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DUAL NATURE OF MATTER AND RADIATION

Photons: Electromagnetic radiation travels in space in the form of discrete
packets of energy called photons. These photons travel in straight line with the
speed of light.
Important Properties of photons:
i.

According to quantum theory of light, radiation from any given source always
travel in the form of photons.

ii.

The energy of photon is given by E h

iii.

Velocity of photon is equal to the velocity of light i.e. 3 x 108m/s

iv.

The mass of the particle varies with velocity according to the relation

hc

Where h is Plancks constant and its value is 6.62x10-34Js

mo
1

v2
c2

Where m0 is the rest mass of photon. As photon moves with the velocity of light
v=c, thus m0=0. Hence photon has zero rest mass. The equivalent mass of the
E h
photon is given by using relation
m 2 2
c

p mc

h h

v.

Momentum of photon is given by relation,

vi.

Photons are electrically neutral particle and they are not deflected by the
either electric or magnetic field.

vii.

The velocity of photons in different media is different due to the change in

wavelength, but the frequency of photon remains constant.

viii.

Energy of a photon is usually expressed in electron volt (eV).

1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J
Free electrons in metals: In metals, the electrons in the outermost shell of the
atoms are loosely bound. It is because of the small attractive force between the
positive nucleus and electrons in the outermost shell. These electrons can freely
move in a metal like gas molecules in a given volume of certain gas. But the
electron cant leave the metal surface because of the attractive force of other
positive charges. There exists a potential barrier which they must overcome
before leaving the surface. To overcome that potential barrier they require certain
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minimum amount of energy. This minimum energy required by an electron just to
escape from the metal surface so as to overcome the restraining forces is called
work function. Work function is generally denoted by 0.
Electron Emission: Electron emission is defined as the phenomenon of emission
of free electrons from the metal surface. The various modes for providing energy
to the electrons and making them free are
[a] Thermionic emission: It is phenomenon of emission of free electrons from the
metal surface when heated suitably. On heating the metal, the free electrons
acquire sufficient energy to overcome the restraining forces. The electrons so
emitted are called thermal electrons or thermions.
[b] Photoelectric emission; It is the phenomenon of emission of electrons from
the metal surface when light of suitable energy falls on them. By suitable energy
we mean that the energy of incident photons should be more than the work
function from the metal surface. The emitted electrons are photoelectrons.
[c] Field emission: The phenomenon of emission of electrons from the metal
surface when strong electric field is applied across it. The electric field intensity
will provide energy to the electrons and the emitted electrons are field electrons.
Electric field of the order of 108V/m is required for emission.
[d] Secondary emission: When fast moving electrons called primary electrons are
allowed to fall on the metal surface, they collide with the free electrons inside the
metal surface. The energy transfer between primary electrons and electrons
inside the metal surface provides electron emission from the metal surface. The
emitted electrons are called secondary electrons.
Photoelectric EffectThe phenomenon of emission of electrons from the metal surface when radiation of
suitable frequency falls on them is called photoelectric effect. The emitted electrons
are called photoelectrons and the corresponding current is called photoelectric
current.

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The suitable energy [work function] for different metals is different. Alkali metals
can emit electrons even with visible light whereas metals like zinc or magnesium
requires ultraviolet light.
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
The photoelectric effect was first observed in 1887 by Heinrich Hertz (18571894)
during experiments with a spark-gap generator the earliest form of radio
receiver and it was Philipp Lenard (18621947), an assistant of Hertz, who
performed the earliest, definitive studies of the photoelectric effect.

The

experimental set is shown in the figure.

