ACI STRUCTURAL JOURNAL
Title no. 107-S01
Experimental Study of Reinforced Concrete Bridge
Columns Subjected to Near-Fault Ground Motions
by Hoon Choi, M. Saiid Saiidi, Paul Somerville, and Saad El-Azazy
Recorded fault normal, near-fault earthquakes typically exhibit a
high-velocity pulse due to the superposition of S-waves. Shake
table tests were conducted to investigate the effects of near-fault
ground motions on the seismic performance of bridge columns that
are designed for near-fault earthquakes. Four large-scale reinforced
concrete circular columns with different initial periods were tested. The
design spectra included the current California Department of
Transportation spectrum and a new spectrum developed in this
study. The most distinct measured column response was the
relatively large residual displacements even under moderate levels
of motion. The shake table test results revealed that it is necessary
to control residual displacement at the design stage. The data also
showed that the plastic hinge length in sufficiently confined
columns subjected to near-fault earthquakes is comparable to that
of columns experiencing far-field motions.
Keywords: bridge column; dynamic response; near-fault ground motion;
reinforced concrete; residual displacement.
INTRODUCTION
Ground motion records obtained in recent major earthquakes
have shown that near-fault ground motions are different from
far-field motions, which form the basis of most seismic
design guidelines. Near-fault ground motions often contain a
strong and long period velocity pulse that could cause severe
structural damage. Because many near-fault ground motions
have been recorded mostly in recent years, the importance of
high-velocity earthquake pulse on structures has only
recently been realized.
The typical approach in current seismic design provisions
to address the near-fault earthquake effects is to amplify the
base line design earthquake forces by either increasing the
ground acceleration or directly applying a modification
factor on the design base shear. The California Department
of Transportation (Caltrans) Seismic Design Criteria (SDC)
(2004) document requires site-specific analysis of potential
earthquakes when the bridge is located near a known active
fault for critical bridges. This process is costly and long.
“Near-fault” is defined as a region within 10 miles (16.1 km,
but rounded to 15 km) of the fault. For noncritical bridges,
the Caltrans SDC specifies a correction factor of up to 1.2
that is applied to spectral acceleration for far-field ground
motions. This amplification factor only affects the demand
part of the design procedure. More than 73% of bridges in
California are close to known active faults (personal
communication 2005). Data for other earthquake-prone
states are not available. Nonetheless, the data for California
indicate that near-fault earthquake effects could be
potentially critical.
The effects of near-fault ground motions on structures
have been studied by a number of researchers. According to
studies by Abrahamson (1998), directivity (dependence on
the rupture direction) is one of the primary factors affecting
ACI Structural Journal/January-February 2010
TECHNICAL PAPER
motion in the near-fault region. Near-fault ground motions
may include a strong pulse only if the rupture direction runs
toward the site.
Somerville (2002) reported that near-fault forward rupture
directivity velocity pulse is a narrow band pulse whose
period increases with magnitude. This magnitude dependence of
the pulse causes the response spectrum to have a peak whose
period increases with magnitude, such that the near-fault
ground motions from smaller earthquakes may exceed those
of larger earthquakes at intermediate periods (approximately
1 second). Chopra and Chintanapakdee (2001) concluded
that the velocity-sensitive region for near-fault motion
spectra is much narrower, and the acceleration-sensitive
and displacement-sensitive regions are much wider,
compared to far-field motions.
A study by Hamilton et al. (2001) found reduction in
plastic hinge length under pulse-type ground motions based
on quasi-static and pseudo-dynamic column test results.
High strain rates were measured in columns subjected to a
loading protocol that included effects of impulsive near-fault
ground motions in a study by Gibson et al. (2002). The study
states that the effects of impulsive loading can be included
by modifying the steel and concrete properties for the high
strain rate induced during impulsive loading. The studies by
both Hamilton et al. (2001) and Gibson et al. (2002) also
concluded that impulsive loading has little effect on the displace-
ment ductility capacity for well-detailed flexural columns.
Kawashima et al. (1998) reported that residual displacement
magnitude is dominated by column stiffness ratio, which is
the plastic stiffness divided by the elastic stiffness. Other
parameters, such as structural period, soil type, ductility,
earthquake magnitude, or epicenter distance, are not significantly
correlated with residual displacement. Based on this finding, a
residual displacement prediction method was developed. They
stated that impulsive loads could potentially cause higher residual
displacements than those estimated using an analytical model
that they developed.
Phan et al. (2007) found that the most unique measured
response characteristic from two large-scale shake table
results was the large residual displacements. They found that
existing hysteresis models were unable to estimate residual
displacements accurately and developed a new hysteresis
model. A framework for the evaluation of reinforced
concrete bridge columns with respect to the control of
residual displacement was proposed.
ACI Structural Journal, V. 107, No. 1, January-February 2010
MS No. S-2007-400.R2 received April 22, 2009, and reviewed under Institute publication
policies. Copyright © 2010, American Concrete Institute. All rights reserved, including the
making of copies unless permission is obtained from the copyright proprietors. Pertinent
discussion including author’s closure, if any, will be published in the November-December
2010 ACI Structural Journal if the discussion is received by July 1, 2010.
3

