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CONTENTS
SECTION
INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
SCOPE
FIELD OF APPLICATION
DEFINITIONS
4.1
Start-up
PRELIMINARY CALCULATIONS
6.1
6.2
5
7
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
8
9
9
10
10
10
10
.
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13
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
Flowrate
Pipe Diameter
Valve Selection and Operation
Pump Start-up/Shut-down
Surge Tanks and Accumulators
Vacuum Breakers
Changes to Equipment
13
13
13
16
16
17
18
10
DETAILED ANALYSIS
18
10.1
10.2
Data Requirements
Interpretation of Results
18
19
11
21
12
12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
12.6
21
21
22
23
23
23
23
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13
14
REFERENCES
24
NOMENCLATURE
25
TABLES
1
26
30
31
FIGURES
1
11
11
13
15
15
22
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INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
SCOPE
FIELD OF APPLICATION
This Guide is of use to all process engineers and plant operating personnel in the
GBH Enterprises world-wide, who may be involved in the specification, design
or operation of equipment involving the flow of liquids in pipelines.
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DEFINITIONS
Any operation which can result in a rapid change in velocity is a potential cause
of serious pressure surge. Typical operations include:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
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The subsequent collapse of this cavity can give rise to severe problems, with
high transient pressures and out of balance forces. Vapor cavity collapse is one
of the most intractable problems in pressure surge analysis, and any system with
the potential for cavity formation should be viewed with caution.
4.1
Start-up
It is important to realize that during start-up and filling of piping systems the liquid
velocities may be considerably greater than the maximum which may occur
during normal operation, due to the reduced frictional resistances which may
occur during this period. The associated potential for
surge problems may be greater than during normal operation.
4.1.1 Vapor cavities
At start-up it is quite possible that vapor cavities will be present at the high points
of the system, which will collapse as the system is pressurized.
4.1.2 Gas pockets
Gas pockets may reduce fluid friction and allow much higher velocities than
occur in normal full liquid operation. The deceleration of the liquid by the gas
compression can lead under certain circumstances to very high gas pressures
and temperatures. Explosive ignition of flammable mixtures has been known.
4.1.3 Venting
The volumetric flow of a gas through an orifice is considerably greater than that
of a liquid for the same pressure drop. When venting gas from a system, high
flowrates can occur, which cannot be maintained when the gas has been
expelled; a sudden flow reduction occurs, resulting in pressure surge. Specific
examples include priming distributors in columns and batch blowing in systems
with valves at the downstream end of the line.
4.1.4 Fast Pressurization
Fast pressurization of a closed system can double the pressure rise at the far
end of the system as the pressure wave is reflected from the closed end. This
can arise either from the fast opening of a valve at the inlet end of the system or
pump start-up with the pump discharge valve open.
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Usually, the initial reason for investigating the possibility of pressure surge is a
concern that the design pressure of the piping system may be exceeded. Another
problem, not always appreciated, is that even if the surge pressure is within the
design pressure, a surge may result in the creation of large out-of-balance forces
within the piping system. These may damage the supports, or in the extreme,
cause the collapse of pipe bridges. The resulting displacement of the pipes may
be sufficient to cause failure through bending, or might result in a branch pipe
being torn off due to impact when the main pipe is displaced. This may extend to
other pipes on the same pipe bridge which are not themselves subject to
pressure surge. Experiences indicate that failure of pipework supports as a result
of pressure surge is more likely than pipeline rupture due to over-pressure.
Some examples of pressure surge incidents are given in Clause 12.
PRELIMINARY CALCULATIONS
Pressure surges are propagated through a piping system at the local sonic
velocity. An estimation of this is basic to all calculations.
In a rigid pipe, pressure disturbances will propagate at the basic sonic velocity for
the fluid, which is given by:
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Dissolved gases have little effect on the sonic velocity, provided they remain in
solution. Even small traces of undissolved gas reduce the sonic velocity
dramatically, and will greatly reduce the magnitude of pressure surges. However,
it is very difficult to quantify such effects, and it is recommended that such
benefits be ignored when assessing a system for potential surge damage.
The bulk modulus of elasticity is not readily obtainable for many liquids. It is not
an item which is stored in the GBH Enterprises; The VAULT physical
properties data bank.
Some commercially available programs purport to calculate the speed of sound
in liquids, but the method used is of doubtful validity. It should not be used.