The apparatus consist of an
evacuated glass tube fitted with two
electrodes C (emitter) and A
(collector). A varying p.d. can be
applied across two electrodes. The
polarity of the electrodes can be
reversed
with
the
help
of
commutator. The frequency and
intensity of light incident can also
be changed.
When a suitable radiation is
incident on the electrode C, electrons are emitted from the surface. If the collector
is at a positive potential w. r. t the emitter, the electrons are attracted by it and a
current called photoelectric current flows in the circuit.
Effect of potential: When we increase the potential of A w.r.t. C, for a given
value of intensity and frequency it was found that the photoelectric current also
increases. At one particular value of accelerating voltage the photoelectric current
saturates. If we increase the potential beyond this value the current will remain
constant. This basically implies that all the electrons emitted by the cathode had
started reaching the plate A
If negative potential is applied on A relative to C, the photoelectric current
decreases as electrons emitted by the cathode are repelled by the negative
potential of plate C. thus, lesser number of electrons will be able to reach the
plate A. It was found the photoelectric current than decreases rapidly till it
reduces to zero at certain negative value of potential of plate A relative to B. This,
minimum negative potential V0, of plate A relative to B for which the
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photoelectric current becomes zero is called stopping potential. At this
potential the electron with maximum kinetic energy will be stopped.
1
2
mvmax
2
1
2
V0 mvmax
2
eV0

Thus, the stopping potential gives the estimate of the maximum kinetic energy of
photoelectrons.
Effect of Frequency: If we take three radiations of different frequency but having
the same intensity. In this case, the number of photons striking the metal surface
per second per unit area will be
same, thus, the photoelectric
current will be same in all the
three cases. But, as the frequency
of photon beams is different the
maximum
kinetic
energy
of
emitted photons will also be
different. Larger the frequency of
incident photon beam larger will
be the maximum kinetic energy
and larger will be the magnitude
of the stopping potential.
Effect of intensity: If we consider three different photon beams striking the
metal
surface
having
same
frequency but different intensity
[I1>I2>I3], then the photoelectric
current will be different in the 3
cases. Larger the intensity larger
will be the photoelectric current as
shown in the graph. But because
the frequency of incident beam is
same sopping potential for all the
three beams will be equal.
Variation of stopping potential
with frequency: The stopping
potential varies linearly with the
frequency of incident photon beam.
If frequency of photon beam is less
than the threshold frequency then
the stopping potential will be zero
as no photoelectric current flows.
But if > 0, stopping potential
increases with .

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Laws of Photoelectric Effect
[a] For a given metal surface and frequency of the incident radiation, the number
of photoelectrons ejected per second by the metal surface is directly
proportional to the intensity of the incident light.
[2] For a given metal surface, there exists a minimum frequency of incident
radiation below which no emission of electrons will take place. This frequency
is called threshold frequency.
[3] Above the threshold frequency, the maximum kinetic energy of emitted
photoelectrons is independent of the intensity of incident radiation and
depends only on the frequency of the incident radiation.
[4] The photoelectric effect is in instantaneous phenomenon. The time lag
between the photon striking the metal surface and emission of electrons is
only 10-9s

Graphs-

Graph between applied potential

and photoelectric current for
different values of Intensity

Graph between threshold frequency

and stopping potential

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Graph between intensity of light and

photoelectric current i.e. photoelectrons emitted
per second (rate of emission of electrons)

Graph between applied potential and

photoelectric current for different
values of frequency.

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Note(1) The negative potential at which the current in the circuit becomes zero is called
as cut-off potential or stopping potential (V0).
(2) The minimum frequency required to emit an electron from a metal surface is
called threshold frequency

Failure of Wave Theory- The laws of photoelectric effect could not be explained
on the basis of wave theory of light due to the following reasons.
(i)

According to wave theory the light propagates in the form of wave fronts and
the energy is distributed uniformly over the wave fronts. With increase of
intensity of light, the amplitude of waves and the energy carried by waves
will increase. These waves will then, provide more energy to electrons of
metal; consequently the energy of electrons will increase.
Thus, according to wave theory the kinetic energy of photoelectrons must
depend on the intensity of incident light; but according to experimental
observations, the kinetic energy of photoelectrons does not depend on the
intensity of incident light.

(ii)

According to wave theory the light of any frequency can emit electrons from
metallic surface provided the intensity of light be sufficient to provide
necessary energy for emission of electrons, but according to experimental
observations the light of frequency less than threshold frequency can not
emit electrons; whatever the intensity of incident light may be.

(iii) According to wave theory the energy transferred by light waves will not go to
a particular electron, but it will be distributed uniformly to all electrons
present in the illuminated surface. Therefore electrons will take some time to
collect the necessary energy for their emission. The time for emission will be
more for light of less intensity and vice versa. But experimental observations
show that the emission of electrons take place instantaneously after the light
is incident on the metal; whatever the intensity of light may be.