Hoon Choi is a Bridge Engineer at URS Corporation in Roseville, CA. He received
his BS and an MS from Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Korea; his MS from Oregon
State University, Corvallis, OR; and his PhD in civil and environmental engineering
from the University of Nevada-Reno, Reno, NV, in 2008. His research interests
include structural testing, repair and retrofit of structures, and earthquake engineering of
reinforced concrete bridges.
M. Saiid Saiidi, FACI, is the Director of the University Office of Undergraduate
Research and a Professor of Civil & Environmental Engineering at the University of
Nevada-Reno. He is the founding (and a former) Chair and a current member of ACI
Committee 341, Earthquake-Resistant Concrete Bridges. He is also a member of ACI
Committee 318-D, Flexure and Axial Loads (Structural Concrete Building Code), and
Joint ACI-ASCE Committee 352, Joints and Connections in Monolithic Concrete
Structures. He has served on several other ACI committees in various forms including
subcommittee Chair.
Paul Somerville is a Principal Seismologist and Manager of the Pasadena Office of
URS Corporation. He received his BSc from the University of New England, Australia,
and his MSc and PhD from the University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC,
Canada. His research interests include the development of physics-based strong
motion prediction models.
Saad El-Azazy is the Seismic Research Program Manager at the California
Department of Transportation (Caltrans). He received his BS from Cairo University,
Giza, Egypt, and his MS and PhD from the Ohio State University, Columbus, OH. His
research interests include bridge seismic retrofit and performance of new bridges.
The purpose of the study presented in this paper was to
investigate near-fault ground motion effects on reinforced
concrete bridge columns that are designed for near-fault
earthquakes using shake table testing and analysis. To
accomplish this goal, four large-scale reinforced concrete
bridge columns, which were designed according to the
current Caltrans seismic design criteria (SDC) (2004) and
new proposed design spectra, were tested on a shake table
under near-fault ground motions.
RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE
Near-fault motions in recent earthquakes have been particularly
destructive due to their high-velocity pulse. Only a limited
number of experimental studies have focused on near-fault
motion effects on concrete structures and, except for the
study by Phan et al. (2007), none have simulated representative
near-fault earthquakes using shake tables. Specific design
provisions have been developed by Caltrans. The effectiveness of
these provisions, however, has not been studied. In the study
presented in this paper, dynamic shake table testing with
realistic near-fault ground motion records was used to
evaluate the performance of bridge columns and determine
if the current Caltrans near-fault provisions and proposed
design response spectra are satisfactory.
CHARACTERISTICS OF NEAR-FAULT
GROUND MOTIONS
Near-fault ground motions, which have caused much of
the damage in recent major earthquakes, typically contain a
strong velocity pulse in the fault normal direction. Forward
rupture directivity occurs because the rupture front propagates at
the same velocity as the site shear wave velocity (Abrahamson
1998). Measured records and analytical studies have shown
that forward directivity leads to high-velocity impulsive
shaking on structures with a relatively long period (T >
0.5 seconds) because of the superposition of S-waves
emanating from different parts of the fault as it ruptures. In
the rear of the rupture direction, however, the arrival times
for the waves from different parts of the ruptured fault are
different and, hence, a more distributed velocity history with
smaller amplitudes and longer duration is measured
(Somerville 2000).
4 ACI Structural Journal/January-February 2010
Near-fault ground motions also often contain permanent
ground displacements. These ground displacements are
caused by the relative movement of the two sides of the fault
in which the earthquake occurs. These displacements are
discontinuous across a fault having surface rupture and can
subject a bridge crossing a fault to significant differential
displacements. These static ground displacements occur at
approximately the same time as the large dynamic motions,
indicating that the static and dynamic displacements need to
be treated as coincident loads (Somerville 2002).
EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES
Test specimen details
Four large-scale reinforced concrete bridge columns were
designed, constructed, and tested in the Large Scale Structures
Laboratory in the University of Nevada-Reno (UNR). The
models were all flexure-dominated circular spiral columns
tested as cantilever members. The axial load index (defined
