 1.0

Summation rule for surface A3 is written as
F31 + F32 + F33 = 1. Hence, F32 = 1.0.

By reciprocity,

F23 =

A3
F32
A2

2 D / 2 2
( ) D2
D
F23 =
/

1.0 = 0.375.
4
2
4

By reciprocity,

F21 =

D 2 D2
A1
F12 = /
1.0 = 0.125.
A2
4
2
2

<

F21 + F22 + F23 = 1 or

Summation rule for A2,

F22 = 1 F21 F23 = 1 0.125 0.375 = 0.5.

<

Note that by inspection you can deduce F22 = 0.5

(g) Long open channel (L):
Summation rule for A1
F11 + F12 + F13 = 0

<

but F12 = F13 by symmetry, hence F12 = 0.50.

By reciprocity,

F21 =

A1
A2

F12 =

2 L

( 2 1) / 4 L

0.50 = 0.637.

COMMENTS: (1) Note that the summation rule is applied to an enclosure. To complete the
enclosure, it was necessary in several cases to define a third surface which was shown by dashed lines.

(2) Recognize that the solutions follow a systematic procedure; in many instances it is possible to
deduce a shape factor by inspection.

PROBLEM 13.2
KNOWN: Geometry of semi-circular, rectangular and V grooves.
FIND: (a) View factors of grooves with respect to surroundings, (b) View factor for sides of V
groove, (c) View factor for sides of rectangular groove.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Diffuse surfaces, (2) Negligible end effects, long grooves.
ANALYSIS: (a) Consider a unit length of each groove and represent the surroundings by a
hypothetical surface (dashed line).
Semi-Circular Groove:

F21 = 1;

F12 =

A2
W
1
F21 =
A1
( W / 2 )

F12 = 2 / .

<

Rectangular Groove:

F4(1,2,3) = 1;

F(1,2,3) 4 =

A4
W
F4(1,2,3) =
1
A1 + A 2 + A3
H+W+H

F(1,2,3) 4 = W / ( W + 2H ) .

<

V Groove:

F3(1,2 ) = 1;

A3
W
F3(1,2 ) =
W/2 W/2
A1 + A 2
+
sin sin
F(1,2 )3 = sin .
F(1,2 )3 =

(b) From Eqs. 13.3 and 13.4,

A
F12 = 1 F13 = 1 3 F31.
A1

From Symmetry,

F31 = 1/ 2.

Hence, F12 = 1

W
1

( W / 2 ) / sin 2

or

F12 = 1 sin .

<

(c) From Fig. 13.4, with X/L = H/W =2 and Y/L ,

F12 0.62.

<

COMMENTS: (1) Note that for the V groove, F13 = F23 = F(1,2)3 = sin, (2) In part (c), Fig. 13.4
could also be used with Y/L = 2 and X/L = . However, obtaining the limit of Fij as X/L from
the figure is somewhat uncertain.

PROBLEM 13.3
KNOWN: Two arrangements (a) circular disk and coaxial, ring shaped disk, and (b) circular disk and
coaxial, right-circular cone.
FIND: Derive expressions for the view factor F12 for the arrangements (a) and (b) in terms of the
areas A1 and A2, and any appropriate hypothetical surface area, as well as the view factor for coaxial
parallel disks (Table 13.2, Figure 13.5). For the disk-cone arrangement, sketch the variation of F12
with for 0 /2, and explain the key features.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: Diffuse surfaces with uniform radiosities.

ANALYSIS: (a) Define the hypothetical surface A3, a co-planar disk inside the ring of A1. Using the
additive view factor relation, Eq. 13.5,
A 1,3 F 1,3 = A1 F12 + A 3 F32

b gb g

F12 =

1
A 1,3 F 1,3 A 3 F32
A1

b gb g

<

where the parenthesis denote a composite surface. All the Fij on the right-hand side can be evaluated
using Fig. 13.5.
(b) Define the hypothetical surface A3, the disk at the bottom of the cone. The radiant power leaving
A2 that is intercepted by A1 can be expressed as
F21 = F23
(1)

That is, the same power also intercepts the disk at the bottom of the cone, A3. From reciprocity,