Table 1 gives typical values of bulk modulus of elasticity and sonic velocity for
some liquids. Note that different sources may give significantly different values
for these properties. The most extreme case known to the author is for liquid HF,
where the sonic velocity calculated from the bulk modulus obtained from one
source differs by a factor of 3 from another source's claimed direct measurement
of sonic velocity. In general, a higher assumed value for the sonic velocity
can be expected to lead to predictions of higher surge pressures.
The velocity of propagation of a pressure wave in a thin walled elastic pipe is
lower than the sonic velocity in a rigid pipe, and can be calculated from:
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The value of B depends on the method of pipe support and the Poisson ratio of
the pipe material. When the Young's Modulus, E, is large, as for metal pipes, the
numerical value of B may be taken as unity without significant error. In other
cases, B may be calculated from:
Values of Young's Modulus and Poisson's ratio for some common materials are
given in Table 2.
The reduction in velocity due to the elasticity of the pipe is normally relatively
small for metal pipes, but can be considerable with plastic pipes. Figure 1, which
is taken from reference 4, shows the effects of pipe material and wall thickness
on the velocity of propagation of a pressure wave in a water filled pipe.
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FIGURE 1
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6.2
Pipeline Period
where L is the length of the pipeline from the source of the disturbance to the end
of the pipe (m) and c is the velocity of propagation of the pressure wave (m/s).
There will be two pipeline periods associated with a single pipe having a valve
part way down it; one will be based on the upstream length and one on the
downstream length.
7
7.1
If the velocity of a liquid in a pipeline is changed gradually and steadily, such that
the change takes place over more than about 10 pipeline periods, the simplifying
assumptions can be made that the rate of change of velocity is the same at all
points along the pipeline. Compressibility effects can be ignored and the liquid
treated as a rigid column. Pressure changes can then be calculated by
considering the momentum effects. For the upstream side of the disturbance:
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7.2
Any change in flowrate which is completed in under one pipeline period can be
considered instantaneous as far as the initial pressure transient is concerned.
Note that for a long pipeline, this time could be quite significant. For example, if
the sonic velocity is 1000 m/s and the pipeline is 10 km long the pipeline period
will be 20 seconds. A valve which closes in 15 s will have the same effect as one
which closes in 1 s. Rigid column theory can only safely be applied to this system
if the closure time exceeds 200 s.
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When the velocity at any point in a pipe carrying liquid is suddenly changed, for
example by the closure of a valve, a pressure wave is propagated from that point
along the pipe. The magnitude of the initial pressure change is given by the
formulae:
7.3
If a change in flowrate takes place over an interval between one and ten pipeline
periods, neither the rigid liquid column method nor the Joukowski Head
calculation is strictly applicable. For simple unbranched systems it is possible to
estimate the magnitude of the peak pressure by a stepwise manual method, as
explained in reference 6, but the procedure is quite involved. If the calculation of
the Joukowski Head indicates the possibility of problems, it is generally
preferable to perform a detailed computer analysis.
7.4
When a pressure surge reaches the end of a pipeline, it is reflected back down
the line. If the end of the pipe is open, the magnitude of the reflection is the same
as the incident surge, but the sign is reversed. Thus a positive pressure surge is
reflected as a rarefaction, and vice versa. When a surge reaches a closed end,
the reflected surge has double the incoming magnitude.
Because of these reflections, alternate pressure and rarefaction surges pass up
and down the line, being reflected from each end. Due to friction effects, the
magnitude of the surges gradually dies away.
7.5
If the static pressure in the system falls below the vapor pressure at any point, a
vapor cavity will tend to form, which will continue to grow all the while the
pressure remains low. Subsequent positive pressures will cause the cavity to
collapse. This will lead to a large abrupt pressure surge as the cavity is
condensed. Experience shows that this is one of the most severe problems to
deal with. If preliminary calculations indicate that cavity formation is likely, a
more detailed analysis is recommended.
7.6
For a branched piping system, or one including several high points where vapor
cavity formation may occur, reflections will occur off the ends of each pipeline,
and vapor cavities will collapse in differing times. The result is a very complex
pressure/time history, which cannot sensibly be analyzed by hand calculations.
Computer analysis of the system is then essential if preliminary calculations give
any indication of potential problems.