as the ratio of the axial load to the product of the gross
column section area and the specified concrete compressive
strength) was 0.08 and was representative of the axial index
in typical modern bridge columns, which ranges from 0.05 to
0.1 (personal communication 2005). The design of the full-
scale prototypes was completed first, followed by scaling of
the specimens for shake table testing. The models were
divided into two groups. The design of the first two was
based on the Caltrans SDC version 1.3 (Caltrans 2004) to
satisfy the current Caltrans near-fault provisions with a
target displacement ductility capacity of 5. The other two
columns (Group 2) were designed based on new spectra
that were developed in the course of this study.
The specimens in the first group were labeled MN and
ETN. The purpose of testing these models was to determine
the adequacy of the current Caltrans provisions for near-fault
ground motions. The difference between MN and ETN
was the initial cracked stiffness period of the prototypes
represented by these columns. The prototype period associated
with MN and ETN was 0.66 and 1.5 seconds, respectively.
MN was comparable to Columns 9F1 and NF-1 that were
tested previously at UNR (Choi et al. 2007). The design
of 9F1 and NF-1 was based on the Caltrans SDC (2004)
provisions for far-field earthquakes. Testing of MN
demonstrated the effect of using the provision of Caltrans
near-fault motion amplification on the response.
The second group, SETN and SVTN, one with a prototype
period of approximately 1.5 seconds (SETN) and the other
with a prototype period of close to 2 seconds (SVTN), were
designed based on a new spectrum that was developed in this
study to evaluate the effect of this spectrum on the response.
The soil type, seismicity of the site, and material properties
used in the design of the first group were used in the design
of the second group. Table 1 presents detailed information
for the test models. Data are also listed for two other
previously tested columns, 9F1 and NF-1, that will be
discussed subsequently.
SETN was designed to match the initial prototype period
of ETN. The Caltrans SDC3 provisions were used to design
both columns; however, the spectral acceleration for ETN
was based on the current Caltrans near-fault spectrum,
whereas spectral acceleration for SETN was determined
from the proposed spectrum. The goal was to determine the
effect of using different design spectra on similar columns.
The purpose of testing SVTN was to determine the response
of a long-period column designed according to the new Table 1—Specimen details
design spectrum. Group 1 Group 2
The scale of the specimens was 30% except for SVTN in NF-1/9F1 MN ETN SETN SVTN
which the relatively long target period necessitated a change Height,
1.8 (72) 1.6 (63) 2.8 (108.5) 2.8 (108.5) 2.5 (98.5)
of scale to 20% to accommodate the maximum height limit m (in.)
of the test setup. Details of MN are shown in Fig. 1. Other Diameter,
0.41 (16) 0.36 (14) 0.36 (14) 0.36 (14) 0.30 (12)
models were similar. The dimensions and reinforcement are m (in.)
listed in Table 1. Longitudinal
2.0 2.9 2.9 3.6 3.0
steel ratio, %
The specified yield strength for all the reinforcement was
420 MPa (60 ksi). The average measured yield strength of Transverse
0.92 1.37 1.54 2.05 1.82
steel ratio, %
the steel bar samples was 490 MPa (71 ksi) for MN and ETN,
Aspect ratio 4.5 4.5 7.75 7.75 8.2
441 MPa (64 ksi) for SETN, and 476 MPa (69 ksi) for
Caltrans Caltrans Caltrans Somerville Somerville
SVTN. The specified concrete compressive strength was ARS curve
far-field near-fault near-fault
34.5 MPa (5 ksi) with a 9.52 mm (3/8 in.) maximum aggregate Prototype
size. The average measured concrete strength at testing was 0.72 0.66 1.50 1.36 1.79
period, s
44.1 MPa (6.4 ksi) for MN and ETN, and 46.9 MPa (6.8 ksi) Spectral
1.275 1.397 0.750 0.953 0.825
for SETN and SVTN. acceleration, g
Scale, % 33 30 30 30 20
New acceleration response spectrum
The seismological part of the study included refinement of
existing broadband near-fault spectra to provide a realistic
level of demand incorporating forward rupture directivity
effects. A modified spectrum with site parameters similar to
the current Caltrans design spectrum that had been used to
design Specimen MN and ETN was developed. The new
spectrum is based on the median of the Abrahamson and
Silva (1997) relationship, and then adjusted for forward
directivity effects. Figure 2 shows the modified spectrum for
moment magnitude 7.5 and 0.6g peak ground acceleration
(PGA). Compared to the Caltrans near-fault spectrum, the
modified spectrum shows considerably higher spectral
accelerations (SA) at periods of 1.25 seconds or higher. At a
period of 2 seconds, the increase is approximately 35%. At
periods of 1ess than 1.25 seconds, however, the Caltrans
spectrum has higher spectral accelerations.