A1 F12 = A 2 F21

(2)

and using Eq. (1),

F12 =

A2
F23
A1

<

The variation of F12 as a function of is shown below for the disk-cone arrangement. In the limit
when /2, the cone approaches a disk of area A3. That is,

b
g
When 0, the cone area A
F12 b 0g = 0

F12 / 2 = F13
2

diminishes so that

PROBLEM 13.4
KNOWN: Right circular cone and right-circular cylinder of same diameter D and length L positioned
coaxially a distance Lo from the circular disk A1; hypothetical area corresponding to the openings
identified as A3.
FIND: (a) Show that F21 = (A1/A2) F13 and F22 = 1 - (A3/A2), where F13 is the view factor between
two, coaxial parallel disks (Table 13.2), for both arrangements, (b) Calculate F21 and F22 for L = Lo =
50 mm and D1 = D3 = 50 mm; compare magnitudes and explain similarities and differences, and (c)
Magnitudes of F21 and F22 as L increases and all other parameters remain the same; sketch and explain
key features of their variation with L.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Diffuse surfaces with uniform radiosities, and (2) Inner base and lateral
surfaces of the cylinder treated as a single surface, A2.
ANALYSIS: (a) For both configurations,

F13 = F12

(1)

since the radiant power leaving A1 that is intercepted by A3 is likewise intercepted by A2. Applying
reciprocity between A1 and A2,

A1 F12 = A 2 F21

(2)

Substituting from Eq. (1), into Eq. (2), solving for F21, find

<

F21 = A1 / A 2 F12 = A1 / A 2 F13

Treating the cone and cylinder as two-surface enclosures, the summation rule for A2 is

F22 + F23 = 1

(3)

Apply reciprocity between A2 and A3, solve Eq. (3) to find

F22 = 1 F23 = 1 A 3 / A 2 F32

and since F32 = 1, find

<

F22 = 1 A 3 / A 2
Continued

PROBLEM 13.4 (Cont.)

(b) For the specified values of L, Lo, D1 and D2, the view factors are calculated and tabulated below.
Relations for the areas are:
Disk-cone:

FH

A1 = D12 / 4

A 2 = D 3 / 2 L2 + D 3 / 2

Disk-cylinder: A1 = D12 / 4

g2 IK

1/ 2

A 2 = D 23 / 4 + D 3L

A 3 = D32 / 4
A 3 = D32 / 4

The view factor F13 is evaluated from Table 13.2, coaxial parallel disks (Fig. 13.5); find F13 = 0.1716.
F21
0.0767
0.0343

Disk-cone
Disk-cylinder

F22
0.553
0.800

It follows that F21 is greater for the disk-cone (a) than for the cylinder-cone (b). That is, for (a),
surface A2 sees more of A1 and less of itself than for (b). Notice that F22 is greater for (b) than (a);
this is a consequence of A2,b > A2,a.
(c) Using the foregoing equations in the IHT workspace, the variation of the view factors F21 and F22
with L were calculated and are graphed below.
Right-circular cone and disk

0.8

0.6

0.6

Fij

Fij

0.8

Right-circular cylinder and disk, Lo = D = 50 m m

0.4

0.4

0.2

0.2

0
0

40

80

120

160

200

40

120

160

Cone height, L(m m )

Cone height, L(mm)

F21
F22

80

F21
F22

Note that for both configurations, when L = 0, find that F21 = F13 = 0.1716, the value obtained for
coaxial parallel disks. As L increases, find that F22 1; that is, the interior of both the cone and
cylinder see mostly each other. Notice that the changes in both F21 and F22 with increasing L are
greater for the disk-cylinder; F21 decreases while F22 increases.
COMMENTS: From the results of part (b), why isnt the sum of F21 and F22 equal to unity?

200

PROBLEM 13.5
KNOWN: Two parallel, coaxial, ring-shaped disks.
FIND: Show that the view factor F12 can be expressed as

F12 =

{ b g b gb g

e b g

1
A 1,3 F 1,3 2,4 A 3 F3 2,4 A 4 F4 1,3 F43
A1

b g

j}

where all the Fig on the right-hand side of the equation can be evaluated from Figure 13.5 (see Table
13.2) for coaxial parallel disks.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: Diffuse surfaces with uniform radiosities.

ANALYSIS: Using the additive rule, Eq. 13.5, where the parenthesis denote a composite surface,

b g

F1 2,4 = F12 + F14

b g

F12 = F1 2,4 F14

(1)

Relation for F1(2,4): Using the additive rule

b g b gb g

b g

b g

A 1,3 F 1,3 2,4 = A1 F1 2,4 + A 3 F3 2,4

(2)

where the check mark denotes a Fij that can be evaluated using Fig. 13.5 for coaxial parallel disks.
Relation for F14: Apply reciprocity

A1 F14 = A 4 F41

(3)

and using the additive rule involving F41,

b g

A1 F14 = A 4 F4 1,3 F43

(4)

Relation for F12: Substituting Eqs. (2) and (4) into Eq. (1),

F12 =

{ b g b gb g

e b g

1
A 1,3 F 1,3 2,4 A 3 F3 2,4 A 4 F4 1,3 F43
A1

b g

j}

COMMENTS: (1) The Fij on the right-hand side can be evaluated using Fig. 13.5.

