THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF

QUALHATWE
~KESEARCH
THIRD EDITION

EDITORS

NORMAN K. DENZIN
University o f Illinois a t U rb a n a -C h a m p a ign

YVONNA S. LINCOLN
Texas A & M University

ZUSAGE Publications
' 3 5 ' Thousand Oaks London New Delhi

Copyright K 005 by Sage Publications, Inc.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publtcation Data

The SAGE handbook of qualitative research / edited by Norman K. Denzin,

Yvonna S. Lincoln. 3rd ed.
p. cm.
Rev. ed. of: Handbook of qualitative research. 2nd ed. c2000.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-7619-2757-0 (cloth)
1.
Social sciences Research. I. Denzin, Norman K. II. Lincoln, Yvonna S.
III. Handbook of qualitative research.
H62.H2455 2005
001.4'2 dc22
2004026085

09

10 9 8 7 6 5 4

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Ravi Balasuriya

CONTENTS

Preface

ix

Norman K. Denzin and Yvonna S. Lincoln

1.

Introduction: The Discipline and Practice of Qualitative Research

Norman K. Denzin and Yvonna S. Lincoln

PART I: LOCATING THE FIELD
2.

Reform ot the Social Sciences, and of Universities Through Action Research

33
43

Davydd ]. Greenwood and Morten Levin

3.

Compositional Studies, in Two Parts:

Critical Theorizing and Analysis on Social (In)Justice

65

Michelle Fine and Lois Weis

4.

On Tricky Ground: Researching the Native in the Age of Uncertainty

85

Linda Tuhiwai Smith

5.

Freeing Ourselves from Neocolonial Domination in Research:

A Kaupapa Maori Approach to Creating Knowledge

109

Russell Bishop
6.

Ethics and Politics in Qualitative Research

139

Clifford G. Christians
7.

Institutional Review Boards and Methodological Conservatism:

The Challenge to and from Phenomenological Paradigms

165

Yvonna S. Lincoln
PART II: PARADIGMS AND PERSPECTIVES IN CONTENTION
8.

Paradigmatic Controversies, Contradictions, and Emerging Confluences

183
191

Egon G. Guba and Yvonna S. Lincoln

9.

Critical Ethnography: The Politics of Collaboration

217

Douglas Foley and Angela Valenzuela

10.

Early Millennial Feminist Qualitative Research: Challenges and Contours

Virginia Olesen

235

29
WHAT'S NEW VISUALLY?
Douglas Harper

ne faces the task of a chapter on the same

continuing development of visual documentary

subject for the third edition of this

and visual sociology, and problematical ethics

Handbook with a certain amount of trepi

questions in the visual research world.

dation. After all, not that much changes in the

In the background is a much discussed sepa

social sciences, especially within such a few brief

ration in the visual studies movement between

years. Yet there are new themes, technologies,

the study of social life using images, which is

and practices mixed into the gradual evolutions of

often referred to as the empirical wing of visual

established patterns in visual methods. With that

sociology, and the study of the meanings of visual

in mind, my goal in this chapter is to minimize

culture, which is usually called cultural studies.

overlap with the chapters in the earlier editions,

Some have argued that this clouds the fact that we

with the modest proposal of seeing what indeed is

share a fundamental interest in the meanings of

new in visually inspired qualitative research.

visual imagery.

Thus, readers interested in the postmodern

As an example of visually oriented cultural

critique of visual ethnography; the relationship

studies, Fuery and Fuery (2003) explore Foucaults

among visual sociology, visual anthropology,

imaging of the body, Lacanian theories of abjec

and documentary photography; and the devel

tion and reflection, Kristevas ideas about body

opment of a research typology of visual think

fragmentation and visual culture, Derridas notions

ing in visual research should consult the earlier

about social reproduction and the semiotics of

chapters (Harper, 1993, 2000). I suggested that

imagery, and Barthess semiotics of photography.

visual sociology offered the opportunity to add

Their book contains only one image a repro

ress the postmodern critiques of ethnography

duction of a 1992 Calvin and Hobbes cartoon to

and documentary photography and, in so doing,

illustrate Kristevas theory of the abjection of the

to fashion a new method based on the under

self. However, the arguments are grounded in

standing of the social construction of the image

examples of visual imagery on websites that are

and the need for collaboration between the

listed at the ends of the chapters. Thus, the reader

subject and the photographer.

can refer to the images of Magritte, Dali, Warhol,

This chapter examines the status of visual

Caravaggio, and Bernini, to the photographs of

thinking in the sociological community, the

Newton, and to the films of Hitchcock without the

impact of new technologies on visual methods, the

expense and inconvenience of having the images

H 747

748 B

HAND BOOK OF Q U A LITATIVE R E S E A R C H C H A P T E R 29

in the book itself. Of course, reading the book

I nnovations

in

J o u r n a l P u b l ic a t io n

implies access to a computer and the Internet,

and referencing websites in this way assumes that

Sociological research that relies on visual data

the images will still be available online for as long

is being published with increasing frequency.

as the book is used. Because the images are not

Journals such as Qualitative Inquiry and Symbolic

esoteric, this is probably a safe bet. So, the book

Interaction include imagery not exactly rou

presents itself as a postmodern argument against

tinely, but more and more frequently nonethe

the hegemony of its own form.

less. Several new visually oriented journals have

But more to the point ot this chapter, Fuery

joined established visual social science journals,

and Fuery (2003) show how cultural studies use

such as Visual Anthropology and Visual Sociology

images to advance theories of the self, society,

(renamed Visual Studies in 2001), as outlets for

existence itself, and/or symbolism. 1 have sug

visual research.

gested elsewhere (Finrper, n.d.) that cultural stud

A promising development within American

ies generally use images (from fine arts to mass

sociology was the introduction of the American

media, from architectural shapes to fashion,

Sociological Associations (ASA) journal, Contexts,

from body decoration and shapes to imagery of

in 2001. Contexts, intended to popularize sociol

nightmares) as a referent for the development

ogy for a mass audience, is the first American

ot theory. One can argue that these cultural

sociology journal to forefront visual information,

studies are ethnographic in an indirect manner;

albeit with not entirely consistent results.

they are based on the analysis of the visual

culture writ large.