Test setup and instrumentation

The shake table test setup for all the test columns was
identical. The specimens were fixed to the shake table, and a
mass rig system that was rigidly connected to the top of the
columns provided the mechanism for inertial loading. The
total equivalent weight of the inertial mass was 276 kN
(62 kips) for MN, ETN, and SETN; and 200 kN (45 kips) for
SVTN. The axial load was applied using a hydraulic jack and
prestressing bars anchored to the shake table. The hydraulic
line for the axial load system was connected to an accumulator to
Fig. 1—Reinforcement details for Column MN.
minimize fluctuation of the axial load during testing.
Various instrumentations were used to measure the internal
strains, curvatures, displacements, accelerations, and forces.
Most of the instrumentations were located in the plastic using 10 near-fault ground motion records (including
hinge regions. Details of the instrumentation are presented in Rinaldi) showed that the Rinaldi record led to large ductility
Choi et al. (2007). demands without exceeding the shake table capacity
(Saiidi et al. 2005). One of the 10 records was synthetic and
Input motions the other nine were measured records collected in different
The fault normal component of the acceleration record at countries during different earthquakes of different
the Rinaldi receiving station recorded during the 1994 magnitudes. They all included relatively high-velocity
Northridge earthquake was simulated using a shake table. pulses. The time axis of the input record was compressed by
The distance from the station to the fault was 7.1 km (4.4 mi). the square root of the scale factor to account for the scale
The fault normal component of this motion has a peak ground effect. The original Rinaldi velocity history without time
acceleration of 0.838 g, a peak ground velocity of 1.66 m/s compression is presented in Fig. 3. Note that the velocity
[65.4 in./s], and a peak ground displacement of 289 mm amplitudes are also reduced by the square root of the scale
(11.3 in.) (Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research Center factor. The same reduction factor applies to the velocity of
2007). This record was selected because it contains forward far-field motion, thus maintaining the maximum velocity
directivity effects. Furthermore, pretest analytical studies ratio between near-fault and far-field motions.

ACI Structural Journal/January-February 2010 5

 Table 2—Loading program
MN ETN SETN SVTN
Target Target Target Target
Run Factor PGA, g Factor PGA, g Factor PGA, g Factor PGA, g
1 0.05R* 0.04 0.05R* 0.04 0.05R* 0.04 0.05R* 0.04
2 0.10R* 0.08 0.10R* 0.08 0.10R* 0.08 0.10R* 0.08
3 0.20R* 0.17 0.20R* 0.17 0.20R* 0.17 0.20R* 0.17
4 * 0.25 * 0.25 * 0.25 * 0.25
0.30R 0.30R 0.30R 0.30R
5 * 0.38 * 0.38 * 0.38 * 0.38
0.45R 0.45R 0.45R 0.45R
6 * 0.50 * 0.50 * 0.50 * 0.50
0.60R 0.60R 0.60R 0.60R
7 0.75R* 0.63 0.75R* 0.63 0.85S† 0.53 0.85S† 0.53
8 * 0.75 * 0.75 † 0.59 † 0.59
0.90R 0.90R 0.95S 0.95S
Fig. 2—Design spectra. 9 1.05R* 0.88 1.05R* 0.88 1.05S† 0.65 1.05S† 0.65
10 1.20R* 1.01 1.20R* 1.01 1.15S† 0.71 1.15S† 0.71
11 1.35R* 1.13 1.35R* 1.13 NA NA 1.25Sv 0.77
12 NA NA 1.50R* 1.26 NA NA 1.35S† 0.83
13 NA NA * 1.38 NA NA † 0.89
1.65R 1.45S
14 NA NA NA NA NA NA † 0.98
1.60S
15 NA NA NA NA NA NA † 1.08
1.75S
*
R is Rinaldi.
†
S is Rinaldi Receiving Station (RRS).
Note: NA is not available.

Fig. 3—Velocity record of Rinaldi and RRS motions.

Fig. 4—Acceleration histories of Rinaldi and RRS motions.
Multiple intensities of input motion were applied to the
test models in the north-south direction with gradually
increasing amplitudes to failure or when the shake table
reached its limit. This allowed the evaluation of the column
performance under different earthquake levels. The testing
program is presented in Table 2.
In SETN and SVTN, the Rinaldi Receiving Station (RRS)
motion was applied for high-amplitude tests to place high
ductility demand on the columns. The RRS record was a
synthetic motion generated by matching the Rinaldi motion
to the new acceleration response spectrum (Fig. 2). Figures 3 and
4 show the velocity and acceleration histories of the original
Rinaldi and RRS records. Like the actual Rinaldi motion, the
RRS velocity record shows a large pulse first, followed by
several medium-amplitude pulses.
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Specimen MN
Eleven simulated earthquake runs were applied on MN.
The specimen began to exhibit visible cracks after Run 2.
During Run 3, the north extreme longitudinal bar yielded.
Several flexural cracks were formed near the base on the
north side during Run 4. Because the primary direction of
displacements was toward the south, flexural cracks
extended on the north face of the column during subsequent
runs. The cover concrete started to spall at the column base
on the south face during Run 6. During Run 7, the spiral bar
yielded and four spirals were exposed, but there was no
visible core damage. After Run 8, the column exhibited
permanent displacement. The existing cracks on the north
side had widened and the spalled area increased through
tests. Damage to the core concrete was evident after Run 10.
During Run 11, one longitudinal bar ruptured, several other
longitudinal bars buckled, and damage penetrated the core
by approximately 51 mm (2 in.). Figure 5(a) shows MN after
failure, and Fig. 6(a) shows the permanent displacement
after the last test.
Specimen ETN
Thirteen simulated earthquake runs were applied on ETN.
Similar to MN, extensive damage was localized in the lower
third of the column. Damage during the first four runs was
limited to flexural cracks. Spalling began during Run 5.
Considerable concrete spalling at the column base was
observed after Run 6. Unlike MN, the direction of residual
displacement was changed to the north after Run 9. This was
because as the specimen softened and its period was elongated
and became close to the period of the return pulse in the input
record, thus causing reversal of residual displacement. After
Run 11, the residual displacement was visible and spirals
were exposed on both the north and south faces of the column.
Testing of ETN ended after Run 13 without any bar rupture
because, during Run 13, the mass rig system reached its
displacement limit of 406 mm (16 in.). Even though ETN did
not fail, it was tested to 0.15 of drift ratio (the horizontal

