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Approved objectives:
Find out which boosting method might be the best for automotive applications. What next for Diesel engine technology?
1.
Understand the background of the Diesel (CI) engine. How does a Diesel engine work? What are the main components?
Explain what it means to downsize them.
2.
What are the different methods for boosting a Diesel engine? Identify the boosting methods. Consider these devices
individually, and then compare and contrast them. Also reflect on boosting using different combinations of the devices.
3.
Talk about less used technology. Hybrid electro-diesel motors. KERS. These are systems, which boost the engine, but are
not integral to the engine like the turbocharger. What next for the Diesel engine? Being already downsized, are they at their
downsizing limit?
4.
Conclude with answers to question: what is the best method to boost a downsized diesel CI engine? What is the next step
for automotive diesel?
1!
ABSTRACT
This review will analyse the technology currently available or under development (or research) that enables extreme diesel engine
downsizing. Although different methods will be specified, the focus will be on positive-displacement devices and their
derivatives, as they are they can help the engine provide significantly more boosted power. The advantages, disadvantages, and
any recently published literature of these systems will be considered in depth. Next, the different downsizing enablers will be
contrasted. Ultimately, there are two aims: to determine what might be the best existing boosting method, and to evaluate the
future of the downsized diesel engine. It is clear that the best boosting method for downsizing a diesel engine largely depends on
the application. Furthermore, the diesel engine - although fast approaching its downsize limit could benefit enormously from
complimentary downsizing enablers, such as KERS, and BREES.
2!
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT!
2!
INTRODUCTION!
5!
5!
5!
6!
6!
6!
6!
6!
TURBOCHARGERS!
6!
WASTE-GATED TURBOCHARGER!
VARIABLE GEOMETRY TURBOCHARGERS!
VARIABLE GEOMETRY COMPRESSOR!
ACTIVE CONTROL TURBOCHARGER!
TWIN-SCROLL/DOUBLE ENTRY!
MULTI-STAGE TURBOCHARGING!
SERIES MULTI-STAGE!
PARALLEL MULTI-STAGE!
7!
7!
7!
7!
7!
8!
8!
8!
SUPERCHARGERS!
8!
ROOTS!
VARIABLE SPEED SUPERCHARGING!
LONTRA BLADE SUPERCHARGER!
8!
8!
9!
E-HYBRIDISATION!
9!
ELECTRIC TURBOCHARGING!
ELECTRICALLY ASSISTED TURBOCHARGER!
TURBOCHARGER WITH ELECTRICALLY DRIVEN COMPRESSOR!
ELECTRICALLY SPLIT TURBOCHARGER!
ELECTRIC SUPERCHARGING!
TURBOSUPERGENERATOR!
9!
9!
10!
10!
11!
11!
TURBO-COMPOUNDING!
12!
MECHANICAL!
ELECTRICAL!
12!
13!
DOWN-SPEEDING!
13!
COMPOUND BOOSTING!
13!
OTHER TECHNOLOGIES!
14!
AIR HYBRID!
TURBO-DISCHARGING!
RANKINE CYCLE!
KINETIC ENERGY RECOVERY SYSTEMS!
14!
14!
14!
15!
DISCUSSION!
15!
CONCLUSION!
16!
3!
REFERENCES!
17!
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS!
20!
APPENDIX!
21!
BIBLIOGRAPHY!
DEFINITIONS/ABBREVIATIONS!
21!
21!
4!
INTRODUCTION
DIESEL ENGINE: OVERVIEW &
BACKGROUND
Pioneered by Dr Rudolf Diesel in 1893, the diesel engine is
a compression ignition (CI), internal combustion (IC)
engine, which can operate on a 2- or 4-stroke cycle (1). The
diesel engine differs from the gasoline engine because it
uses diesel fuel, and does not ignite the fuel/air mixture with
a spark. Instead, the diesel engine draws in air from the
intake manifold into the cylinder and compresses it, which
causes its temperature to rise. The fuel is then injected
directly into the combustion chamber (cylinder), and ignites
due to the extreme temperature. The fuel/air mixture burns,
which releases energy and forces the piston down (1).
Regulating the amount of fuel injected in each cycle controls
the speed of the diesel engine. This is much unlike its
gasoline-fuelled counterpart, which throttles the air supply
in order to control its speed.