(2) To check the validity of the result, substitute numerical values and test the behavior at special
limits. For example, as A3, A4 0, the expression reduces to the identity F12 F12.

<

PROBLEM 13.6
KNOWN: Dimensions of four geometrical arrangements.
FIND: View factors using crossed-strings method; compare with appropriate graphs and analytical
expressions.
SCHEMATIC:

(a) Parallel plates

(b) Perpendicular plates with common edge

4m

A2

A2

4m

4m

= 30

A1

4m

= 30

4m

A1

4m

(c) Angled plates

(d) Semi-circle and plate

ASSUMPTIONS: Plates infinite in extent in direction normal to page.

ANALYSIS: The crossed-strings method is applicable to
surfaces of infinite extent in one direction having an
unobstructed view of one another.

F12 = (1/ 2w1 ) [( ac + bd ) ( ad + bc )] .

(a) Parallel plates: From the schematic, the edge and diagonal distances are

ac = bd = w1 + L

1/ 2

bc = ad = L.

With w1 as the width of the plate, find

F12 =

2
2w1
1

w1 + L

1/ 2

2 (L) =

1
24

2
m

4 +1

1/ 2

m 2 (1 m ) = 0.781.

<

Using Fig. 13.4 with X/L = 4/1 = 4 and Y/L = , find F12 0.80. Also, using the first relation of Table
13.1,

Fij = Wi + Wj

1/ 2

)2 + 4

Wi Wj

1/ 2

)2 + 4

/ 2 Wi

where wi = wj = w1 and W = w/L = 4/1 = 4, find

F12 =

1/ 2
1/ 2

2
2
( 4 + 4 ) + 4 ( 4 4 ) + 4 / 2 4 = 0.781.

Continued...

PROBLEM 13.6 (Cont.)

(b) Perpendicular plates with a common edge: From the schematic, the edge and diagonal distances are
ac = w1

bd = L

ad = w1 + L

bc = 0.

With w1 as the width of the horizontal plates, find

F12 = (1 / 2w1 ) 2 ( w1 + L ) w1 + L

F12 = (1 / 2 4 m )

( 4 + 1) m

1/ 2

1/ 2

4 +1

+ 0

<

m + 0 = 0.110.

From the third relation of Table 13.1, with wi = w1 = 4 m and wj = L = 1 m, find

Fij = 1 + w j / w i 1 + w j / w i

1/ 2

)2

/ 2

2 1/ 2
F12 = 1 + (1/ 4 ) 1 + (1/ 4 )
/ 2 = 0.110.

(c) Plates at an angle to one another. From the schematic below, the edge and diagonal distances can be
calculated as follows:

h = 4sin30, w = 8 4cos30, ac =
By symmetry, bd = ac = 4.96 m
bc = 2(4sin15) = 2.07 m
ad = 2(8sin15) = 4.14 m

h 2 +w 2 = 4.96 m

h
a

b
w
We find

F12 = (1 / 8 ) [( 4.96 + 4.96 ) ( 4.14 + 2.07 )] = 0.463.

<

The same result can be found using the second and fourth view factors in Table 13.1, along with
Equations 13.5 and 13.6.
From Eq. 13.5 with i = 3 and j representing
the combination (24),

F3-(24) = F32 + F34.

Then from Table 13.1 4th entry,

1
F3-(24) = (w3+w24bd)/2w3 = (4+84.96)/8 = 0.880
Continued...

PROBLEM 13.6 (Cont.)