6 ACI Structural Journal/January-February 2010

Fig. 5—(a) MN; (b) ETN; (c) SETN; and (d) SVTN after the last test.
Fig. 6—(a) MN; (b) ETN; (c) SETN; and (d) SVTN with residual drift.
displacement divided by column height) and a large residual
displacement of 330 mm (13 in.) was developed. Figure 5(b)
shows the damage state and Fig. 6(b) shows the column with
residual displacement after the last run. Extensive spalling of
concrete on both sides of the column can be seen in Fig. 5(b).
Specimen SETN
Because SETN was designed based on the newly developed
ARS curve, the RRS motion was applied at high amplitude tests
(Run 7 and higher) to evaluate the column performance
under a consistent motion. Ten runs were applied. In the first
six runs, the Rinaldi motion was used to compare performance
of SETN with ETN. After the initial four runs, only minor
cracks were visible on the north side. During Run 5, long
flexural cracks were formed and concrete spalling at the
south side of the column base was observed. Spalling
increased on the south side to a height of 203 mm (8 in.) and
five spirals were exposed during Run 7. After Run 8, SETN
was visibly tilted and three more spiral hoops were exposed.
Similar to ETN, SETN met the mass rig displacement limit
during Run 10. Fourteen spirals were exposed due to
343 mm (13.5 in.) of concrete spalling on the south face.
Even with approximately 14% of residual drift, there was no
visible concrete core damage or reinforcing bar damage. A
displacement transducer failed during the last run due to
large displacement of the column; hence, the lateral column
ACI Structural Journal/January-February 2010
displacement history was not recorded during this run.
Severe concrete spalling on the south side of the column can
be seen in Fig. 5(c). Figure 6(c) shows SETN after the test.
Specimen SVTN
Fifteen simulated earthquake runs were applied on SVTN.
Minor flexural cracks appeared starting in Run 3 on the north
side of the column base. Run 8 caused more flexural cracks,
and spalling began on the south side of the column at the
column-footing interface. This trend continued through
Run 9, with extensive spalling appearing on south side in the
lower portion of the column. Four spirals were exposed.
Extensive spalling occurred on both sides of the specimen
during Run 12. Nine spirals on the south side and two spirals
on the north side of the column were exposed. The residual
displacement was 91 mm (3.6 in.) after Run 12. During the
large-amplitude RRS Runs 13 to 15, the longitudinal bars
were exposed and flexural cracks widened, but there was no
significant degradation in the concrete core. Most of the
cracks were in the plastic hinge region. Similar to other tall
columns, SVTN reached the displacement limit of the mass
rig system during Run 15. Therefore, SVTN did not fail, but
the column was left with large residual displacement. Figure
5(d) shows the damage after taking off external gauges from
the west side of SVTN and Fig. 6(d) shows SVTN with the
large residual drift after the tests.
7
 Fig. 7—Displacement histories for: (a) MN; (b) ETN; (c) SETN; and (d) SVTN.
Displacement histories
The measured column lateral displacement histories are
shown in Fig. 7. It can be seen that all columns experienced
high-amplitude deformations early during each run due to
asymmetric velocity pulse in the initial part of the input
motion. The pulse pushed the columns to swing in a whip-
like fashion and generated large displacements in one
direction. Because this single pulse contains most of the
earthquake energy, the columns did not undergo full
displacement reversals. The velocity pulse in the Rinaldi
motion has a peak value of 1660 mm/s (65.4 in./s) in one direction
and 721 mm/s (28.4 in./s) in the other direction (Phan et al. 2007).
The residual displacement was cumulative in all the
columns except for ETN. The change of residual drift
direction in ETN is attributed to the softening of the column
due to inelastic deformations. The long effective period of
ETN matched the period for the return velocity half-cycle
that followed the main pulse. This half-cycle pushed the
column in the opposite direction. The column continued to
deform more in subsequent runs. The same effect was not
observed in SETN, which is comparable to ETN with respect
to the period. The reason is that the RRS motions were
applied at high amplitude tests of SETN, and the pulse period
of RRS was approximately two times the period of the
Rinaldi motion. Thus, the period elongation of SETN
from previous runs could not affect the direction of
residual displacement.
Force-displacement relationships
The cumulative measured hysteresis curves are shown in
Fig. 8. It can be seen that the hysteresis curves are highly
asymmetric, reflecting asymmetric input motions. The
curves were all relatively wide, indicating reasonable energy
dissipation capacity in all the columns. This trend was
expected because all the models were flexure dominated
with sufficient confinement steel.
All the columns exhibited ductile behavior. For each
column, a backbone envelope curve was developed based on
peak forces with the corresponding displacements for
different runs. The envelopes for the predominant direction
were idealized by elasto-plastic curves to estimate the
maximum achieved displacement ductilities. The resulting
displacement ductilities were 12.5, 7.2, 8.6, and 6.7 for MN,
8 ACI Structural Journal/January-February 2010
ETN, SETN, and SVTN, respectively. Note that because
ETN, SETN, and SVTN did not fail, the actual ductility
capacities of those columns would be higher than these
values. Comparing MN with NF-1 (the counter-part column
designed for far-field earthquakes), the ductility capacity in
Specimen MN was 13% larger. This shows that the current
Caltrans near-fault provision could improve column
performance compared to the column designed without
consideration of near-fault motions. Note that the ductility
capacity of NF-1 exceeded 10, which is sufficiently high
for strong earthquakes, and the additional ductility
capacity due to the Caltrans near-fault provisions is not
necessarily consequential.
The effect of using the new design spectrum was evaluated
by comparing the response of ETN and SETN. These
columns had the same height. For comparable levels of drift
ratio, the internal strains were higher and the damage was
more extensive in SETN. For example, at 10% drift, the
maximum longitudinal bar strain in SETN was 64% higher
than that of ETN, and the maximum height of spalled
concrete was 25% higher in SETN than that of ETN. The
higher longitudinal and transverse steel in SETN did not
seem to reduce the level of damage for the same drift ratio,
in part, because the number of cycles in the new spectrum-
matched RRS motion used in SETN was higher than that of
the Rinaldi motion used in ETN.
Residual displacements
All of the specimens experienced high magnitudes of
residual displacement due to the large velocity pulse of the
ground motion. Figure 9 shows the measured residual drift
ratio versus PGA for MN, NF-1, and 9F1. Specimens NF-1
and 9F1 were identical columns tested on shake tables in
previous studies (Laplace 2004; Phan et al. 2007). Unlike
MN and NF-1, 9F1 was subjected to the 1940 El Centro
ground motion, which did not include forward directivity
effects. Among these columns, MN and NF-1 had
considerably higher residual displacements due to the
characteristics of the Rinaldi ground motion. Even though
NF-1 and 9F1 were nearly identical, NF-1 experienced up to
50 times higher residual displacement than 9F1 did (Phan
et al. 2007). As the PGA increased, the residual drifts in MN
and NF-1 also increased. It should be noted that the
 Fig. 8—Measured force-displacement hysteresis curves.