Visual illustration in Contexts is used in three

ways. 1 call the first the illustrated research arti

This chapter has a different orientation because

cle, with an example being Ranks (2003) study

I believe that a handbook of qualitative research

of the incidence of poverty in the United States.

should focus on field research. From my perspec

Rank uses photographs to portray a spectrum of

tive, the emphasis should be on the practical, that

the poor, including well-dressed job seekers,

is, using imagery to study specific questions and

some using cell phones, in an unemployment line

issues in sociology, anthropology, communica

in New York; a group of perhaps 200 disheveled

tions, and the like. Much of what I discuss in the

homeless people gathering for shelter in San

following draws on photography, although there

Francisco; a young homeless family in Eugene,

are several other suitable ways in which to visually

Oregon, sitting on a curb across the street from a

represent the world in social research. For example,

grocery store; and an African American woman

in my own study of the work of a rural artisan

and an aged white immigrant in the daily routines

(Harper, 1987), drawings complemented photo

of their poverty. The images put a face on statisti

graphs. The drawings allowed a more subjective

cal data, but what do they add beyond that?

take; elements could be left out, and interiors of

First, they contextualize poverty with other

objects could be invaded with cutaways. So, there

sociological variables such as family life, unem

is no reason why photography must dominate

ployment, and global migration. Visual documen

empirical visual sociology beyond the fact that it

tation becomes a part of research triangulation,

has proven to be enormously useful.

confirming theories using different forms of data.

Most of the visual sociology discussed in this

In these instances, the photographs argue that

chapter depends on photographs processed,

visual traces ot the world adequately describe the

juxtaposed, deconstructed, and captioned, but

phenomenon under question.

stili evidence of something seen. It is a reminder,

The photographs also subjectively connect

once again, of photography as both empirical and

the viewer to the argument. The well-dressed

constructed. It has become something of a ritual

job seekers in New York connect poverty directly

to repeat this idea in all articles or chapters on

to employment. The homeless couple and child in

visual sociology, but it appears to be necessary.

Oregon do not look like the stereotyped vision ol

Harper: W hats New Visually?

gg

749

poverty; we would expect to see their attractive

on a surface, but it is also constructed by the

faces in a typical middle-class home. The immi

technical, formalistic, and other selections that go

grant in poverty is an elderly man from the

into making the image and by the contexts (from

Netherlands, showing us that

nonminority

historical to presentational format) in which it is

immigrants also struggle to make ends meet in

viewed. In this way, photos are similar to all forms

the United States.

ot data both qualitative and quantitative.

But although these photographs are impor

It is hoped that the Contexts photo essays will

tant to the text, they remain secondary. The

elevate sociologists understanding of this essential

visual dimension is not integrated into the

similarity between photographic data and other

research; the images are added by an editor who

forms o f data.

has the challenging job of securing photos from

Contexts also publishes photo essays on social

a variety of sources. The result is that useful

change, that is, images that show the same social

photos are often found and published, but so

scene at an earlier time and a more contempo

are images that fall short of their mandate to

rary time. Photography is especially helpful in

visually tell a sociological story.

studies of social change because photographs

Contexts also publishes photo essays, where

can be matched with earlier images to reveal extra

sociological thinking emerges directly from

ordinarily detailed renditions of changes in human

images rather than reinforcing and elaborating on

habitation, landscape, and/or traces of human

word-based thinking. Golds (2003) photo essay

interaction. This approach draws on the work of a

on the Israeli diaspora is a good example. The

single sociologist, ]on Rieger, who has applied the

body of the article consists of 12 photographs

tine arts and documentary rephotographv move

and captions organized around the themes ot

ment to the study of social change in northern

Individual and Community Business, Designing

Michigan (Rieger, 1996,2003) and other settings.

and Finding Communities, and Transnational

Although Contexts has broken new ground in

Networks and Identities. The photographs locate

sociology, it remains to be seen whether the jour

people in various environments from their

nal will successfully make the case for visual data

homes, to businesses, to public settings inter

in research or whether it will be considered less

acting in the routines of various social scenes. The

rigorous precisely because the journal relies

images are organized conceptually and are the

heavily on visual displays. For Contexts to redetine

main way in which the ideas are presented. Golds

visual thinking in sociological publishing, it must

photo essay (and others published in Contexts)

initiate a discussion of the role of visual informa

shows the possibility of sociological thinking that

tion in sociological thinking and presentation.

derives nearly entirely from images. The intention

The journal must also improve its means ol

is that sociologists will regard the photographs in

attaining images; it is simply not feasible to assume

these essays as visual data, that is, that sociologists

that good-hearted photographers will donate the

will engage the photographs with active intellec

use of their photos. It is also not feasible to assume

tual looking. Because photographs saturate pop

that volunteer staff members (despite their success

ular culture and are generally treated superficially,

so far) can do what professional photo editors do,

this is a big leap.

that is, find and get access to the very best photos

As hinted at previously, asking sociologists

to develop visual arguments.

to take photographs seriously raises the matter

of their truth status or their validity, in socio
logical terminology. Here, as has been stated
many times previously and has already been

N ew T
N

ew

e c h n o l o g ie s ;
ays of

T h in k in g

mentioned in this chapter, rests a central irony of

the photograph: It is both true and constructed.