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A flowing fluid has the potential to exert a force on account of its pressure and its
momentum. The potential force of a fluid in a pipe, acting in the direction of the
flow, is given by:
FIGURE 2
However, if a pressure transient is passing through the piping system, the forces
on the pipework are no longer in balance. Consider the section of pipe shown in
FIGURE 3
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Assume that the valve is closed suddenly. A transient will pass back up the pipe
from the valve at the sonic velocity. On the valve side of the transient, the fluid
will have been brought to rest and the pressure will be greater than the initial
pressure by the Joukowski Pressure for the system, .c.v. Upstream of the
transient, the fluid will still be travelling with the original velocity and pressure.
Consider the length of pipe between the two bends in Figure 3, when the
transient is somewhere between the bends, and ignore the effects of friction. The
force along the pipe from the upstream bend is then:
In the simple system considered here, where the pressure remains at the higher
value for a significant time after the transient has passed, this force will act for a
time t, the time taken for the pressure transient to pass along the length of pipe
between the two bends:
For more complex systems, involving multiple reflections and vapor cavity
collapses, for example, a very complex pressure/time response may occur, and
the duration of a high pressure may be shorter than that taken for the transient to
pass between the two bends. When analyzing the forces on the piping system it
is necessary to consider both the magnitude and duration of the forces.
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For a sudden pressure rise, the effect of these forces cannot be considered as
equivalent to steady state forces. It is generally necessary to apply a multiplying
factor, the Dynamic Load Factor or DLF, to the calculated shock loading when
performing a dynamic pipeline support analysis. The magnitude of this factor
depends on the nature of the pipe supports, and the duration of the force in
relation to the natural frequency of the piping system. The DLF can be
up to a value of 2 for rigidly anchored systems with a relatively long force
duration. Conversely, for short duration pressure pulses in flexible (low
frequency) pipes the dynamic load factor on supports can be much less than
unity. Consult a piping engineer for advice. For more information on the
mechanical aspects of designing pipework for pressure surge, Visit us at
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If the valve is closed gradually rather than suddenly, not only will the magnitude
of the surge pressure be reduced, but the pressure will rise gradually rather than
in a stepwise fashion. The effect of this is to reduce significantly the magnitude of
the out of balance forces. This is illustrated in Figure 4.
FIGURE 4
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Flowrate
For most pipelines, the required flowrate is determined by the process. However,
for some operations, such as the batchwise transfer of liquid from one vessel to
another, it may be possible to increase the transfer time, thus reducing the flow
velocity. Closure of the system valves will then produce a smaller change in
velocity, and hence a reduced surge pressure.
9.2
Pipe Diameter
Increasing the diameter of a pipeline for a given flowrate will reduce the velocity,
and hence the peak surge pressure. However, this approach is likely to be
expensive compared with the alternatives. Moreover, although it will reduce the
magnitude of the peak pressure, the out-of balance forces will remain
substantially the same, as the reduction in pressure is balanced by an increase in
pipe cross sectional area. This method will not be considered further here.
9.3
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For some designs of butterfly valve, the forces on the disk from the flowing
liquid tend to turn the valve into the closed position, particularly when the
valve is initially in the partially closed position. This may result in the
inadvertent rapid closure of the valve, and it may be necessary to provide
some physical constraint to prevent this happening.
9.3.2 Control valves
9.3.2.1
Stroke time
Where the process demands permit it, the speed of closure of a control
valve may be reduced by selection of a suitable actuator. Certain types of
valve, particularly butterfly and ball valves, have unfavorable
characteristics from the point of pressure surge, as most of their effect
occurs over the last few percent of the closure. For these valves, a split
range actuator may be useful. This will have a rapid rate of closure over
the part of the characteristic where flowrate does not vary much with valve
position, and a slower response during the last stages of closure.
9.3.2.2
Valve type
As has been stated before, some valve types have better characteristics
than others from the point of view of pressure surge. Where piping
specifications permit, a change in valve type may have significant effects
on the magnitude and rapidity of pressure changes in the system.
In order to illustrate this, a model of a simple piping system has been set
up using the The Vault (see Clause 10). The system modeled consists
of a feed tank, a pump, a length of pipeline with a pipeline period of 2
seconds, a control valve and a receiving tank. Five different valve
characteristics (loss coefficient as a function of valve position) have been
simulated, with a valve closure time of 10 seconds in each case. The
valve types used were:
A butterfly valve.