EINSTENS PHOTOELECTHIC EQUATION AND EXPLANATION OF LAW OF

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT To explain photoelectric effect, Einstein postulated that when a photon carrying
energy h falls on a metal surface then it is completely absorbed by a single
electron. Electron utilizes some amount of this energy to come out from the metal
surface which is called as the work function (W) of metal and the rest amount of
energy is carried by electron in the form of kinetic energy. Thus
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h W

1
2
mvmax
2

1
2
mvmax
h W
2

Here, m is the mass of electron and

v max is the maximum velocity of the

photoelectrons. (In fact, most of the electrons possess kinetic energy less than
the maximum value as they lose a part of their kinetic energy due to collisions in
escaping from the metal).
If = 0, the K.E. =0.

0 h 0 W

1
2
mvmax
h ( 0 )
2

W h 0

This relation is called as the Einsteins photoelectric equation.

If V0 is the cut-off potential then above equation can also be written aseV0 h ( 0 )

1
2
mvmax
eV0
2

Explanation of Laws of Photoelectric Effect by EinsteinFrom Einsteins relation, it follows that

1. If <0 then kinetic energy of the photoelectrons [according to equation (1)]

will become negative which is not possible so no electron will be emitted from
the metal surface if the frequency of the incident light is less than a certain
value called as threshold frequency. Thus the frequency of incident radiation
should be greater than the threshold frequency for the metal for the ejection of
electrons.
2. The photoelectrons will come out of the metal surface with greater value of
1
2
maximum kinetic energy
mv max
h h 0 , as the frequency of incident
2
radiation is increased. Maximum kinetic energy will not depend upon the
intensity.
3. The rate of emission of photoelectrons will be large, when intense radiation is
incident. This is because, an intense radiation will contain a large number of
photons so they will transfer their energy to a large number of electrons and
hence more photoelectrons will be ejected.
4. The electron is emitted from the metal surface in time less than one
nanosecond so the photoelectric effect is an instantaneous process.
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Dual

Nature

of

matter;

There

are

some

phenomenon

involving

light

like

photoelectric effect, Compton scattering etc which can be explained only if we

assume the light to possess the particle character. Whereas, some other
phenomenon like diffraction etc can be explained by assuming the light to be
possessing wave character. This implies that light posses both particle as well as
wave character.
Thus, light phenomenon can be classified into 3 categories
[1] The phenomenon like photoelectric effect or Compton scattering which can be
explained using particle character
[2] The phenomenon like diffraction or polarization, which can be, explained only
using wave character.
[3] Phenomenon like refraction or refraction, which can be, explained either by
particle or wave character.
De-Broglie Hypothesis {Matter Waves}
De-Broglie stated that as light possesses dual character and universe consists of
matter and radiation only. As nature loves symmetry, thus matter should also

possess dual nature both particle as well as a wave. According to de-Broglie a

wave is always associated with the moving particle which controls the particle
in every aspect. This wave is called de-Broglie wave or matter wave.

For a particle of mass m moving with the velocity v the de-Broglie

wavelength associated with the particle is given by

Proof:

h
mv

According to Planks quantum theory, the energy associated with a photon

of frequency is given by

E = h

Also, according to relativistic mass formula for particle of rest mass m0 and
momentum p the energy is given by
As rest mass of the photon is zero, thus energy of photon beam is given by
E = pc
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Equating the two values of energy, we get

h = pc

De- Broglie stated that as photon and matter particles behave in similar manner,
therefore the same formula can be applied to matter particle also, whose
momentum p=mv. Thus,

Thus, if the velocity of the particle is zero, its wavelength will be infinity and if
velocity of the particle is infinity then wavelength will be zero. In daily life the
mass of the particle and thus there momentum is very large. The de-Broglie
wavelength thus, comes out to be small. The de-Broglie wavelength of any
particle is independent of the charge on the particle.
Note: It was found that velocity of De-Broglie waves is always more than the
velocity with which the particle moves.
De-Broglie Wavelength of an Electron- If an electron is made to accelerate
through the potential difference of V volt, the initial electrical potential energy of
the electron gets converted into final kinetic energy of the electron

Thus, according to De-Broglies relation, the corresponding wavelength associated

with the electron is given as
As, h, m and e are constant, if we substitute their values we get