What is genuinely new in visual sociology is

It is true in the sense that it reflects light falling

the use of technology in recording, organizing,

750 a

HA N D BO O K OF Q U A LIT A T IVE RESEAR C H C H A PT ER 29

presenting, and analyzing visual information.

of ethnography, histories of families that represent

Emerging technologies have revolutionized the

the community, the black migration to Chicago

use of imagery in social science, and some intre

and Oak Park itself, biographies of individuals

pid researchers have already provided convincing

who have played an important role in the commu

examples. The basis of the revolution is the com

nity, and other modules that explore themes such

puter, but more specifically it is software pro

as racial integration.

grams such as Macromedias Director and, in

The module organization is similar to chapters

some cases, the Web. All of these technologies

in a book but also is distinctly different. The mod

are several generational offsprings of HyperCard,

ules include subcategories of photo essays (often

a program bundled with early Apple computers

from archival sources) that show, for example,

that allowed information to be organized in a

images of race riots in 1919 and images of a single

nonlinear manner. In what follows, 1 briefly

African American on an otherwise all-white

examine four projects that demonstrate the range

championship football team. The module format

of these new ways of thinking and doing field

establishes a logic for the overall project: The

research visually.

first-order categories are the modules themselves,

Jay Rubys ethnographic study of Oak Park,

the second-order categories are scrollable items

Illinois, uses the Web to disseminate the ongoing

beneath the module title, and the third-order

results of a field study (Ruby, n.d.). The website

information exists in the many linked articles,

(http://astro.ocis.temple.edu/~ruby/opp/) includes
interviews, photographs, observations, historical

photo essays, newspapers, and other archival

commentary, and video segments in various forms

out. This is similar to the organization of a book

of completion. Ruby also established a listserv of

with a chapter structure, text, and endnotes, but

documents that are sprinkled liberally through

residents of Oak Park, inviting people who are the

it is markedly different because of the freedom

subject of the study to disagree, elaborate, or

allowed to go into more depth than a particular

simply comment on the ongoing study. According

subject in a book might allow or to add material

to Rubys website,

that might be too tangential for a scholarly

study. For example, Rubys study develops a cen

Oak Park Stories is a series of experimental, reflex

ive, and digital ethnographies that attempt to explore
a forty-year-old social experiment in Oak Park, a
Chicago suburb. It is experimental in that 1have not
followed the traditional method of producing a book
or film but instead made an interactive and non
linear work that has both video and text. It is reflexive
in that the subject of my research is my hometown.
... It is digital in its form of delivery on a DVD
using QuickTime movies and html documents. I have
constructed these Stories in a nonlinear fashion; that
is, unlike a book or a film, there is no defined begin
ning, middle, or end. Viewers/Readers are free to
begin anywhere. They can ignore anything that does
nt interest them. I have provided many links to mate
rials that will allow anyone interested to pursue a
topic in more depth. I have found writing in a nonlin
ear fashion to be amazingly freeing.

tral theme of racial and ethnic integration. Sub

categories of the integration module present the
history of African Americans in Chicago in more
detail than would likely be included in an acade
mic monograph. Rubys pages-long overview of
housing policies, race politics, and shifting
demographic information can, however, easily
be included in the Web presentation. It is contextualizing information that some, but certainly not
all, viewers/readers will use. Links to additional
sites further these possibilities.
Ruby posts quarterly reports from the field and
asks for feedback by way of Web discussions. His
importance in visual anthropology and promi
nence in a visual communication listserv gener
ates a Web-based audience for his work.
The attractiveness of this mode of dissemina

The website is organized around modules,

tion is precisely that a variety of communication

which are broad categories with scroll-down sub

modes text, still images, and moving images

categories. These include an extensive discussion

can be integrated. However, the memory-hungry

Harper: W hats New Visually? a

751

nature of video makes it (so far) impractical to

two forms), 380 paragraphs that describe the

include more than a few seconds of video clips,

events as they unfold in the film (these are viewed

with the moving images being bracketed into a

alongside the scrolling film), more than 100 cap

small thumbnail on the screen. The final project

tioned photographs of the participants in the ax

is intended as a number of DVDs, where longer

fight, genealogical charts that plot the partici

video segments can be included.

pants relationships, and maps of the village and

The sharing of the project-in-progress by way of

the interaction of the fight. As noted, the soft

an evolving website has not, to my knowledge, been

ware architecture allows viewers to move among

done before. The project could be left in this form

filmed events, biographical sketches, maps of

and updated 0 11 a continual basis through the near

important places, and ethnographic explanations

future. However, Ruby intends to finalize the project

freely and creatively. The format invites theory

as one or more DVDs distributed in the same way as

testing, both formally and informally. The CD-

other emerging visual anthropology multimedia

ROM defines film as being integral to ethnogra

projects are distributed, that is, through commer

phy rather than as a form of ethnography itself.

cial or academic publishers.