It is important to note that such regulations affect all cars big or small. Downsizing seems to be the industrys main
solution, although designing a highly downsized engine with
acceptable driveability is a concern to manufacturers. This,
in general, is resolved by integrating a downsizing enabler,
such as a turbocharger.
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EQUATION 1
5!
VALVETRAIN
The valve timing of the engine is instrumental as it governs
the entire combustion process. Variable Valve Timing
(VVT) allows the engine to operate the valves with different
timings depending on engine speed. This increases power
and torque output. It is obvious to see why this is relevant to
downsizing. VVT also enables better exhaust gas
recirculation, which improves fuel efficiency. The engine
control unit (ECU) is used to regulate the VVT in many
modern engines (13).
BASIC THEORY
For the sake of clarity, it would help to define some
important terminology often used to quantify engines.
Pumping losses is the energy lost through compression and
moving the air in and out of the cylinder (13). The break
mean effective pressure (BMEP; N/m2) is the engine work
output, measured by a brake. It is the work, per cylinder, per
mechanical cycle, divided by the swept volume per cylinder.
The BMEP can be used to compare engines regardless of
displacement (2). The volumetric efficiency is the volume of
ambient air per cylinder, per cycle, divided by cylinder
volume it measures the effectiveness the induction and
exhaust processes (2). The break specific fuel consumption
(BSFC) measures the fuel efficiency of the engine (2).
ANCILLARY SYSTEMS
FUEL DELIVERY
As the fuel injection system controls the engine speed, its
design is paramount. The systems used in automotive
applications have varied from being mechanically or
electronically controlled.
The common rail injection system, pioneered by Bosch
GmbH, has been instrumental in facilitating very efficient,
high-speed automotive diesel engine (1). Diesel fuel is best
injected at very high pressure, which in a common rail
system is produced by a pump. The pressurised fuel is fed to
a common pipe (or rail) whilst its pressure is maintained.
Individual injectors, which are connected to the rail, feed the
fuel to the cylinders. High-pressure fuel is constantly
available, and can be injected with unparalleled timing
precision. The common rail injection increases fuel
efficiency, torque, and power, whilst reducing CO, CO2, and
particle pollutants (13). It has been proposed that in the
future, for downsizing purposes, very high-pressure
common rail systems will be developed (7).
!
TURBOCHARGERS
A turbocharger (or turbo) is a forced induction device,
integrated with an internal combustion engine, with the view
to improve its performance. It converts waste exhaust
energy into engine power (13). In its most basic form, the
turbocharger is a turbine (coupled to the engine exhaust),
and a compressor (coupled to the engine intake) on a
common shaft. As the turbine expands the exhaust gas, it
extracts energy and rotates. This causes the compressor to
also rotate and increase the density of air charge in the
combustion chamber (cylinder). The most basic design of
the turbocharger is the Fixed Geometry Turbocharger
(FGT). The FGT suffers from a major drawback: turbo-lag.
At low engine speed, the exhaust gas mass flow rate is low,
which means that the turbine is not able to draw sufficient
6!
WASTE-GATED TURBOCHARGER
Following the development of the turbocharger, a major
problem became evident. As the engine speed increases, so
does the exhaust mass flow rate. The turbine spins faster
and, as a result, so does the compressor. It is clear that boost
pressure is proportional to engine speed (13). Typically, a
turbocharger will be designed in order to boost low speed
power/torque, and therefore the compressor will be geared
to provide high pressure at low speed. However, when the
engine is at high speed, the compressor can over-boost the
engine, potentially causing damage to the engine and
turbomachinery. The wastegate acts as a valve, allowing the
exhaust gas to bypass the turbocharger under these
conditions. The wastegate is often controlled by the ECU
(13).
TWIN-SCROLL/DOUBLE ENTRY
The turbocharger can benefit from either twin or double
entry turbines. Double entry turbines have 2 entry ports.
Twin scroll turbines emulate a two-turbocharger system by
using one turbine fed by two exhaust pipes (23). At high
speed, the double entry turbine is more efficient, but at
partial load the twin scroll is better (19).