measured residual displacements are higher than they would

be if a single motion, rather than multiple motions, had been
applied. Nonetheless, the fact that 9F1, which was also
subjected to multiple motions, did not exhibit any significant
permanent displacements, demonstrates the effect of the
impulsive near-fault motion.
The amounts of longitudinal and transverse steel in MN
were 45% and 49% more than those of NF-1, respectively.
The additional reinforcement was required due to the higher
design spectral acceleration. The additional reinforcement in
MN led to an average of a 36% reduction in residual
displacement for runs with a PGA of 0.60g and higher
(Choi et al. 2005). This indicates that for certain initial
periods and earthquake records, additional reinforcement
could reduce the residual displacement. Nonetheless, even in
MN, the residual displacement was relatively high. Under a
PGA of 0.6g, considered to be a moderate earthquake
motion, Fig. 9 shows that the residual drift ratio was 0.01.
Figure 10 presents the relationship between the residual
and the maximum drift ratios. The data show that residual
displacements from shake table tests were high. Figure 10(a)
shows the residual drift ratio for up to a 0.05 maximum drift
ratio. It can be seen that the residual drift increased as the
maximum drift increased, except for ETN. In ETN, the shift
in the effective period after 0.04 maximum drift ratio
reversed the primary direction of the column displacement,
thus reducing the residual drift. The figure also shows that
the residual drift in SVTN was considerably lower than other
test specimens. This trend was true only for smaller runs and
changed during higher runs, as shown in Fig. 10(b). The
residual drift ratios significantly increased at 0.06 of
maximum drift ratio and higher. Even though all of the specimens
were well confined and designed for near-fault ground
motion, after columns experienced a large displacement that
the high velocity pulse generated, they could not recover the
drifts. The shortest specimen, MN, showed a less residual
drift ratio from 0.085 to 0.14 maximum drift ratio, compared
to the longer period columns, but the basic trend was
comparable among all columns. Specimen SETN
Fig. 9—Residual drift ratio comparison.
contained 24% more longitudinal and 33% more transverse
reinforcements than its sister column, ETN, due to higher
demands from the new ARS curve. SETN, however,
experienced a higher residual drift ratio until the maximum
drift ratio of 0.12. This confirms that simply placing a higher
demand design force would not lead to a reduction of the residual
displacement, and that a more direct design step is required to
control residual displacement. Although column failure is
generally defined as the rupture of reinforcement and the loss
of lateral strength, in reality, a large residual displacement
might constitute “failure” because it could lead to bridge
closure even though the column might be only moderately
damaged. In Japan, reinforced concrete bridge columns with
residual drift ratios of more than 1.75% were replaced after
the Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake (Kawashima et al. 1998).
All the test models in the present study reached this threshold
during the runs, with the PGA ranging from 0.59 to 1.1 g.
Strain rate effect
The strain rate was calculated using two methods for both
the tensile strains in the longitudinal steel and the compressive
strains of the concrete. Instantaneous strain rate was
computed by using a seven-point central difference numerical