As a result, the film can be seen as ethnographic

Other visually oriented sociologists have

information that is deconstructed by reading the

begun to develop the potential of advanced inter

anthropology that gives background information.

activity with Macromedias Director. The first of

My experience with the CD-ROM has been

these projects was Biella, Chagnon, and Seamans

nothing short of inspiring. I am well aware of how

(1997) Yanamamo Interactive , which is an inter

difficult it is to teach ethnographic film; students

action version of Chagnon and Aschs classic

see the film in one parcel of time and then read

ethnographic film, The Ax Fight.' The Ax Fight is

or discuss it in another parcel of time. Thus, the

a 10-minute film showing a hostile interaction

emotional and subjective experience of studying

between two groups of Yanamamo tribespeople

film is separated from the more analytical experi

in Venezuela. The film has become an important

ence of studying texts. This separation often

teaching tool as well as an important research

leads to stereotyping precisely because emotions

tool. It is a commonly cited example of how min

and analysis become ever more distant from

imally edited ethnographic film can tell several

each other.

layers of ethnographic stories. So, the Biella pro

The interactivity potential of the CD-ROM

ject is based on expanding the potential of a

allows the viewer to, for example, stop the video,

classic in visual anthropology, primarily (but not

select a particular participant in the fight, and

exclusively) for teaching.

trace the participants genealogy in the village and

The traditional means of teaching this mater

his social position vis--vis his participation in

ial has been to show the film, assign readings on

village groups and activities. Thus, students and

the Yanamamo, and integrate these materials in

researchers can study the contexts of social action

lectures and discussions. Researchers use a simi

and begin to understand the layers of meaning

lar strategy close study of the film and consid

that reside under the surface of the fight. In fact,

eration of visual material in the context of written

the organization of the material invites students

sources.

and researchers to ask new questions and to

By packaging the film with different kinds

investigate new lines of reasoning.

of information (still photographs, graphs, tables,

The project has been distributed with an intro

and extensive texts) so that various parts can be

ductory anthropology textbook and is widely

connected in novel ways, Yanamamo Interactive

used in university anthropology courses. The

opens up heretofore unexplored pedagogical and

CD-ROM allows students from a wide range of

research possibilities.
The Yanamamo Interactive CD-ROM includes
three versions of the film (unedited and edited in

backgrounds to actually encounter ethnographic

information and, thus, to do visual research at a
fairly sophisticated level.

752

HA N D BO O K OF Q U A LIT A T IVE R ES E A R C H C H A PT ER 29

It is likely that the format introduced in

working with the archive, the only limitation that

Yamimamo Interactive will soon become common

suggested itself was the number ot photographs

in visual anthropology, extending the usefulness

that it included. A total of 1,200 images might

of ethnographic film for both teaching and

seem like a lot at first glance, but they are a tiny

research. Several projects by the authors of this

percentage of Mohrs life work. Most searches

CD-ROM and others are under way.

Macromedias Director has also been used to

cross-referenced across several categories yield

20 to 30 images, whereas Mohrs full corpus would

produce a searchable archive of the work of docu

include several times that number. The most chal

mentary photographer Jean Mohr. Mohr is best

lenging aspect of this project was clearly in pro

known for his collaborations with John Berger

gramming the navigation; one senses that more

(Berger & Mohr, 1967, 1975, 1982) and for his

images could have easily been scanned and added

work in the area of international human rights for

to the archive. Thus, if the project had included

several international organizations (Mohrs first

three to four times the number of images, the

photographs, taken during the early 1950s, docu

archive would be that much more useful.

mented the everyday lives of Palestinian refugees).

Electronic and searchable photograph archives

He has also photographed less known projects

from newspapers or public collections are increas

involving the Chicago police on patrol and inter

ingly available. Mohrs project, however, might be

national tours of a European symphony.

the first to present the life work of a sociologically

The CD-ROM titled jean Mohr: A Photo

graphers journey (Mohr, n.d.) collects more than

oriented photographer with information that

1,200 of Mohrs black-and-white and color photo

and commentary on his relationship with Berger.

graphs (from more than 1 million taken during his

As an overview of the work of a single photogra

50-year career) and includes brief interviews with

pher, it sketches the working methods of an artist.

Mohr and others about the meaning of his work as

It also provides visual evidence on sociological

describes his career, publications, self-reflections,

well as brief texts that explain and elaborate on the

themes such as refugees as well as visual area

projects from which the images were drawn.

studies of the places where Mohr concentrated his

The core of the project is the photographs,

efforts. Short video clips also humanize Mohr.

which are organized in five categories, the most

One would hope that the considerable effort

important of which are image type, subjects,

represented in this CD-ROM project will lead

and regions. Each of these categories includes

others to synthesize their photographic work,espe

several subcategories accessible as drop-down

cially when the work so broadly addresses subject

menus. For example, the image category of

matters of interest to sociological researchers.

subjects includes the subcategories of migrants,

Two projects with a smaller scope show the

music, refugees, and several others. Thus, the

potential of interactive media in visual research.

viewer is able to create a corpus of images by click

Ricabeth Steiger photographed an aspect of daily

ing on one subcategory in each main category. Tor

life a train commute she makes several times a

example, I direct the CD-ROM to gather Mohrs

week from Basel to Zurich, Switzerland, to con

black-and-white portraits of refugees who were

struct a visual ethnography of a taken-for-granted

photographed in Africa. Or, the viewer could direct

aspect of daily life (Steiger, 2000) (Figure 29.1).

the CD-ROM to select color images on the general

The images are both impressionistic (showing

subject of music that Mohr photographed in the

blurred landscapes through the train windows

Middle East. Combining a different subelement

the world speeding by as viewed from inside the

from each ot the main categories allows the viewer

train) and ethnographic (showing the tacit social

to construct hundreds of individualized archives.

scripts how people interact on a train that

These advanced searching capabilities allow

underlie the public behavior in Switzerland).

the viewer to use Mohrs work efficiently and

Steigers project was published in Visual

creatively. I found that, after several hours of

Sociology as a research article in two forms. The

Harper: What's New Visually? 0 753

Figure 29.1.