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Figure 5 shows the variation of flowrate with time for the five valve types. It
can be seen that over most of the closure, the equal percentage valve
gives the most gradual change in flowrate. However, towards the end of
the closure, there is a rapid change in flow. This is because the
characteristic used represents a real valve, (Taylor Instruments, ideal
rangeability 40:1, practical rangeability 20:1) which only exhibits equal
percentage characteristics over the major portion of its range. Indeed, an
ideal equal percentage valve would never shut off completely.
At the other extreme the 'K' type diaphragm valve has very little effect on
the flow for the first 90% of the closure, followed by a very rapid reduction
in flow, giving an effective closure time of only about 1 second in this case.
FIGURE 5
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It should be emphasized that these two Figures are illustrative only. The
actual magnitude of the differences between different valve types will
depend on the system. The effects of valve size should also be
considered; a large valve will have worse characteristics than a small one
of the same type, as the initial stages of closure of a large valve result in
little extra flow resistance and hence little change in flow rate. It cannot be
concluded that an equal percentage valve will always give the best results.
9.3.3 Emergency shut-down valves
Emergency shut-down valves may be required to operate very rapidly.
However, it is always worth considering the safety consequences of
increasing the closure time. Alternatively, a change in valve type, as
discussed above, may produce a reduced pressure surge with the same
overall closure time.
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9.4
Pump Start-up/Shut-down
It is in general bad practice to start up a pump with an open delivery valve into a
long piping system. The preferred arrangement is to have a recycle line from the
pump delivery to the feed tank sized to give the minimum acceptable flowrate for
the pump (a 'kick-back' line), and an isolation valve at the start of the main
system. When the pump is up to speed, this valve may be opened in a slow,
controlled fashion to divert the flow into the main piping system.
For critical applications, where there are likely to be vapor cavities present at
start-up, it is recommended that a small bore bypass be installed round the main
discharge valve to ensure that the line is started up under well defined low flow
conditions. The practice of 'cracking valves' open to restrict flowrate is unsafe.
Pump shut-downs should also be done in a controlled manner. Unfortunately,
this is not always possible, as power failures, for example, can result in a pump
trip.
It may be possible to increase the run-up time of a pump by choice of a suitable
motor. There are now control systems available which allow the start-up to take
place over an extended period, say 2 minutes. These have been used
successfully in many locations. Alternatively, addition of a flywheel to the pump
drive will increase both run-up and run-down times. The motor will obviously
have to be suitable to deal with the higher inertia. Unfortunately, this approach is
not possible with a canned pump.
Note:
The use of a non-return valve on a pump delivery may itself be a cause of
pressure surges.
9.5
If the methods described above are not suitable to prevent surge problems, the
use of a surge tank or accumulator may be required. These devices operate by
providing an alternative source or sink for the liquid, enabling, for example, a key
valve to be opened or closed rapidly while allowing the flow in the pipeline to be
increased or reduced in a more gradual and controlled manner. To be most
effective, these devices should be connected to the piping system close
to the source of the flow disturbance, e.g. the control valve which has been
identified as the cause of the surge. If there is more than one potential cause of
surge, several surge tanks or accumulators may be needed, one at the location
of each potential source.
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Note:
A piston type accumulator may itself be a cause of vapor cavity formation.
The gas behind the piston has to be initially pressurized above the system
pressure or the position of the cylinder is indeterminate. However,
following a surge incident the liquid will be forced out of the cylinder
by the gas pressure. This liquid outflow may stop abruptly when the piston
reaches its lower limit, giving a negative pressure wave.
It is a regrettable fact that the maintenance of accumulators is often
neglected. For this reason, they are not recommended as the primary
safety device where the consequences of failure to operate are
unacceptable. If it does prove unavoidable to use them in such
circumstances, it is essential that suitable maintenance procedures are
implemented and can be demonstrated. Inspection of accumulators
should be included in safety inspection routines.
9.6
Vacuum Breakers
9.7
Changes to Equipment
10
DETAILED ANALYSIS
The preliminary hand calculations described in Clauses 6-8 can give an estimate
of the likely magnitude of a pressure surge, but if these indicate a possible
problem, (for example, predicted Joukowski Pressure close to the design
pressure, the potential to form vapor cavities, or large predicted out of balance
forces), expert advice should be sought.
The analysis of all but the simplest systems requires the use of a computer
program.