ACI Structural Journal/January-February 2010 9


Fig. 10—Residual drift ratio versus maximum drift ratio.
method for the run, at which yielding in tension and
compression first occurred in the most critical longitudinal
bars. In addition to using the central difference method, the
average strain rate was calculated as a change in strain over
the first yielding time period. The compressive yield strain
under pseudo-static loading (with no strain rate effect) was
assumed to be 0.002, and the tensile yield strains were
obtained from pseudo-static testing (with no strain rate
effect) of the bar samples.
The percent increases in the tensile and compressive yield
stresses due to the strain rate effect were determined using
Kulkarni and Shah’s (1998) method. The values of percent
increases from both methods ranged from 7 to 10% in
tension and from 11 to 14% in compression. The percent
increases in the 9F1 test, the column that was subjected to
series of the El Centro earthquake, ranged from 9 to 10% in
tension and was 11% in compression from both methods.
The results show that the percent increase in the yield stress
due to near-fault motions is comparable to that of other
earthquakes. Note that the strain rate in the test models is
higher due to the compression of the time axis.
Plastic hinge length
The “measured” plastic hinge length Lp was determined
using the elasto-plastic idealization of the measured force-
displacement and moment-curvature data. Using the
moment area method, Eq. (2) was used to determine the
plastic displacement. The average of the measured curvature
over the lowermost two gauge lengths—203.2 mm (8 in.) for
MN and three lengths, and 304.8 mm (12 in.) for the
others—was used, because most of the plastic deformation
was concentrated over that region. Plastic hinge length Lp
was calculated using the following equations
10
Table 3—Plastic hinge length comparison
MN ETN SETN SVTN
Measured, mm (in.) 398.8 (15.7) 464.8 (18.3) 337.8 (13.3) 424.2 (16.7)
Equation by Paulay
261.6 (10.3) 355.6 (14.0) 373.4 (14.7) 330.2 (13.0)
et al. (1992), mm (in.)
Δplastic = Δu – Δy (1)
L
Δ plastic = ( φ u – φ y ) ⋅ ⎛ L – ----p-⎞ ⋅ L p (2)
⎝ 2⎠
where Δu is the ultimate displacement of the column; Δy is
the yield displacement of the column; φu is the ultimate
curvature of the column; and φy is the yield curvature of
the column.
The theoretical Lp was also calculated using the method by
Paulay and Priestley (1992). Table 3 lists the measured and
calculated plastic hinge lengths. Results show that the
measured lengths were generally longer than the calculated
values, a trend that is observed in columns subjected to far-
field earthquakes as well. Note that ETN, SETN, and SVTN
did not fail and, hence, the “measured” values are lower than
plastic hinge lengths corresponding to the ultimate condition.
This is because the plastic hinge length is a function of the
maximum curvature in the critical section. The data in the
table show that the velocity pulse in the near-fault motions
did not lead to a short plastic hinge, and the tendency
reported in Hamilton et al. (2001) for shorter plastic hinges
was not observed.
Overall assessment
The most distinct response seen in shake table testing of
the models under the Rinaldi motion was the high magnitude
of the residual displacements even under moderate motions
due to the unique characteristics of fault normal near-fault
ground motions. The highly asymmetrical velocity of these
motions is responsible for the large residual displacements.
The directivity pulse in the Rinaldi motion was strong
enough to push the models into the inelastic range, and the
columns oscillated about a new base line after each subsequent
test. Because the seismic response of structures depends on the
dynamic characteristics of the structure and the earthquake in
addition to the nonlinear properties of the structure, the
magnitude of residual displacement could vary. The discussion
presented in this article is based on the data presented herein and
in a previous study by Phan et al. (2007).
A valid question might arise on whether the observed
residual displacements would occur had only a single motion
been applied. This issue was not studied in shake table tests
but was investigated using analytical models. It was found
that residual displacements are not necessarily increased
because the column has been damaged in previous earthquake
runs. A detailed description of analytical model is beyond the
scope of the present paper and is presented elsewhere (Choi et
al. 2007). Some examples of the analytical results, however,
are described herein to demonstrate the trends. The analysis
was conducted using a single-degree-of-freedom nonlinear
dynamic analysis model with a single lumped nonlinear
rotational spring placed at the base. This model was
described in by Phan et al. (2007). Figures 11 to 13 present
displacement responses for three of the earthquake runs
applied on MN, causing peak drift ratios of approximately
ACI Structural Journal/January-February 2010
2%, 5%, and 7%, respectively. These drift ratios correspond
to low, moderate, and high levels of nonlinearity, respectively.
The responses are shown for a single earthquake run super-
imposed on the displacement history for the same run when