MULTI-STAGE TURBOCHARGING
A multi-stage turbocharger (or twin-turbocharger, and
sometimes bi-turbocharger) has more than one compressor
or turbine stage. There are, of course, many different
arrangements of compressors/turbines, with the aim of the
system being to boost the engines intake pressure and
improve transient response. It is a commonly used
technology in the automotive industry. Multi-stage
turbocharging can be split into categories of series or
parallel, as well as continuous or sequential. The different
stages of the turbocharger can also be identical or different
sizes, depending on the desired characteristics (19).
However, a multi-stage turbo system implies that the use of
multiple turbochargers for which a downsized diesel engine
might not produce enough exhaust power. Manufacturers
have used such systems in engines of 2.0 litres displacement
or larger (Subaru, Mitsubishi, and Nissan are examples).
However as turbine compressor inertias become
progressively lower, this displacement threshold is dropping
(25).
ROOTS
The Roots is a positive-displacement device (pump). It is
comprised of two rotors, which rotate in order to compress
the air. The rotors do not mesh, which means that the
supercharger does not have to be lubricated in the
compression chamber (27). It is a reliable and simple
design. However, the original design of the Roots blower
made it noisy, low isentropic efficiency
(27).
A Roots-based supercharger in production is the Eaton TVS,
which is significantly more efficient, quieter, and operates
faster than the original design (28). Other aspects, which
will be considered later, make Eatons supercharger
attractive in compound boosting for downsized engines.
SERIES MULTI-STAGE
In series multi-stage turbos, there are two turbines fed by the
exhaust serially, which power either a small, high-pressure
compressor and a large, low-pressure compressor. The type
of compressor being powered depends on the engine
speed/load. The series multi-stage system does not produce
very high boost, and is thus not appropriate for high power
output diesel engines (19).
PARALLEL MULTI-STAGE
Parallel twin-turbocharging uses turbochargers of the same
size, which are powered by different exhaust lines. As
exhaust gas is pulsating, an exhaust manifold is connected to
a group of sequentially firing cylinders, in order to maintain
suitable energy levels. This manifold is linked to one
turbine. There are at least two turbochargers in this
arrangement. The air is compressed by the turbochargers
independently, and then mixed (19).
Sequential and Continuous
SUPERCHARGERS
The supercharger is another device, which boosts the engine
intake air density. It is best described as a compressor,
which is directly driven by the engine output (crankshaft).
Notably - unlike the turbocharger - the supercharger does
not suffer from turbo-lag. This is very desirable in the
downsized diesel engine where, in order to attain a higher
efficiency, it should be boosted when running at low loads
(14).
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8!
E-HYBRIDISATION
FIGURE!2!DIFFERENT!CONFIGURATIONS!OF!ELECTRICALLY!HYBRIDIZED!TURBOCHARGER!!(60)
ELECTRIC TURBOCHARGING
The electrical hybridisation of a turbocharger has a number
of benefits. Notably, during a transient (i.e. acceleration or
load change), it would provide improved air delivery to the
engine (15), which would reduce turbo-lag
(31). A
hybridised
turbocharger
involves
including
a
motor/generator at some stage it can be integrated in a
number of different arrangements. Electric turbochargers
could allow the diesel engine to operate in a smaller, slower
speed range (15). Additionally, all electric turbocharger
configurations would allow the engine to benefit from
increased power output (32,33).
10!
TURBOSUPERGENERATOR
Integral Powertrain (IP) (43) have developed a novel
technology known as the TurboSuperGenerator (TSG),
which seems to allow aggressive diesel downsizing. This
system is based on IPs SuperGen - a device that replaces
the engine alternator while providing mild-hybrid boosting.
It is predicted that the SuperGen will be integrated in
production cars some time between 2013-2015. The TSG
system consists of a low-pressure (VGT) turbocharger, and
the SuperGen device (essentially a hybridised supercharger).
The SuperGen is placed after the turbocharger, and acts as
the high-pressure compressor stage, making it a series
two-stage boosting system. Crucially, the TSG allows
greater range of EGR rates, which reduces emissions so that
Euro 6 targets can be met. The system also greatly increases
transient response of fitted diesel vehicles. Integral
Powertrain promises that the TSG can allow for an
aggressive downsizing by a ratio of up 2.5 without
compromising on driveability. Also the TSG offers modest
fuel saving benefits. IP have demonstrated that a TSG
prototype-fitted downsized engine generated a faster vehicle
acceleration time than a normal-sized naturally aspirated or
a sequentially turbocharged engine. When compared with an
Eaton supercharger, allegedly the SuperGen is significantly
more efficient at all boost conditions. (43).