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DAVISSON AND GERMERS EXPERIMENT (ELECTRON DIFFRACTION): Davisson and Germer gave the experimental demonstration of the de-Broglie
wave associated with the moving electron.
EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP: -

It consists of an electron gun. A fine beam of

electron accelerated to a known energy strikes to a Ni- crystal. A detector, which

moves on a circular scale, detects the diffracted beam and measures the angle of
diffraction.
WORKING: -The accelerated beam of electron strikes the nickel crystal normally.
The intensity of the diffracted or scattered beam is measured for different value of
which is the angle between the incident direction and scattered direction. It is
also called the latitude angle.
Electron Gun

Polar graphs are plotted between the

intensity (I) of scattered electron and the

Detector

latitude angle for different accelerating

Reflected
Beam

voltages. The radial distance of the graph

from

origin

measures

the

intensity

of

scattered beam. From the graphs it is

clear that the intensity of scattered beam

Ni Crystal

is maximum for = 50 at 54 volt.

The glancing angle (i.e. the angle between the direction of scattered electron
and crystal atomic plane) is given by
Therefore

180

1
180
2

For maximum intensity

Now according to Braggs law-

2d sin n

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1
180 50
2

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For 1st order diffraction n = 1 & d = 0.91 A (inter atomic separation for Nicrystal)

2d sin

2 0.91 sin 65
1.65 A

Now according to de-Broglie hypothesis- The wavelength of wave associated with

electron accelerated to 54 volt is given by-

12.27
V

12.27
54

1.66 A

Thus there is a close agreement between the estimated value of de-Broglie

wavelength and the experimental value determined by Davisson and Germer.

Thus this experiment gave a strong evidence for the de-Broglie hypothesis or the
wave nature of matter.

Photoelectric Cell: It is a device which converts light energy into the electrical energy. Photoelectric cells
can be 3 types
[a] Photo emissive Cell; Photoemissive cell or phototube as it is
commonly called consists of galls or quartz tube with semi cylindrical
metal plate acting as cathode and wire loop acting as anode. The tube has
insulating base with metallic pins to fix the tube in the socket. This tube is
connected to the external circuit using battery and micro ammeter and a
resistance R.

load

When light of frequency greater than the threshold frequency for

the
metal surface is allowed to fall on the cathode, photoelectrons are emitted.
These are attracted by the positive potential on the anode loop and current
begins to flow in the circuit. The photoelectric current, which flows in the circuit, is measured using micro
ammeter. This current is generally very small and needs amplification before it can be used. The current
flows only till the photons are falling on the metal surface.
[b] Photovoltaic Cell: It consists of three layers as shown in figure. The metallic surface of copper or gold
with thin semi conducting layer of cuprous oxide and a thin transparent film of silver or gold.

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When sunlight falls on the top transparent layer and passes through it, it illuminates the
semiconducting layer. The photoelectrons are emitted by this layer
and
are collected by top layer. This creates a potential difference
between the top two layers and conventional current begins to flow.
Thus, cell supplies current without any batteries. Here also, the
photoelectric current is directly proportional to the intensity of the
incident light falling on the surface.
[c] Photoconductive cell:
Photoconductive cell has its working based on the principle that the electrical resistance of the semi
conductors decreases with the increase in temperature of the semiconductor.
It consists of thin transparent surface film which is placed on thin layer of selenium [semi conductor]
which in turn is placed on iron layer. A potential difference is
applied across the surface of the film and iron layer. When light of
suitable frequency falls on the surface film, the electrical resistance
of
the semiconductor decreases and current begins to flow in the outer
circuit, this current change with the change in intensity of the
incident light.
Applications of Photoelectric Cells[1] It is used as burglar alarm in houses or banks etc.
[2] A photocell can be used to locate flaws in the metallic sheet in industrial applications
[3] It is used for automatic switching on and off of the streetlights.
[4] It is used for automatic counting of number of persons entering or leaving a given hall or stadium.
[5] It is used as fire alarm in the case of accidental fire in the building
[6] Photoelectric cells are used in TV and camera for telecasting scenes by converting light and shade into
electric signals.
[7] Photocells are used to compare the illuminating power of two different sources of light.

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