that motion is part of a series of earthquake motions with
increasing amplitudes. It is evident in Fig. 11 (with a peak
drift ratio of approximately 2%) that the individual and
multiple run responses were nearly the same, both leading to
small residual displacements at the end of the runs. This is Fig. 11—Calculated response for single versus multiple
attributed to the fact that residual displacements are small motions at 2% drift ratio.
when the level of nonlinearity is relatively low. In Fig. 12,
where nonlinearity is moderate, both motions led to significant
residual displacements of approximately 1%. In this case,
multiple motions caused a larger permanent drift. This trend
was reversed in Fig. 13, in which the level of nonlinearity
was relatively high (drift ratio of over 7%). In this figure, it is
clear that both motions led to significant residual
displacements. But the single motion caused a larger
permanent displacement. The difference in the trend
between Fig. 12 and 13 is attributed to the dynamic characteristics Fig. 12—Calculated response for single versus multiple
of the column in relationship with those of the input motions at 5% drift ratio.
motion. Softening of the column in multiple runs could
place the column in the lower energy part of the response
spectrum and lead to lower maximum and residual
displacements. What is evident, however, is that the impulsive
motion of the near-fault earthquake record led to significant
residual displacement, whether the motion was applied as a
single motion or if it was a part of multiple motions.
The data presented in previous sections showed that the
directivity pulse in the Rinaldi motion pushed the column to
one direction and that there was not a sufficient reversed Fig. 13—Calculated response for single versus multiple
pulse to push the column back. The only exception to this motions at 7% drift ratio.
trend occurred in ETN, in which the residual displacements were
relatively small initially and were later reversed. Under larger single earthquake record instead of multiple motions is
motions, however, larger residual drifts were seen even in applied to the model.
ETN and the trend was similar to that of the other columns. 2. The column designed based on the current Caltrans
The residual displacement data for ETN and SETN near-fault provisions showed a 36% reduction of the residual
show that an increase in the longitudinal and transverse displacement compared to a column designed for far-field
reinforcement is not necessarily sufficient to reduce residual earthquakes. This trend is valid only for relatively stiff
displacements. (short-period) columns.
Because there are no written guidelines for the design of 3. The new ARS curve led to significantly higher spectral
reinforced concrete bridge columns with respect to control of acceleration compared to the current Caltrans ARS curve at
residual displacement in the current Caltrans SDC, and many periods of 1.25 seconds and longer. The higher demand,
bridges, including more than 73% of bridges in California, however, did not lead to a lower residual displacement for
are in the vicinity of active faults, the control of residual long-period columns.
displacement needs to take place at the design stage. Phan et 4. Simply adding more longitudinal and transverse steel
al. (2007) presents a preliminary framework for the consid- due to increased spectral acceleration with the same target
eration of residual displacements in design. This framework, ductility level was not sufficient to reduce residual displacements.
however, requires reliable residual displacement spectra that The residual displacement needs to be checked at the design
have yet to be developed. stage if the bridge is in the vicinity of an active fault.
5. The steel and concrete strength increases due to strain rate
CONCLUSIONS effects induced by the impulsive near-fault record were compa-
Response of conventionally reinforced concrete bridge rable to the strength increase by far-field ground motions.
columns under near-fault earthquakes was investigated 6. The ductility capacity and measured plastic hinge
through shake table tests of four bridge column models. The lengths for columns subjected to near-fault earthquakes were
following conclusions are drawn: comparable to those of columns of the same scale tested
1. Asymmetrical, high-amplitude velocity pulse due to the under far-field earthquakes.
forward directivity of the fault normal component of near-
fault motions could generate large displacements in one side. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Generally, this displacement is only partially recovered due This project was sponsored by California Department of Transportation
(Caltrans) Grant 59A0439. The comments from M. Yashinsky and M. Mahan of
to a lack of a reversed pulse, thus leading to a significant Caltrans and H. Ghasemi of FHWA are greatly appreciated. The authors are
residual displacement. Sample analytical results showed that also thankful to P. Laplace, P. Lucas, and D. Hillis of the UNR structures
significant residual displacements could occur even when a laboratory for their dedicated assistance in the course of shake table testing.

ACI Structural Journal/January-February 2010 11

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