Inside the Train

Source: Photograph by Ricabeth Steiger.

article text and photo sequence were published

organization of the journal, devoted considerable

as thumbnail-sized images in the print journal

resources to fund the CD-ROM and to package and

and on a CD-ROM that housed a Director-based

distribute it as a regular part of the journal. It did

movie version of the project. The CD-ROM format

so with the hope that the projects revolutionary

allowed Steiger to transform still photographs

character would help to encourage a new way in

into a new mode of communication a virtual

which to see and do visual research.

movie consisting of an automatically advancing

Finally, Dianne Hagaman recently published

slide show. This was an ideal solution; the images

a photographic project using the same software,

were too numerous to work as an article but were

with considerably more elaborate development

too few to constitute a book, and they needed to

(Hagaman, 2002). As in the case of Steigers pro

be viewed in sequence to achieve the intended

ject, the subject is a visual ethnography of daily

effect. Although the thumbnail images published

life, in this case her life with her husband, the

in the journal are a catalog of the photos, the vir

sociologist Howard S. Becker.

tual movie clearly constitutes the actual article.

The photographs are organized into 14 son

The publication of the project in Visual

nets, with each sonnet named after a jazz stan

Sociob\;y was a breakthrough in the presentation

dard such as Night and Day, Slow Boat to China

of visual research. The development of the CD-

(Figure 29.2), or One Morning in May. Jazz has

ROM required the journal designer to have knowl

been an important part of Beckers life; he was

edge of relevant software and cross-platform

(and remains) a practicing musician, and his

development. The International Visual Sociology

studies of jazz are important contributions to cul

Association (IV S A ), the sponsoring academic

tural sociology. The photographs also have a jazzy

754 a

HANDBOOK OF Q UA LITATIVE R ESEA R C H C H A PT ER 29

Figure 29.2.

From Slow Boat to China Sonnet of the CD-ROM Howie Feeds Me

Sciurce: Photographs by Dianne Hagaman.

quality; they are subtle and present reality from

preparation or the social aspects of food for

an oblique angle, transforming otherwise unre

granted: how central eating is and preparing the

markable subject matter, such as window frames

food that you eat (that magical skill) is, who we eat

and beds, into poetic visual statements. Likewise,

with and where.

jazz presents familiar melodies in unusual and

provocative frames of musical reference.
The photographs are about place (the couples

Thus, the project is titled Howie Feeds Me, and

the photographs allude to a relationship rooted in

homes in Seattle and San Francisco and the cou

caring for and nourishing the body and spirit. In

ples travels to Paris and other locations where

this way, the project is an ethnography of the daily

Becker lectures), landscape (Hagaman is a master

life of a couple and their loving relationship, as told

at rendering sky as a part of landscape, often

from the perspective of one partner. The only sim

inhabited by birds on the wing), social gatherings

ilar attempts to communicate this theme are Laura

(often with well-known sociologists), and (most

Letinsky s photo essay Venus Inferred (Letinsky,

centrally) their own relationship. According to

2000), which focuses on the banalities of the

Hagamans introduction,

sexual lives of several couples, and Pernette and

Leeuwenbergs (2001) photo essay on their inti

We werent kids when we met and decided to live

mate relationship. But whereas Letinsky (2000)

together, and we didnt have our whole lives ahead

focuses on the obvious (i.e., a series of couples

o f u s .. . .

looking embarrassed in the act of coupling) and

He played the piano and knew hundreds of songs

from his days when he played dubs in Chicago. And
he could cook. And liked to do it. He told me that
after his wife Nan died, he made himself three full
meals a day, every day, in order to establish a routine
and structure in his life in a time of changeand grief.
1, however, had never learned to cook. It wasnt

Pernette and Leeuwenberg (2001), both photogra

phers in their early 30s, use the camera to record
the energy and lovingness of sexual union,
Hagaman (2002) communicates the mundane
aspects of nonsexual intimacy with subtlety and
humor that suggests the stuff of daily life.

deliberate. 1just somehow fell through the cracks.

Much of the message of Hagamans essay

But, maybe as a consequence, I ve never taken the

is in the medium. The project is rooted in

Harper: W hats New Visually? B

755

35-millimeter black-and-white photos, but from

continually joined images add a dimension that

the beginning it was intended for the computer.

could not be achieved if the images stood alone

Hagaman

either on a gallery wall or on a computer screen.

organized

the

CD-ROM-mounted

photo sequences in what she calls sonnets: ! took

The photographs are also presented as thumb

the idea of the fourteen lines of a sonnet and used

nails with detailed descriptions of location, people,

it to organize my photographs, a group of four

and events that are useful points of reference.

teen images making a kind of poem: rhyming,

New developments such as those described

repeating, alluding, and suggesting, the way pho

heretofore have revolutionary potential in visual

tographs do when you put them into groups.

studies. There are, however, several issues that

The sonnets are of two forms. One is a series

may affect their contributions.

