COLLEGE PHYSICS, Part II

Chapter 26: The Refraction of Light:

Lenses and Optical Instruments
1.The Index of Refraction
2.Snells Law and the Refraction of Light
3.Total Internal Reflection
4.The Dispersion of Light: Prisms and Rainbows
5.Lenses
6.The Formation of Images by Lenses
7.The Thin-Lens Equation and the Magnification Equation
8.Lenses in Combination
9.The Human Eye
10.Angular Magnification and the Magnifying Glass
11.The Compound Microscope
12.The Telescope
13.Lens Aberrations

Refraction and The Index of Refraction

Light travels through vacuum at a speed

c 3.00 108 m s

Light travels through transparent materials at a speed less than its speed in a
vacuum. When light enters one material from another, such as from air to water, it
also changes its direction of propagation, an effect known as refraction.

n2 > n1 means material

2 is optically denser than
material 1.

DEFINITION OF THE INDEX OF REFRACTION

The index of refraction (or the refractive index) of a material is the ratio
of the speed of light in vacuum to the speed of light in the material:

Speed of light in vacuum

c

Speed of light in the material v

The index of refraction depends on the

wavelength.

What is the speed of light in diamond?

c 3 10 8 m / s
v
1.24 10 8 m / s
n
2.419

Snells Law and the Refraction of Light

When light enters from a material with n1 into

a material with n2, then the refracted ray
bends toward the normal if n2 > n1 and away
from the normal if n2 < n1.

SNELLS LAW OF REFRACTION

When light travels from a material with
one index of refraction (n1) to a material with
a different index of refraction (n2), the angle
of incidence (q1) is related to the angle of
refraction (q2) by:

n1 sin q1 n2 sin q 2

Example. A light ray strikes an air/water surface at an angle of 46 degrees

with respect to the normal. Find the angle of refraction when the direction
of the ray is (a) from air to water and (b) from water to air.

(a)

n1 sin q1 1.00sin 46
sin q 2

0.54
n2
1.33

q 2 33

(b)

n1 sin q1 1.33sin 46
sin q 2

0.96
n2
1.00

q 2 74

APPARENT DEPTH

Example. The searchlight on a yacht

is being used to illuminate a sunken
chest. At what angle of incidence
should the light be aimed?

q 2 tan 1 2.0 3.3 31

n2 sin q 2 1.33sin 31
sin q1

0.69
n1
1.00

q1 sin1 0.69 43.6 o

Apparent depth, observed directly above object

n1 sin q1 n2 sin q 2
For small angles,

sinq tanq
a
a
n1 n2
d
d'

When observed directly from

above, the apparent depth of the
object is:

n2
d d
n1 q
2

n1: incident ray (where the object is)

n2: refracted ray (where the observer is)

n2
n1

q1

Example: You are looking into a pool that is 2.00 m deep. How deep the pool
appears to be?

Since your visual estimate of the depth of

the pool is based on rays coming from the
bottom of the pool, you should consider an
object at the bottom, like the blue arrow PQ
shown in the picture. The depth of the
image PQ, i.e. the image distance di is the
apparent depth of the pool.

n2 = 1.00

n1 = 1.33
di

n2
1
d d 2.00m
1.50m
1.33
n1
(Here we used the approximation of small angles.)
The pool appears to be shallower than it really is.

Example. A swimmer is under water and looking up at the surface.

Someone holds a coin in the air. To the swimmer, the coin appears to be
at a certain height above the water. Is the apparent height of the coin
greater, less than, or the same as its actual height?

n2
d d
n1
The coin is in the air, so n1 = 1.00
The swimmer is in water, so n2 = 1.33

n2
1
n1

d' d

THE DISPLACEMENT OF LIGHT BY A SLAB OF MATERIAL

When light passes through a transparent slab of
material, the emergent ray is parallel to the incident
ray but is displaced from it.
Light enters glass from air:

n1 sinq1 n2 sinq2
Light exits glass into air:

n2 sinq2 n3 sinq3
From these two equations it follows that

n1 sinq1 n3 sinq3
But n1 = n3, therefore:

q1 q 3

The incident and the emergent rays are tilted from the vertical by angles q1 and q3,
and q1 = q3. Therefore they are parallel to each other, but as the diagram shows,
they are displaced relative to each other.

Total Internal Reflection

When light passes from a medium of larger refractive index into one of smaller
refractive index, the refracted ray bends away from the normal.

