Research Methods

The major features of a science

Objectivity
(views based on observable phenomena not personal opinion, prejudices or
emotion) = info verified by measurement based on empiricism (evidence
comes from experiments not revelations)

Replicability
(ability for a procedure/findings to be repeated) = info is available to public
scrutiny and any study should be able to be repeated and get the same info

Controlled observations
observing manipulation of IV = cause and effect

Testing theoretical prediction

Falsifiability
theories disproved by evidence

Paradigm
the accepted theoretical orientation within a science

Science and non-science Zechmeister

et al
Science
Empirically based
Collecting scientific info is
systematic and controlled
Reporting info is unbiased
and objective
Ideas/hypo can be tested

Non-Science
Intuitive
Non-scientific info is
random and uncontrolled
Reporting info can be bias
and subjective
Ideas/hypo cannot be
tested

The scientific method Poppers

Unfalsifiable
research cycle
theories
Identify a problem

Develop a
hypothesis

Devise a study

Develop a theory

Modify and repeat

the process =
previous

Analyse and
Evaluate

become
known as
scientific laws

The scientific method - Kuhn

Pre-Science

Normal Science

Revolutionary
Science

The new paradigm is accepted by the scientific community

replacing the old.
Progress of science is characterised by periods of normal a
science and a period of revolutionary science

Scientists cling to theories

despite contradictory
evidence.
More contradictory evidence =
questioning the current
paradigm and a new one put
forward.

Validating new knowledge and the role

of peer review
Research

Prepare
manuscript

Send to
journal/
editor

Send to
psychological
experts =
peer reviews

Publication

Revised

Rejected

Send back to
editor with
comments and
recommendations

Assessment

Problems of Validation
Research that does not fit previous work is often rejected
slowing revolutionary science

Garcia F: a CR could be established even after a 6 hour gap. This

was contradictory to all other work in classical conditioning. It
was rejected several times before other studies began to show
the same results

Values in science, science tried to be objective but it cannot

be separated from culture, politics or personal values.
Bias in peer review such as gender, institution and
theoretical bias
File drawer phenomenon peer review favours positive
research

Selection of research method

Is the aim of the research to collect
descriptive data or to investigate links
between variables

Study behaviour
of
groups/individuals
Ask for response/
or watch
behaviour

What sort of
links,
relation/causal
Case
study
Correlational

Large sample
of info/detailed

survey

interview

observation

Laboratory

Research Methods - Experimental

Type

Description

Advantages

Disadvantages

Laboratory

Controlling the
variables(who, what,
when, where and
how). Using a
standardised
procedure.

High degree of
control = greater
accuracy and
objectivity
Repeatable
Can determine cause
and effect

Demand
characteristics =
participants try to
guess the purpose
and act accordingly
Low ecological
validity = low
generalisability to
other settings

Field

Preformed in the real

world with direct
manipulation of the IV

Natural

The IV occurs
naturally, only record
the effect on the DV

High ecological
validity =
generalisable to other
settings
No demand
characteristics =
participants are
unaware of the
experiment

Less control
Replicability =
conditions will never
be exactly the same
Sample bias =
participants arent
randomly allocated to
groups

Experimental method - Designs

Design

Description

Advantages

Disadvantages

Repeated

Same participants used

in each condition

Fewer participants
Participant variables are
eliminated as each
participant acts as their
own control

Order effects may occur

such as boredom but
these can be controlled
through
counterbalancing
Cannot use the same
materials in each
condition

Independent

Participants are
randomly allocated to
different groups
representing different
conditions

No order effects
The same materials can
be used in both
conditions reducing
production cost

Participant variables
introduced = differenced
in condition may be due
to the diff in part. Not IV
More participants
required

Matched

Pair of participants are

closely matched and
then randomly allocated
to either one condition

No order effects
Attempts to control
participant variables

Difficult to match part

on everything therefore
not eliminating part
variables totally
More participants
required