of individual images presented on the computer

The first issue concerns longevity. The software

screen against a white background, like images on

that runs the various programs is under constant

the wall of a gallery. These have short captions that

development, and the systems that run the

usually identify the place or action depicted. The

computers are as well. For example, Apples recent

viewer studies these images individually and in

operating system, OS-X (already in its third iter

sequence as well as in the context of the story

ation), has required full redesign of participating

hinted at by the title of the sonnet (a jazz standard).

software. Similar developments in PC operating

Other sonnets are continuous visual loops of

systems have led to the same challenges. With the

joined images that the viewer scrolls through. The

rate of current development, it is nearly impossi

images adjoin each other completely; the viewer

ble to predict the hardware, operating system,

creates new images composed of parts of the

and/or software compatibility for todays projects

adjoining images by stopping the scroll bar in

that will be in use 10 or even 5 years from now. Of

other than the borders of the photographs. Thus,

course, the book that I just removed from the shelf

when the viewer scrolls, images suddenly com

will be there, in exactly the same form, 50 years

bine exteriors of a room from one image and

from now.

exteriors of a street from another; other images

The second issue is that, as noted previously,

contain both night and day, and so forth. The

electronic delivery and organization of material

756 a

IIAN'DliOOK OF Q U A LIT A T IVE R ES E A R C H CH A F T E R 29

oiten allows inlormation to be packaged in a way

Liked Ike. Norfleet, who may have been the first

that could not be presented in print form. But the

practicing visual sociologist (she worked in

opposite is also true: Old-fashioned media, includ

photography and sociology for several decades at

ing books, articles, and handmade images, have

Harvard University), here assembles photographs

been shown to have a remarkable resiliency

from archives from the 1950s that document

precisely because of the very qualities that the

everyday life families, institutions,organizations,

electronic forms transcend. The illustrated book

leisure life, and so forth. She captions these

or journal article, for example, imposes limitations

images with excerpts from popular sociological

that the Web does not and that might lead

texts of the time (e.g., those ot David Reisman

to more judicious editing or organization. The

and Vance Packard), excerpts from novelists

linearity of old-fashioned presentations remains

(e.g., J. D. Salinger), and quotes from the popular

meaningful as a frame by which ideas and images

press (e.g., Ladies Home journal). The viewer is

taken to the everyday world that became the basis

can be organized.
There is also the matter by which various

ot sociological analysis.

lorms oi information find their way to con

Empirical visual sociology lives on as well.

sumers. Books and articles are published and

For example, Rich and Chalfen (1999) use visual

distributed through a system that draws on

methods in a study of disease phenomenology.

well-articulated institutional structures and a

In their research, chronic asthma sufferers in

public that consumes in a certain way. This is a

their teens or younger made and analyzed videos

multilayered and conservative system. Nontextual

of their personal worlds under the influence of

media, such as CD-ROMs and DVDs, have only

asthma. The films and discussions opened a

recently begun to get a foothold in this system.

window into the private world of a disease at a

This is not to say that the old forms are neces

particular stage of the life cycle. The visual

sarily better or worse than newer competing

dimension served as a means of discovery by the

forms of visual communication. It is simply to say

disease victims (they filmed their worlds to tell

that some aspects of change come slowly. This

the story of their disease experience), and it also

must be said in the context of the increasing

served as the basis of dialogue among asthma

success of the Web and multimedia platforms.

sufferers, adults in their social worlds (e.g.,

parents, teachers), and the medical community.
The videos described social isolation, parental

T h e C o n t in u a t io n

of th e

O ld

irresponsibility, and other themes that led to a

fuller understanding of how the teens and

Certain themes and forms o f visual research,

younger children manage a debilitating disease.

however, continue to produce useful visual

Rich and Chalfens use of native-produced

research. One is the visual critical analysis, such

imagery draws original!y from Worth, Adair,

as Margolis's (1998, 1999) studies of education

and Chalfens (1972/1997) Navajo project of

and labor processes. This work traces its roots to

the late 1960s, where anthropologists taught

studies such as Steins (1983) critical investigation

reservation Navajo to use 16-millimeter cameras

of early social reform-oriented photography.

to tell their cultural stories. Many other examples

Steins study focuses on how' the sponsorship,

followed.

photographic technology, and forms of dissemi

Native-produced still images, however, have

nation influenced what the photos communi

also become important visual research tools in

cated. These arguments often suggest that the

social science. An early example was Ewalds work

photographs have latent meanings that reinforce

with Appalachian youth. Her approach was to

the very structures they seem to be criticizing.

teach young children to photograph their families

A more informal use of images to ask critical

and surroundings, develop the black-and-white

questions of the past is Norfleets (2001) When We

film, and print the images. She asked the children

Harper: Whats New Visually? a

757

she taught what they imagined and dreamed

friendly, and oriented toward animals more as

about and how they interpreted their daily

partners than as exploitable resources.

surroundings. Ewalds initial success led to sev

In this and other photo elicitation studies,

eral similar projects in South America, Holland,

photographs proved to be able to stimulate mem

and other settings (Ewald, 1985,1992, 1996).

ories that word-based interviewing did not. The

Photo elicitation is another approach that

result was discussions that went beyond what

belongs exclusively to the visual. In a recent

happened when and how to themes such as this

description ot the method (Harper, 2002), I found

was what this had meant to us as farmers.

photo elicitation to be the primary method in

Visual methods have also been applied to

40 studies, including doctoral theses, books,

approaches that have not previously been

articles, and reports. Several studies have been

finished during the period since the article was

thought to be visual. A recent issue of Visual

Studies (Volume 18, Issue 1) was devoted to eth-

published, and certainly many were missed in

nomethodology. The visual worlds that eth-

the review. The disciplines represented ill these

nomethodologists studied included the textual

studies include anthropology, communication,

materials in various administrative jobs (Carlin,

education, sociology (especially urban, rural, and

2003) and the work objects of scientific endeavors

communities studies), photojournalism, cultural

(Kavvatoko & Ueno, 2003). These studies draw on

studies, ethnic studies, and industrial manage

Sudnovvs (1993) pioneering ethnomethodologi-

ment. In these vastly dissimilar kinds of research,

cal studies of jazz performance that were commu

the common desire to understand the world as

nicated partly through photographic imagery.

defined by the subject led to wide applications of

the photo elicitation method.