Experience is necessary to obtain the best results from these programs, and to
interpret the answers.
There are sources of specialist advice and assistance with modeling pressure
surge within GBH Enterprises.
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(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
The pipe diameter, wall thickness and Young's modulus of the pipe
material. These items are needed, along with the liquid compressibility, to
determine the speed of propagation of a pressure wave (equation (2)).
(f)
The liquid level and pressure above the liquid in all tanks connected to the
piping system.
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(g)
(h)
For each valve, the position as a function of time. Often only a closure
time is known. In such cases, the position has to be assumed to vary
linearly with time. It is possible to provide a valve actuator with a nonlinear characteristic; this can be useful for valves such as butterfly and
ball, where most of the effect occurs in the last part of the closure.
(j)
For all other fittings, including isolation valves which are not operated
when fluid is flowing, a resistance expressed as a K value (which has to
include the diameter on which the K value is based). Note that the experts
running the analyses can usually provide these data for most common
fittings, provided the type is known.
(k)
The boundaries for an analysis are normally vessels which either feed the piping
system or receive liquid from it, and which can be regarded as regions of
constant pressure. It is not possible to analyze a section of pipework in the
middle of an existing piping system without also considering the pipes to which it
is connected. Thus if a section of a pipe is to be re-routed, for example, the
complete system from supply vessel to outlet has to be analyzed.
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10.2
Interpretation of Results
This force will act along the axis of the pipe. In considering the anchoring
requirements, this has to be regarded as a shock loading, and the appropriate
factor DLF on the steady state value used.
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Note:
Although this force is proportional to the pipe length, it is subject to a maximum
value of the total pressure change the cross sectional area.
In many cases, the frictional resistance between the pipe and the supports will be
significant compared with the above force. The frictional resistance between a
pipe and skid supports is proportional to the weight of the pipe plus contents.
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Equating equations 10 and 11, the maximum allowable rate of pressure rise to
avoid pipe movement is then given by:
A typical value for the coefficient of friction between the pipe and its supports is
0.2.
For a pipe supported on hangers rather than skids, there is no significant
frictional force, and any out of balance force will tend to result in some
movement. However, as the pipe swings on the hangers they will move away
from the vertical and thus exert a restraining force on the pipe. For a discussion
on the behavior of pipes supported on hangers when subjected to dynamic
forces is given contact GBH Enterprises..
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12
The peak pressures calculated were well within the design pressure for
the piping system.
(b)
The pipe length was relatively short and discharged through an open end.
(c)
(d)
The pipe supports were not designed to cope with lateral forces.
(e)
Those involved before and after the incident had some knowledge of
pressure surge, as analyses had been done for other pipelines in the area,
but their state of knowledge before the incident would not have suggested
any need to model the particular pipe section.
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FIGURE 7
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12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
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12.6
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13
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Miller D S. "Internal Flow Systems." 2nd edition (1990). BHRA. ISBN 0947711-77-5
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Characterization Refining & Gas Processing & Petrochemical Industries Catalysts / Process Technology - Hydrogen Catalysts /
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Specializing in the Development & Commercialization of New Technology in the Refining & Petrochemical Industries
Web Site: www.GBHEnterprises.com
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Characterization Refining & Gas Processing & Petrochemical Industries Catalysts / Process Technology - Hydrogen Catalysts /
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TABLE 1
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Characterization Refining & Gas Processing & Petrochemical Industries Catalysts / Process Technology - Hydrogen Catalysts /
Process Technology Ammonia Catalyst Process Technology - Methanol Catalysts / process Technology Petrochemicals
Specializing in the Development & Commercialization of New Technology in the Refining & Petrochemical Industries
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Characterization Refining & Gas Processing & Petrochemical Industries Catalysts / Process Technology - Hydrogen Catalysts /
Process Technology Ammonia Catalyst Process Technology - Methanol Catalysts / process Technology Petrochemicals
Specializing in the Development & Commercialization of New Technology in the Refining & Petrochemical Industries
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Source References:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
The author would be grateful for any additional data to supplement the
above list.
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TABLE 2
Note:
GRP properties will vary according to the proportion of fibre, bonding material
and method of manufacture. Information from external consultants, suggests that
the very low values quoted in reference 3 may be most appropriate for certain
types of piping.
.
Source references:
1.
2.
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TABLE 3
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