Research Methods - Correlational

Strength of a
relationship between 2
variables
Expressed by the
correlation coefficient(1/+1)

Advantages
See if there is a sig.
Relationship between 2
variables when it cannot
be investigated
experimentally

Disadvantages
No cause and effect
Ambiguous
Subjective

Research methods Observational

Type of observation

Description

Advantages

Disadvantages

Naturalistic

The IV occurs naturally,

the researcher only
records the effect on the
DV

Natural behaviour is
being observed
High in ecological
validity

Little control over

confounding variables

Controlled

Controls the variables

which might influence
behaviour

Control over
confounding variables

Behaviour may not be

natural/normal

Participants

The observer becomes

actively involved in the
activities of the people
being studied

Easier to understand the

observees behaviour
High ecological validity

Hard to record
observations(retrospecti
vely therefore low
reliability)
Observer can become
involved with the
participants and the data
subjective

Non-participant

Researcher observing
from a distance

Observations made as
they happen = more
reliable
Lack of contact so the
observer can maintain
objectivity

Behaviour may be
recorded by the meaning
behind it unknown

Self report techniques

Types

Description

Advantages

Disadvantages

Surveys

Large amount of
Gather info
about a topic
info efficiently
from a large group
of people
From Q.Open/closed

Interviews

Structured,
unstructured,
semi-structured

More flexible as
researcher can
interact with the
participant

Subjective
Time consuming

Case study

In-depth study of
an individual/
group

Rich source of
meaningful data

Low population
validity
Low Replicability
= low reliability

Low response
rates = reducing
validity
Social desirability

Reliability = Consistency
Assessing reliability
External reliability = same results
every time
Test-retest method
Correlation coefficient of 2 sets of
scores

Internal reliability = consistency

of a measure within a test
Split half method = compares one
half of the test with the other to
check whether the scores are
consistent
E.g. Taking scores from even
samples and correlating them
against with the odd scores

Improving reliability
Take more than on
measurement from each
participant
Pilot studies = method of
measurement works
properly and that part can
use apparatus successfully
Standardise collection and
recording of data = interrater reliability

Validity = truth of a measure

Internal Validity - issues
Internal = ability of a study
to test the hypo that it was
designed to test
Confounding variables = V
confused with the IV
Demand characteristics
Experimenter bias = the
tendency of experimenters
to find what the expect to
find

Improving internal validity

Single blind = participants
dont know what
group/condition they are
assigned to = no demand
characteristics
Double blind = neither the
participant nor the
researcher now the details
of the group/condition = no
demand characteristics or
experimenter bias

Validity = truth of a measure

External validity - issues
External = how well the
results of a study can be
generalised beyond the
study itself
Population validity
Ecological validity

Improving external validity

Choose a representative
sample = random sampling

Validity = truth of a measure

Assess validity
Face validity = whether a
test seems to be valid =
weakest form
Criterion validity = more
objective
Concurrent validity = similar
finding to another existing
measure
Predictive validity = how well
a test predicts future
preformance

Internal vs External
More CV controlled internal
is high = artificial = reducing
external
Either high internal/external
depends on the purpose of
the study
Test a theory = high internal
Real world application = high
external

Issues of sampling
When choosing a sample you want high
population validity = representative of the
target population = results can be generalised
to the whole population
Random sample has the highest pop validity
but rarely used compared to
volunteer/opportunity
Conflict between the desire for good design
and ethical guidelines

BPS Ethical guidelines

Consent

Give informed consent

Deception

Not misled

Debriefing

Discuss investigation with part

post

Withdrawal

Feel free to leave

Confidentiality

Right to confidentiality

Protection of participants

Both psychological and

physical

Observational research

Privacy respected

Giving advice

Only give advice for which

they are qualified

Colleagues

Make sure all colleagues are

ethical too

Ethical process
Informed consent
via info sheet and
consent form

Info sheet =
objectives of
study

Opportunity for Q.
About info

Info stress that

part can withdraw

Deception

Full disclosure =
demand
characteristics = low
internal validity

Extra safeguards for

those who have
trouble
understanding

Read and
understand info
before signing

Look for
alternatives

Debrief and right to

withdraw
data/retrospective
consent

Prior general
consent

Understanding,
monitor unforeseen
effects/disturbances

Should leave in
the same state as
they entered

Probability and significance

Probability/p = the number of outcomes/number of possible outcomes =
0-1(0=event wont happen, 1= event will happen)
Level of significance p 0. 05(less than 0.05 is significant = reject the null
hypothesis)