Several texts on visual methods have been

published during recent years. The most useful are

In what follows, I explain one way in which

Pinks (2001) Doing Visual Ethnography, Bankss

photo elicitation operates in a brief review of a

(2001) Visual Methods in Social Research, and van

study of the meaning of change in dairy farming

Leeuwen and Jewitts (2001) edited Handbook o f

in northern New York (Harper, 2001). In this

Visual Analysis. Pink has studied visual research

project, my goal was to understand how agricul

broadly, whereas Banks has concentrated on visual

ture had changed and what these changes meant

anthropology. Van Leeuwen and Jewitt's handbook

for those who lived through them. To this end,

is a useful collection of cultural studies and empir

I showed elderly iarmers photographs from the

ical research. Their contributors describe content

1940s, (a period when they had been teens or

analysis, visual anthropology, cultural studies,

young adult farmers) and asked them to remem

semiotics, ethnomethodologv, and film analysis.

ber events, stories, or commonplace activities that

Although most contributors downplay approaches

the photos brought to mind. The success of the

that favor researchers making photos to analyze

project rested on the coincidence of the availabil

reality, the collection is a useful starting place. Less

ity of an extraordinary archive of documentary

photographs (the Standard Oil of New Jersey

useful is Emission and Smiths (2000) Researching

the Visual, which is largely a polemic against the

archive) from just the era that elderly farmers

photocentric orientation of visual sociology.

had experienced at the beginnings ot their careers

It is especially interesting that those who have

and the fact that these photographs were of

synthesized the strains and traditions of visual

such a quality as to inspire detailed and often

social studies have come largely from outside

deep memories.

the United States and, most significant during

The fanners described the mundane aspects of

the past few years, from the United Kingdom. The

farming, including the social life of shared work

U.K. School emphasizes cultural studies but is

(Figure 29.3). But more important, they explained

increasingly eclectic, with recent and forthcoming

what it meant to have participated in agriculture

collections that center on visual ethnography

that had been neighbor based, environmentally

(e.g., Knowles & Sweetman,2004).

758 ja HANDBOOK OF Q U A LIT A T IVE RF.SEARCH C H A P T E R 29

Figure 29.3.

A Farm Work Crew Eating Dinner

Source: Photograph by Sol libsohn. Used by permission of (he Ekstrom Library, University of Louisville.

The other significant European movement in

studies based on visual data or visual analysis.

visual sociology is situated in Italy, primarily

Quinney has written and photographed a series of

at the University of Bologna. Beginning in the

introspective ethnographies of place, with the most

early 1990s, Patrizia Faccioli and her colleagues

recent (Quinney, 2001) exploring the meaning of

have conducted visual research on a wide range of

what he refers to the borderland Hamlin

topics using photo elicitation, documentary pho

Garlands middle border, which he presents as

tography, content analysis, and semiotics (for an

a landscape, a state of mind, and a basis for

overview, see Faccioli & Losacco, 2003). Losaccos

philosophical orientation. Barndt (2002) uses

(2003) recent monograph uses family photogra

photographs to both gather and present informa

phy to understand the negotiation of cultural

tion in a study of the globalization of the food.

identities of Italian immigrants in Canada.

Changing Works (Harper, 2001) is one of the few

That the IVSA meets regularly in Europe helps

recent ethnographic studies based on photographs.

to facilitate the growth of visual methods interna

However, photo documentary studies continue

tionally. The development of visual social science

to be published. Recent examples include Coles and

in the remaining areas of the world where social

Nixon's (1998) School, which explores the social

sciences are taught is a critical next development.

realities of three schools in Boston; Goodmans

However, although there are many recent texts

(1999) A Kind o f History (1999), which documents

on visual methods, there are few new in-depth

20 years in the life of an ordinary American town;

Harper: W hats New Visually? a

759

and Wilsons (2000) photo study of the Hutterites o f

In large part, IRBs appear to be ready to accept

Montana. Yet the documentary tradition remains

that observation of public life may take place

the scope or attention of most social scientists.

without informed consent. But the right to photo

Unfortunately, Beckers suggestion back in 1974

graph the public without the subjects consent

that documentary photographers and sociologists

has, by and large, not been tested by passage

with an interest in photography should explore

of research proposals by members of the visual

their overlap and get on with learning from each

sociological community. Many visual sociologists

other is still largely underrealized (Becker, 1974).

model our photographic research on documen

tary photography and photojournalism, where
the right to photograph in public has been guar

U n re s o lv e d Issues: E th ic s

anteed by amendments to the U.S. Constitution

o f V is u a l R e s e a rc h S p ecial

dealing with freedom of expression. In these

Issues and S p e c ia l C on sideratio ns

studies, it is precisely the clearly portrayed face of

a stranger doing the things people normally do

The scientific world, of which sociology is a part,

that leads to compelling documentary statements

has become increasingly concerned with research

or sociologically meaningful insights.