FIGURE!6!BORGWARNER!EBOOSTER!DESIGN!!(33)
ELECTRIC SUPERCHARGING
The electric supercharger (e-super) is a compressor driven
by an electric motor. It should not be mistaken with a device
commonly sold on the Internet with highly dubious
performance claims (38). It is likened to an e-turbo without
a turbine (19). Like its predecessor the supercharger the
e-supers impeller increases the intake manifold pressure
(39). Unlike the original supercharger, it is not mechanically
connected to the engine (belt or gear). Nor does it harvest
energy from the exhaust (40). Typically, the e-super will
consist of a centrifugal compressor, inverter, high-speed
motor (permanent magnet or otherwise), and an electrical
energy storage device (battery). Currently, models under
development are designed to work on 12V (40,41), 24V
(42), or 42V (39) vehicle architecture. The e-super can be
used standalone for boost in naturally aspirate engines, or in
conjunction with a turbocharger (42).
The electric supercharger eliminates turbo-lag in a
turbocharged engine, as well as increases the boost pressure.
The device also provides boost at low engine speed, making
it beneficial to downsized diesel applications (39). It is also
very compact, and easy to install into existing vehicle
platforms (42). An electric supercharger developed by
CPT/Valeo boasts fuel consumption savings of up to 10%
(42).
A current problem facing the development of the e-super is
the fact that presently, cars are being designed to work on
12V architecture. This is a problem also faced by e-turbos.
!
11!
TURBO-COMPOUNDING
Turbo-compounding was commonly used in large
displacement aero engines (Napier Nomad, Case Steiger and
Detroit Diesel DD15 (26)). It is now making a comeback as
promising technology for automotive engines. Much of the
fuel energy consumed by a diesel engine (30-40%) is lost to
its environment (44). It is therefore possible to recoup a
considerable amount of work through the exhaust, which
would increase the engines efficiency. Turbo-compounding
a diesel engine would increase the BSFC and lower
pollutant levels (such as CO2) (44). There are two methods
to turbo-compound an engine: mechanical and electrical.
The primary issue with turbo-compounding is an increase in
backpressure on the exhaust system, which increases
pumping losses. Also in order to drive both the turbocharger
and downstream turbine, exhaust manifold pressure must be
raised. However the effects of this can affect engine balance
(45). This causes a loss of engine power. Clearly this limits
the amount of energy extractable from the exhaust.
MECHANICAL
FIGURE!7!MECHANICAL!TURBOCOMPOUND!SCHEMATIC!!(44)
12!
DOWN-SPEEDING
A technique, which has recently garnered attention in
research literature, is engine down-speeding. Downspeeding is when the engine is run at a lower average speed
in order to make it operate at a higher efficiency. For
example, when a car is driven at low engine revs (i.e. very
low velocity, or in high gear), the engine consumes far less
fuel. Essentially down-speeding imitates this. Used
alongside downsizing, and forced induction/boosting, downspeeding improves drive cycle fuel consumption. It is
particularly relevant in downsized engine design, because
current production models of the diesel are quickly
approaching the industry accepted downsizing limit (49).
ELECTRICAL
COMPOUND BOOSTING
It is possible to combine the use turbochargers and
superchargers as a multistage system on an engine in order
to achieve certain transient and steady state characteristics.
The different configurations enable aggressive engine
downsizing and down-speeding.
Keidel et al. (50) conducted a study on supercharging and
down-speeding a heavy-duty diesel engine. The
investigation considered the effects of different boosting
arrangements, down-speeding, and EGR on the engine. The
findings of this work determined an increase in drive cycle
fuel economy, while transient efficiency improvements leapt
dramatically. Two forms of compound boosting are
identified: the Super-Turbo, and the Turbo-Super. These
compound boosting methods both use a supercharger and
turbocharger, but in each case the devices serve slightly
different purposes. In the Super-Turbo system, the
supercharger is the low-pressure compressor, and the
13!