When q1 increases, q2 also increases, and always q2 > q1 because n1 > n2. At a

certain critical angle q1 = qc < 90o, q2 becomes 90o. When q1 exceeds qc, there
is no refracted light anymore; light reflects back into the denser medium. This
effects is known as total internal reflection. It can occur only when light strikes the
interface from an optically denser medium. An expression for qc can be obtained
from Snells law:

n1 sinqc n2 sin90

So for the critical angle we have:

n2
sin q c
n1

n1 n2

Example. A beam of light is propagating through diamond and strikes the diamondair interface at an angle of incidence of 28 degrees. (a) Will part of the beam enter
the air or will there be total internal reflection? (b) Repeat part (a) assuming that the
diamond is surrounded by water.

(a)

n2
1.00

q c sin sin 1
24.4
2.42
n1
1

(b) q sin 1 n2 sin 1 1.33 33.3

c
n
2
.
42

qi > qc: total internal reflection

qi < qc: refraction will occur,
no total internal reflection

Total reflection of light can be achieved using simple glass instead of mirrors. In
these examples, glass prisms are used to reflect light at 90 or 180 degrees. The
refractive index of glass is n1 = 1.52.

n2
1
sinqc

0.66
n 1 1.52

qc sin1 0.66 41o

The incidence angle qi = 45o is greater than the critical angle qc = 41o, so at qi =
45o there is no refraction, light is totally reflected: total internal reflection does occur.

The effect of total internal reflection is used to make optical fibers,

waveguides, in which light travels by means of multiple reflections from
one wall to the other without leakage, i.e. without coming out of the fiber
by refraction. The key is that the refractive index of the core material is
higher than that of the external shell, the cladding .

Dispersion
The refractive index of a transparent material can be
expressed through the physical properties of the material:

n 1

Ne 2

2 0 me w02 w 2

This is only for

understanding, not
for memorizing.

where N is the number of charges per unit volume, e is the

elementary charge, me is the mass of an electron, w0 is the

angular frequency of the electrons, and w is the angular

frequency of the light in the material (w0 >> w)(Feynman
Lectures on Physics, v. 1, p. 31-5). This relationship shows
that the refractive index increases with the frequency of the
light.
The refractive index is
inversely proportional
to the wavelength.

n f

On the other hand, v

n

The speed of light in vacuum is constant for all

wavelengths. However, the speed of light in a
transparent material is proportional to the wavelength.

The dependence of wave speed and refractive index on wavelength is called dispersion.

The net effect of a prism is to change the direction of a light ray.

Light rays corresponding to different colors bend to different degrees.

The Refraction of Light Depends on Two

Refractive Indices.
It is possible for a prism to bend light upward,
downward, or not at all. How can the situations
depicted in the figure arise?
(a) The refractive index of the prism is smaller
than that of the outer medium
(b) Both materials have the same refractive
index.

Rainbow
Light entering the raindrop is white light.
After refraction, reflection from the back
surface, and a second refraction, it
becomes dispersed light. As shown in
lower left picture, rays with certain
wavelengths (colors) generated by
different drops reach the observers eyes,
creating a sensation of the rainbow.

Lenses
When two prisms are combined, parallel rays coming from a far away object bend relative
to the central axis. When you use a converging lens (upper right) or a diverging lens
(lower right), which have more complex surfaces than the flat surface of the prism,
paraxial rays that are parallel to the principal axis converge to the focal point of a
converging lens and can be traced back to converge at the focal point of a diverging lens.
Thus, lenses refract light in a way to create the image of the object. The image point is at
the other side of the converging lens and at the same side of the diverging lens as the
incident rays (the object). For thin lenses, the focal length is much larger that the lens
thickness.

The Formation of Images by Lenses

Ray diagrams, similar to ray tracing, are used to construct images created by lenses. Use
techniques similar to those used for concave and convex mirrors.
1. Incident ray is parallel to principal axis, after refraction passes through focal point
(converging lens) or can be traced back to pass through focal point (diverging lens).
2. Incident ray is directed to the focal point, after refraction travels parallel to the
principal axis.
3. Incident ray is directed to the center of the lens, after refraction travels same direction.

IMAGE FORMATION BY A CONVERGING LENS

In this example, when the object is placed further than twice the focal
length from the lens, the real image is inverted and smaller than the
object.

When the object is placed between F and 2F, the real image is inverted and
larger than the object.

When the object is placed between F and the lens, the virtual image is upright
and larger than the object.

IMAGE FORMATION BY A DIVERGING LENS

A diverging lens always forms an upright, virtual, diminished image on the

same side of the lens as the object.