ethics. This preoccupation is partly due to past

Visual sociologists point to the precedent of

misuses of scientific research. This has, in turn,

photojournalism and documentary and argue

led to the increased use of institutional review

that harm to subjects is unlikely to occur from

boards (IR B s) as legally mandated monitors of all

showing normal people doing normal things.

research at U.S. universities. These issues are also

In a personal example, I was photographed

the subjects of codes of ethics of professional

unawares at a recent Pittsburgh Pirates baseball

societies such as the ASA.

game by a photographer working for the

Qualitative researchers, however, often have

Pittsburgh Post Gazette, and I was presented in a

a difficult time in defining their work in terms

half-page photograph to support the message of

that meet the expectations of IRBs. This is

an article that alleged low attendance at the

especially the case for photographic researchers.

Pirates games. In fact, I had chosen to sit by

The primary issue concerns the matter of subject

myself in an otherwise empty section because

informed consent and subject anonymity. The

I like the vantage point of that section and

problems for qualitative researchers, and the

I enjoy the solitude in a baseball stadium early in

special case of sociological photographers, are

the season. Having the photo in the Post Gazette

detailed in what follows.

made me a celebrity for a day, but it also opened

The first concerns the observation of public

up other questions. Was I skipping work? Was

life and, in the case of visual sociology, the photo

I a social isolate? And so forth. However, the

graphy of public life. Observation of public life

public accepts that being in a public space makes

has been a part of sociology since Georg Simmels

one susceptible to public photography. I was

studies of generic forms of social interaction,

not harmed by my momentary celebrity status,

based in part on his observations of public life

and the ethics of photojournalism were not

from his Berlin apartment window, or since

violated. I was portrayed accurately in the mun

Irving Coffmans observations of the nuances of

dane performance of my life.

human interaction in social gatherings. Anderson

Those of us who want to use photography in

(2003) refers to this style of sociological observa

sociology believe that it is logical to argue that we

tion as folk ethnography. Andersons method

have the same rights as those who work in the

involves observing the public on bus trips and

closely related worlds of photojournalism and

walks through a city as well as overhearing con

photodocumentary. Indeed.some of us have come

versations in restaurants and other instances of

to define ourselves as documentary photogra

public life.

phers, rather than as visual sociologists, to avoid

760 n

HANDBOOK OF QUA U T A H VI-; R ES EA R C H C H A PT ER 29

IRB scrutiny, although this is surely not a solution

to this issue.

For visual ethnography to come out of the

closet, these issues need to be resolved. Visual

The second matter concerns the loss of confi

researchers must have their work sanctioned by

dentiality in photos that portray people clearly.

boards that eventually will accept research that

The language of the current ethics literature (in

varies radically from the formal experiment and

the ASA code of conduct or the IRB guidelines) is

that depends on the right to document life in

strongly aligned with protecting the anonymity of

glaring exactitude.

subjects. That is commendable if subjects wish

to remain anonymous. But what about subjects
who are pleased and willing to be subjects (and
who sign releases to this effect)? The identifiabilitv of subjects is critical to the sociological

Summary

My hope is that visual methods will become ever

more important in the various research traditions

usefulness of the images; these include elements

where it already has a foothold and that this

such as subjects expressions, gestures, hairstyles,

growth will take place in a way that acknowledges

clothing, and other personal attributes.

the potential of new media, while preserving what

There has been little written about the

ethics of photographic research. Several years
ago, Gold (1989) argued that the biomedical
model did not sufficiently address the ethical
issues of visually based research, arguing instead
for a research outlook sensitivity that is
rooted in the covenantal ethical position . . . as

is useful in the old media, and acknowledges the

subjects rights but calls forth a larger ethical
stance than the biomedical contractual model
determines as appropriate. I hope that during
the next decade, visual social studies will become
a world movement and, thus, a means to long
overdue internationalization of sociology.

a means of addressing the ethical problems

For visual social science to develop, professional

of visual sociology (p. 100). This sensitivity

rules and norms concerning ethics must acknowl

requires the researcher to develop an in-depth

edge the rights of photographers/researchers to

understanding at subjects so that he or she may

determine which individuals and activities may
be photographed, in what ways it is appropriate
to do so, and how the resulting images should be

photograph in public and to present identifiable

subjects, but in the context of ethical considera
tions that consider photographers/researchers as
connected by webs of obligation and moral regard.

used (p. 103). This involves understanding the

point of view of subjects, especially their
thoughts on how and where the images will be

used. According to Gold, Unlike a contract that

simply specifies rights and duties, a covenant
requires the researcher to consider his or her
relationship with subjects on a much wider level,
accepting the obligations that develop between

N o te
1. Biella and colleagues (1997) project, as well as

Steiger's (2000) article (which had just been released

when the second iteration of this chapter was written),
both were mentioned briefly in my chapter in the
second edition of this Handbook.

involved, interdependent persons (p. 104).

The practical implications are that one will
sometimes find oneself in research situations
where photography would violate the norms of
the setting or the feelings of the subjects; in such

eferen c es

Anderson, E. (2003, November). Folk ethnography.

Paper presented at the conference Being Here/

cases, photography should not be done. Gold

Being There; Fieldwork Encounters and Ethno

(1989) suggests that sociologists use their knowl

graphic Discoveries, University of Pennsylvania,

edge as well as their ethical sensitivities to guide

their actions. Whether this can be the basis of an
acceptable method remains to be seen.

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