FIGURE!8!VANDYNE!SUPERTURBO!!(47)
turbocharger provides high-pressure boost. In the TurboSuper, this is the opposite (51). The reason for using either
the Super-Turbo (S-T) or Turbo-Super (T-S) is so that the
boosting system can be optimised for certain engine load
points. Furthermore, the turbocharger and supercharger
complement each other by compensating for when either is
not functioning optimally (e.g. turbocharger inefficient at
low engine rpm). It is noted that in such an arrangement, a
FGT can substitute a VGT while still meeting EGR and
power requirements (50).
TURBO-DISCHARGING
This technology is designed to work auxiliary to a
turbocharger. It is the installation of turbine to extract
energy from the exhaust in order to depressurise the exhaust
manifold. The depressurisation is caused by a compressor
pump located downstream of the turbine, with its output is
connected to the exhaust. This design reduces pumping
losses, reduces the residual gas fraction, and improves
engine fuel consumption. It does not affect the combustion
process. It can be applied to most internal combustion
engines, and does not alter the engine design significantly.
Turbo-discharging works by isolating the exhaust blowdown
from the displacement pulse. The exhaust blowdown pulse
is the energy in the exhaust from the expanding gases in the
cylinder. The pistons movement causes the displacement
pulse in the exhaust flow. The pressure ratio across the
turbocharger is increased (52).
A further study (49) of sequential twin-turbocharger, turbosuper, super-turbo applications on a passenger car diesel
found that the supercharged systems produced better fuel
consumption figures. The T-S system displayed better drive
cycle fuel economy than the S-T.
OTHER TECHNOLOGIES
RANKINE CYCLE
AIR HYBRID
14!
Earlier work by Endo et al (55) found that a Rankine cycleequipped hybrid vehicle (using power recovered through a
configuration of heat exchangers and a turbine to generate
electricity) exhibited a sizeable (13.8%) increase in thermal
efficiency.
FIGURE!9!FUEL!CONSUMPTION!AND!CO2!PROJECTION!FOR!DIESEL!
&!GASOLINE!ENGINES!!(19)
A study (56) into downsizing a 1.2 litre diesel with the help
of a KERS powertrain concluded that the engine showed a
reduction of CO2 emissions and improved fuel energy use by
more than 10% when compared with than current, modern
hybrid electric vehicles. The study compared a baseline
1.6TDI diesel engine with the aforementioned 1.2TDI
downsized KERS-equipped engine, and showed the smaller
engine used 30% less fuel.
DISCUSSION
It is clear that the VGT reigns supreme for current diesel
engine technology. However, to enable further, aggressive
downsizing, the VGT is not well equipped. Perhaps the
variable geometry compressor will play a roll in the next
generation of turbochargers, as it is a straightforward
method to increase control over the turbocharger. Also it is
evident that the best turbocharged system to downsize the
diesel with is the multi-stage turbocharger. The multi-stage
turbocharger offers ideal transient and steady state
!
CONCLUSION
It is clear that the best boosting method for downsizing a
diesel engine largely depends on the application.
Furthermore, the diesel engine - although fast approaching
its downsize limit could benefit enormously from
complimentary downsizing enablers, such as KERS, and
BREES.
16!
!REFERENCES!
(38)
[Online]
Available
http://www.electricsupercharger.com/
05/12/2013].
from:
[Accessed
18!
from:
(43)
Integral
Powertrain's
SuperGenerator
'SuperGen'.
[Online]
Available
from:
http://www.integralp.com/technologies/boosting_techn
ologies/SuperGen.htm [Accessed 12/12/2013].
19!
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would like to acknowledge and thank Professor
R. F. Martinez-Botas for his continued support and guidance
throughout this literature review project.
20!
APPENDIX
DEFINITIONS/ABBREVIATIONS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
www.autozine.org
Torotrak
www.torotrak.com
CI Compression Ignition
www.fallbrooktech.com
BorgWarner
www.borgwarner.com
Eaton
Volumetric/Combustion/Thermal/Mechanical Efficiency
www.eaton.com
VanDyne
www.vandynesuperturbo.com
Lontra
IC Internal Combustion
www.lontra.co.uk
! Engine Speed
Valeo/CPT
www.valeo.com
Aeristech
www.aeristech.co.uk
Integral Powertrain
www.integralp.com
21!