Conditional probability = the probability of an event if something else

occurs
Statistical tests = how likely it is that what we have found in our sample
accurately reflects what happen in the population

Alternate and null hypo = if the probability is small it suggest any pattern in
the sample is unlikely to be down to chance = reflect population = significant =
reject null hypothesis

Level of significance p 0.05 is chosen to balance the risk of type 1 +2

errors

Type 1(false positive) = when the null hypothesis is rejected but shouldnt
have been
Type 2(false negative) = when the null hypothesis is accepted but shouldnt
have been

Choosing a statistical test

Type of research design
Nature of
hypothesis

Level of
measurement

Independent
(unrelated)

Repeated (related)

Differences

Nominal

Chi square

Sign test

Ordinal

Mann-Whitney U
test

Wilcoxon (matched
pairs)

Interval

Independent t test

Related t test

Correlation

Ordinal

Spearmans rho

Interval

Pearson product
moment
Chinese men drink
tea

Sexy women read

sexy porn

Dealing with quantitative data

Descriptive statistics
summarising data

Inferential statistics analysing

the data

Data summarised using

measures of central
tendency and measures of
dispersion
Differences/relationships
illustrated graphically

Statistical tests
Choosing the right test
Analyse and interpret the
statistical findings

Summarising Data
Measures of central tendency = compared data from two sets of
scores
Mean, median, mode

Measured of dispersion = describe the spread of scored/how much

variation there is
Range/standard deviation

Ways of summarising data = graphs

Histogram

Shows distribution of a whole set of data//bars joined=continuous

scale//column area = frequency of the score

Bar chart

Bars arent joined = non-continuous scale//not all categories put x-axis

Scatter grams

The relationship between two variables

Analysis and Interpretation of

Qualitative data
Analysis(inductive and
reflexivity)

Data collection and analysis are hard to

seperate
First stage = organising the data

E.g. Recording speech = transcript

Know the data thoroughly = reading the

transcript a number of times
Code the data(depends on analysis)

Interpretive phenomenological analysis

Interpreting the meanings of
events/experiences that have
had an effect on the part.
Grounded theory
Coding each line of text =
combine into larger constructs
= explored and links between
them studied
Discourse analysis
Analysis of speech/written
discourse(investigates the
social context of discourse and
the interaction between
speakers)

Evaluation/interpretation
Trustworthiness
External audit

Check documentation, from

transcript to final analysis by
an external party
Documentation should include
How any decisions were
made

Transferability = can the

insights be transferred to
similar situations
Negative case analysis =
exploring cases that do not fit
the emerging concepts
Reflexivity

Title

Report

Abstract

Intro - hypo

Method
design,
participants,
apparatus,
procedure

Design = design used,

number of groups/
conditions, variables, control
measures(counterbalancing)
Participant = features of the
sample, how they were
selected
Procedure = allocation of
participants, how data was
collected

References
results
descriptive/inferential,
rejection/acceptance of
null hypo

Discussion
summary of
findings

To include

Aims/hypothesis
Alternative
Null

Design
Either repeated, matched, individual groups
Number of conditions
Variables
Independent
Dependent
extraneous(affect part)
confounding(confused with IV)
Measures
Counterbalancing
Participants
What demographics
How they are collected
Procedure
How participants allocated
Collection of data

Results
Descriptive
Measures of central
tendency/dispersion
Graphs
Inferential
Test significance
Accept/reject
the null
hypothesis

Ethics and future

directions