From Table 13.1, 2nd entry, F34 = 1sin(30/2) = 0.741. Thus F32 = 0.8800.741 = 0.139. Using Eq. 13.5
again, with i representing the combination of (13) and j representing the combination (24),
F(13)-(24) = F(13)-2 + F(13)-4
F(13)-4 can be found using reciprocity, namely F(13)-4 = A4F4-(13)/A13 = A4F3-(24)/A13 = 0.5F3-(24) = 0.440.
Then from Table 13.1, 2nd entry, it can be seen that F(13)-(24) = F34 = 0.741. Thus,
F(13)-2 = F(13)-(24) F(13)-4 = 0.301
Finally, from Eq. 13.6, with i = 2 and j representing the combination (13),
A13F(13)-2 = A1F12 + A3F32
Therefore,
F12 = (A13F(13)-2 A3F32)/A1 = (80.301 40.139)/4 = 0.463.
(d) Semi-circle and plate at angle to each other.
The edge and diagonal distances are

2
ac = 8 m, bc = 0 m, ad = 2(8sin15) = 4.14 m, bd = 8 m

d
We find

b,c

F12 = (1 / 16 ) [( 8 + 8 ) ( 4.14 + 0 )] = 0.741.

<

The same result can be found using view factor relations in Table 13.1. Since radiation traveling from 1
to 2 must pass through 3, F12 = F13. From Table 13.1, 2nd entry,
F12 = 1sin(30/2) = 0.741
COMMENTS: (1) Hottels method can be a significant time-saver. (2) The application of Hottels
method to cases where the view is obstructed between the two surfaces is discussed in Siegel, R., J.R.
Howell, and M.P. Menguc, Thermal Radiation Heat Transfer, 5th ed., CRC Press, Taylor & Francis
Group, New York, 2010 and in Modest, M.F., Radiative Heat Transfer, 2nd ed., Academic Press, San
Diego, 2003.

PROBLEM 13.7
KNOWN: Right-circular cylinder of diameter D, length L and the areas A1, A2, and A3 representing
the base, inner lateral and top surfaces, respectively.
FIND: (a) Show that the view factor between the base of the cylinder and the inner lateral surface has
the form

LMe
N

F12 = 2 H 1 + H 2

1/ 2

OP
Q

where H = L/D, and (b) Show that the view factor for the inner lateral surface to itself has the form

F22 = 1 + H 1 + H 2

1/ 2

SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: Diffuse surfaces with uniform radiosities.

ANALYSIS: (a) Relation for F12, base-to-inner lateral surface. Apply the summation rule to A1,
noting that F11 = 0

F11 + F12 + F13 = 1

F12 = 1 F13

(1)

From Table 13.2, Fig. 13.5, with i = 1, j = 3,

F13 =

|RS L
|T NM

g OQP |UV|
W

1
2 1/ 2
S S2 4 D3 / D1
2

S = 1+

1 + R 23
R12

1
R2

+ 2 = 4 H2 + 2

(2)

(3)

where R1 = R3 = R = D/2L and H = L/D. Combining Eqs. (2) and (3) with Eq. (1), find after some
manipulation
Continued

PROBLEM 13.7 (Cont.)

R|
LMe
S|
N
T
1/ 2
L
O
F12 = 2 H Me1 + H 2 j H P
N
Q

j OPQ

1/ 2
2
1
2
2
F12 = 1 4 H + 2 4 H + 2 4
2

U|
V|
W
(4)

(b) Relation for F22, inner lateral surface. Apply summation rule on A2, recognizing that F23 = F21,

F21 + F22 + F23 = 1

F22 = 1 2 F21

(5)

Apply reciprocity between A1 and A2,

F21 = A1 / A 2 F12

(6)

and substituting into Eq. (5), and using area expressions

F22 = 1 2

A1
1
D
F12 = 1 2
F12 = 1
F12
A2
2H
4L

(7)

where A1 = D /4 and A2 = DL.

Substituting from Eq. (4) for F12, find

F22 = 1

LMe
N

OP
Q

1/ 2
1/ 2
1
H = 1 + H 1+ H2
2 H 1 + H2
2H

<

PROBLEM 13.8
KNOWN: Arrangement of plane parallel rectangles.
FIND: Show that the view factor between A1 and A2 can be expressed as

F12 =

1
A 1,4 F 1,4 2,3 A1 F13 A 4 F42
2 A1

b g b gb g

where all Fij on the right-hand side of the equation can be evaluated from Fig. 13.4 (see Table 13.2)
for aligned parallel rectangles.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: Diffuse surfaces with uniform radiosity.