The Thin-Lens Equation and the Magnification Equation

Relationships between the object and the image created by a lens, i.e. relationships
between do, di, f, ho and hi, are given by the

thin lens equation:

and the magnification

equation:

1 1 1

do di f

hi
di
m
ho
do

These equations hold for both

converging and diverging thin
lenses.

A thin lens has thickness much less than its focal length; light passing through its
center is considered not to be displaced.

Summary of Sign Conventions for Lenses

f is for a converging lens.

f is for a diverging lens.

do is if the object is to the left of the lens.

do is if the object is to the right of the lens.
di is for an image formed to the right of the lens (real image).
di is for an image formed to the left of the lens (virtual image).
m is for an upright image.
m is for an inverted image.

Example. A 1.70-m tall person is standing 2.50 m in front of a camera.

The camera uses a converging lens whose focal length is 0.0500 m.
(a) Find the image distance and determine whether the image is real or
virtual. (b) Find the magnification and height of the image on the film.
Given: ho, do, f
Find: di, m, hi

(a)

1 1 1
1
1

19.6 m 1
di f d o 0.0500 m 2.50 m
di 0.0510 m

(b)

real image (see preceding slide)

di
0.0510 m

0.0204
do
2.50 m

hi mho 0.02041.70 m 0.0347 m

inverted image

Lenses in Combination
More than one lens can be
used to create large images.
The lens closer to the object is
called the objective, and the
second lens is called the
eyepiece (or the ocular).
The image produced by the
objective serves as the object
for the eyepiece, which creates
the final image. The shapes
(focal lengths) and relative
locations of the objective and
the eyepiece can be selected
so that the first image is
created between the eyepiece
and its focal point Fe. Then the
final image is a virtual and
significantly enlarged image.

The Human Eye

Human eye is a high efficiency optical device.
Cornea: a transparent membrane
Aqueous humor: transparent layer, mostly
water
Iris: a diaphragm that regulates amount of
light entering the pupil. Diameter of opening
changes using the muscles attached to it. It
also determines the eye color.
Lens: also called the vitrous (glass-like)
humor, is a flexible, gelly lens that can
change its shape and hence its optical
properties via the ciliary muscle.
Retina: light-sensitive structure composed
of rods and cones. There are some 120
million rods that are more sensitive to light
than the cones but are not sensitive to color
(wavelength).

The 6 to 7 million cones provide

the eye's color sensitivity. The
whole process is called
phototransduction, i.e. conversion
of the energy of the photons into
electrical potential difference
across the cell membrane that is
transmitted via the optic nerve to
the brain.

For clear vision, light coming from the object should be refracted in a way to create
a sharp image on the retina. The various structures of the eye have refractive
indices from 1.33 to 1.4, so the greatest refraction (~70%) occurs at the air/cornea
interface. While the lens only contributes about 20-25% of the refraction, it provides
formation of image on the retina. The image distance, di, is the distance from the
lens to the retina and is constant. The thin lens equation can be satisfied for all
objects at various distances do if the focal
= constant
length f is changing correspondingly. The eye
1 1 1
changes the curvature (and hence f) of the

d o di f
lens using the ciliary muscle.

Far point infinity

1 1 1
const
di f d o
Near point 20-50 cm

When do decreases, f decreases, and vice versa.

NEARSIGHTEDNESS
The lens of a nearsighted (myopic) eye cannot adopt a focal length large enough to
create the image of far away objects on the retina. The Image is created in front of
retina and is seen as a blurred image. This can be corrected using diverging lenses,
which create an image of the object at the far pint of the nearsighted eye (closer than
the real object)

1 1 1

d o di f

Example. A nearsighted person has a far point located only 521 cm from
the eye. Assuming that eyeglasses are to be worn 2 cm in front of the
eye, find the focal length needed for the diverging lens of the glasses
so the person can see distant objects.
He job of the diverging lens is to cerate an image at the far point of the eye.
The object distance is practically infinity, and the image distance from the
lens is 521 cm 2 cm = 519 cm. But the image is virtual, hence di = -519 cm.

1 1 1 1
1

f d o d i 519 cm

f 519 cm

FARSIGHTEDNESS
The lens of a farsighted (hyperopic) eye cannot adopt a focal length short enough to
create the image of nearby objects on the retina. Image on the retina again is a
blurred image. This can be corrected using converging lenses, which create an
image of a close object at the near pint of the farsighted eye (farther than the real
object)

1 1 1

d o di f

THE REFRACTIVE POWER OF A LENS THE DIOPTER

Optometrists who prescribe correctional lenses and the opticians who make the
lenses do not specify the focal length. Instead they use the concept of refractive
power.