ANALYSIS: Using the additive rule where the parenthesis denote a composite surface,
* + A F + A F + A F*
A(1,4 ) F(*1,4 )( 2,3) = A1 F13
1 12
4 43
4 42

(1)

where the asterisk (*) denotes that the Fij can be evaluated using the relation of Figure 13.4. Now,
find suitable relation for F43. By symmetry,

F43 = F21

(2)

and from reciprocity between A1 and A2,

F21 =

A1
F12
A2

(3)

Multiply Eq. (2) by A4 and substitute Eq. (3), with A4 = A2,

A 4 F43 = A 4 F21 = A 4

A1
F12 = A1 F12
A2

(4)

Substituting for A4 F43 from Eq. (4) into Eq. (1), and rearranging,

F12 =

1
* A F*
A(1,4 ) F(*1,4 )( 2,3) A1 F13
4 42

2 A1

<

PROBLEM 13.9
KNOWN: Two perpendicular rectangles not having a common edge.
FIND: (a) Shape factor, F12, and (b) Compute and plot F12 as a function of Zb for 0.05 Zb 0.4 m;
compare results with the view factor obtained from the two-dimensional relation for perpendicular
plates with a common edge, Table 13.1.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) All surfaces are diffuse, (2) Plane formed by A1 + A3 is perpendicular to plane
of A2.
ANALYSIS: (a) Introducing the hypothetical surface A3, we can write

F2( 3,1) = F23 + F21.

(1)

Using Fig. 13.6, applicable to perpendicular rectangles with a common edge, find
F23 = 0.19 :

with Y = 0.3, X = 0.5,

F2( 3,1) = 0.25 :

Z = Za Z b = 0.2, and

with Y = 0.3, X = 0.5, Za = 0.4, and

Y
X

0.3
0.5

Y
X

0.3

= 0.6,

0.5

X 0.5
Z 0.4
=
= 0.8
X 0.5

= 0.6,

0.2

= 0.4

Hence from Eq. (1)

F21 = F2( 3.1) F23 = 0.25 0.19 = 0.06

By reciprocity,

F12 =

A2
0.5 0.3m 2
F21 =
0.06 = 0.09
A1
0.5 0.2 m 2

(2)

<

(b) Using the IHT Tool View Factors for Perpendicular Rectangles with a Common Edge and Eqs.
(1,2) above, F12 was computed as a function of Zb. Also shown on the plot below is the view factor
F(3,1)2 for the limiting case Zb Za.

PROBLEM 13.10
KNOWN: Arrangement of perpendicular surfaces without a common edge.
FIND: (a) A relation for the view factor F14 and (b) The value of F14 for prescribed dimensions.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Diffuse surfaces.

ANALYSIS: (a) To determine F14, it is convenient to define the hypothetical surfaces A2 and A3.
From Eq. 13.6,
( A1 + A 2 ) F(1,2 )( 3,4 ) = A1 F1( 3,4 ) + A 2 F2( 3,4 )

where F(1,2)(3,4) and F2(3,4) may be obtained from Fig. 13.6. Substituting for A1 F1(3,4) from Eq. 13.5
and combining expressions, find
A1 F1( 3,4 ) = A1 F13 + A1 F14

F14 =

1
( A1 + A 2 ) F(1,2 )( 3,4 ) A1 F13 A 2 F2( 3,4 ) .
A1

Substituting for A1 F13 from Eq. 13.6, which may be expressed as

( A1 + A 2 ) F(1,2 )3 = A1 F13 + A 2 F23.
The desired relation is then
1
F14 =
( A1 + A 2 ) F(1,2 )( 3,4 ) + A 2 F23 ( A1 + A 2 ) F(1,2 )3 A 2 F2( 3,4 ) .
A1
(b) For the prescribed dimensions and using Fig. 13.6, find these view factors:
L +L
L +L
F(1,2 )( 3,4 ) = 0.22
Surfaces (1,2)(3,4)
( Y / X ) = 1 2 = 1, ( Z / X ) = 3 4 = 1.45,
W
W
L
L
F23 = 0.28
Surfaces 23
( Y / X ) = 2 = 0.5, ( Z / X ) = 3 = 1,
W
W
L
L +L
Surfaces (1,2)3
F(1,2 )3 = 0.20
( Y / X ) = 1 2 = 1, ( Z / X ) = 3 = 1,
W
W
L +L
L
Surfaces 2(3,4)
F2( 3,4 ) = 0.31
( Y / X ) = 2 = 0.5, ( Z / X ) = 3 4 = 1.5,
W
W
Using the relation above, find
1
F14 =
[( WL1 + WL2 ) 0.22 + ( WL2 ) 0.28 ( WL1 + WL2 ) 0.20 ( WL2 ) 0.31]
( WL1 )

<

F14 = [ 2 ( 0.22 ) + 1( 0.28 ) 2 ( 0.20 ) 1( 0.31)] = 0.01.

<