1
Refractive power (in diopters)
f in meters
1 diopter = 1 m-1
Since a converging lens has a positive focal length and a diverging lens has a
negative focal length, they have positive and negative refractive powers,
respectively.
Example: A converging lens has a focal length of 0.25 m. What is its refractive
power?

Refractive power = 1/0.25 m = 4.0 diopters

Example: A diverging lens has a focal length of -0.67 m. What is its refractive
power?

Refractive power = 1/(-0.67 m) = -1.5 diopters

Angular Magnification and the Magnifying Glass

As the Figure shows, the angle q subtended by the image is the same as that

subtended by the object. The angle q is called the angular size of both the image
and the object.

For small angles:

Arc length ho
Radius do

ho
q in radians Angular size
do

Example. A Penny and the Moon

Compare the angular size of a penny (ho = 1.9 cm) held at arms length
(do = 71 cm) with that of the moon (ho = 3.5106 m, do = 3.9108 m) .

Penny:

ho 1.9 cm
q
0.027 rad
d o 71 cm

Moon:

ho 3.5 106 m
q
0.0090 rad
8
d o 3.9 10 m

The penny appears to be about 3 times as larger as the moon.

Optical instruments magnify the angular size of the object (and of the image). The
angular magnification (or the angular power) M is the ratio of the angular sizes of
the image with and without the instrument.

q
M
q

Eye cannot see objects closer than the near

point N, so there is a limiting value for q. When
you use a magnifying glass, the object can be
placed closer, between F and the lens, creating
a large virtual image corresponding to a larger
angular size q.

Angular
magnification
of a magnifying
glass:

1 1
M N
f di

Larger magnifications can be obtained using lenses with shorter focal lengths. This,
however, doesnt mean M can be increased as much as you want by using highly
curved lenses with shorter focal lengths, because of lens aberration effects.

The Compound Microscope

The compound microscope increases the angular

magnification beyond that possible with a

single lens using an additional converging lens
to premagnify the object.
Angular magnification of a compound microscope:

L f e N
M
fo fe

L fo fe

Here, L is the distance between the objective and

the eyepiece, N is the near point distance, fo and
fe are focal lengths of the objective and the
eyepiece, respectively. L must be greater than the
sum of fo and fe for this formula to be valid. The
negative sign indicates that the image is inverted
(see Lenses in Combination slide).

The Telescope
A telescope provides the image of large objects that are far away. Refracting telescopes have
an objective with a larger focal length and an eyepiece with a shorter focal length, and they
are positioned in a way that their focal points coincide. The objective creates a reduced real
image I at point F1 (or F2), which then serves as an object for the eyepiece that creates a
virtual image at infinity.

The angular magnification of a refracting telescope is the ratio of the focal lengths of the
objective and the eyepiece:

fo
fe

The negative sign indicates that the final image is inverted.

Reflecting Telescope

In a reflecting telescope, the objective is replaced by a concave mirror that has several
advantages compared to a lens; there is no chromatic aberration (dependence of f on l) and
other aberrations are easily corrected. The light reflected from the large primary mirror can
either be focused to a cage that records the image, e.g. by a CCD camera (left panel), or can
be reflected by a plane secondary mirror to the observer (middle and right panels).

Lens Aberrations
We have learned that sharp images are created by spherical mirrors or lenses for paraxial
rays that arrive at small angles relative to the principal axis. When incident rays are not
paraxial and arrive at a wide range of angles, spherical aberration occurs with both
converging and diverging lenses with spherical surfaces, preventing formation of a sharp
image. This is called monochromatic aberration.

Suppose the rays shown in red are nearly paraxial and converge at point P. The purple rays
are not paraxial and converge at a different point P. All rays converge at a circle of least
confusion. These effects of aberration can be minimized by decreasing the aperture (shown
as blue bars) and thus removing non-paraxial rays.

Chromatic Aberration
Chromatic aberrations result from dispersion, i.e., the dependence of the refractive index on
the wavelength.

1
n

f l

The incident white light is dispersed into different colors, each of which is deviated to different
degrees. It appears that different color components of the light have different focal lengths
and produce images at different locations. This results in rainbow fringes in binoculars that do
not contain additional corrective lenses or mirrors.
Chromatic aberration can be reduced
using a compound lens, such as a
converging a diverging lens combined
together. The two lenses are made of
glass with different refractive index and
together form an achromatic lens. Blue
light undergoes more refraction than red
light, so the aberration created by the
converging lens is inversed (corrected) by
aberration in the diverging lens.