1NDSO1006 YN (edition 1)

REACTIVE POWER COMPENSATION

CONTENTS
1.

Chapter I

Fundamentals of Reactive Power Compensation

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.

2.

Chapter II

Reactive Power Consumption

Power Factor
Causes of Low Power Factor
Reactive Power Compensation
Need for Reactive Power Compensation
Capacitor
Benefits of Reactive Power Compensation (Power
Factor Improvement)

Methods of Compensation
a.
b.
c.
d.

Location of Capacitors for Shunt Compensation

Basis of deciding the Location of Capacitors
Automatic Power Factor Correction (APFC)
Fixed Compensation Vs. Dynamic Compensation

3.

Chapter III

Switching Current Surges (Inrush Current)

4.

Chapter IV

Harmonics and their Effects

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

5.

Chapter V

Harmonics
Sources of Harmonics
Effects of Harmonics
Harmonic Filter
Benefits of Harmonic Filters

Information required for designing Reactive Power

Compensation Systems

Chapter I : Fundamentals of Reactive Power Compensation

a.

Reactive Power Consumption

Major industrial loads e.g. induction motors, furnaces, transformers, etc.
need reactive power for sustaining the magnetic field. As in case of
induction machine the reactive power is needed just to create air gap
magnetic field. Series inductance
in transmission lines implies
consumption of reactive power. Reactors, fluorescent lamps and all
inductive circuits on the whole require a certain amount of reactive power
to work. Thus, reactive power (kVAr) is not delivered as effective
mechanical power output of motor unlike the real power (kW) which is
effectively converted as mechanical output.

b.

Power Factor
Power factor is basically the cosine of the angle determined by the
inverse tangent ratio of Reactive Power (Q) and the Real Power (P).
The closer this angle is to zero the lesser is the requirement of reactive
power. As this angle is normally defined as cosine ratio, we always,
ideally want it near to unity. Any value of power factor below 0.85 (lag) is
considered a poor power factor.

c.

Causes of Low Power Factor

As already mentioned earlier, most apparatus connected to the power
supply network, not only requires active power, but also a certain amount
of reactive power.
The reactive power consumed by these apparatus causes low power
factor in the system.

d.

Reactive Power Compensation

Any device which is connected in shunt or series with the load and which
is capable of supplying the reactive power demanded by the load is called
a Reactive Power Compensation Device.

e.

f.

Need for Reactive Power Compensation

The power supplier charges

consumption of reactive power.

Reduced energy losses make reactive power compensation

profitable

Additional machines are to be connected to already fully

loaded substations, cables or transformers.

The power transmission for a new plant can be planned

more economically if power factor correction is taken into
consideration.

penalty

for

excessive

Capacitor
A capacitor can be viewed as generator of reactive power. When a
capacitor is connected across the load, the capacitor supplies reactive
power to the load, thereby relieving the transmission network which can
now carry only the active power.
As opposed to the rotating machines, the capacitor is a device with no
moving parts, which generates reactive power. High voltage capacitors
are built up from single phase capacitor units. By series and parallel
connection of adequate number of units, banks for any output and voltage
can be designed. However, small capacitor upto 17.5 kV system voltage
can be of three phase construction if the reactive power (kVAr) rating is
around 600 kVAr or less.
Low voltage capacitor banks, i.e. banks for 660 V system voltage and
below, are normally built up from three phase units.
Capacitors are, without comparison, the simplest and cheapest means of
relieving the load of transformers, supply networks and industrial
distribution systems.
Investments in equipment for power factor
correction are today practically solely made in capacitors. New dielectric
materials have made it possible to increase output per unit and to reduce
losses considerably, thus making compensation by means of capacitors
more profitable in comparison with rotating compensators like
synchronous condensors.
3

g.

Benefits of Reactive
Improvement)

Power

Compensation

(Power

Factor

Better efficiency of power generation, transmission and distribution

equipment.
Improvement in voltage.
Reduced KVA demand.
Better utilisation of available power
Higher load capability
Reduced system losses

Figure 1 shows the relations between

apparent (S), active (P) and reactive
power (Q) at a certain power factor
(cos ) of the load. The load is
uncompensated and if the conductor
or the transformer is fully loaded the
arc of the circle defines the maximum
power output.

P
Q
Q
cos = sin = tan =
S
S
P

Figure 2 shows the reactive output

(Q) from the power supply network
reduced by the capacitor output (Qc)
to (Q1) when applying power factor
correction.

P
Figure 1 : Uncompensated Load

Q c = P (tan 1 tan 2 )
tan =

1
1
cos 2

S
Q

Qc

Q2

S
Q1

S2

Qc
S1
1

1 2

2
P

Figure 3 : Compensated Load where

the load is increased

P
Figure 2 : Compensated Load

The total load on the power supply network is reduced from (S) to (S1) at an
unchanged active power output. The requisite capacitor output (Qc) may be
calculated from the formula given in Figure 2.
With the capacitor in service additional machines may be connected, i.e. the
load may be increased.
Figure 3 shows an increase of active load from (P) to (P). The capacity of the
conductor or the transformer is fully utilized when (S2) equals (S)

Chapter II : Methods of compensation

There are two major ways of reactive compensation :
Shunt Compensation :
Shunt capacitors are connected in parallel in the system and are used mainly
for power factor improvement and in harmonic filters. Shunt capacitors also
boosts the voltage of the bus. This is also known as load compensation
Series Compensation :
Series Capacitors are connected in series in the lines and are used mainly for
boosting the receiving end voltage, increase in transmission capacity and
reduction in losses in the lines. Apart from improving voltage at the receiving
end, series capacitors also improves power factor at the sending end of the line.
Unlike shunt capacitor whose output depends on the voltage, the voltage
improvement by series capacitors increases with increase in load current. In
other words the series capacitor is a self regulating type. Series compensation
is also known as live compensation.

a.

Location of Capacitors for Shunt Compensation

Central Compensation
When the main purpose is to reduce reactive power purchase due to
power suppliers tariffs, central compensation is preferable. Reactive
loading conditions within a plant are not affected if compensation is made
on the high voltage side (Alternative A of Fig. 5). When made on the low
voltage side (Alternative B of Fig. 5), the transformer is relieved. Cost of
installation on the high voltage and the low voltage side respectively and
the possible need for relieving the transformer will thus determine where
to install the capacitors.
Group Compensation
Group compensation (Alternative C of Fig. 5) instead of central
compensation is preferable if sufficiently large capacitors can be utilised.
In addition to what is obtained at central compensation, load on cables is
6

reduced and losses decrease. Reduced losses often make group

compensation more profitable than central compensation.

The scheme and sizing of the banks can be tailor made based on load
flow studies and harmonic analysis. Because of large compensation
available group compensation is suitable for harmonic filters.
Individual Compensation
The advantage with individual compensation (Alternative D of Fig. 5) is
that existing switching and protective devices for the machine to be
compensated can also be utilised for switching and protection of the
capacitors. The costs are thereby limited solely to purchasing the
capacitors.
Another advantage is gained by the capacitor being
automatically switched in and out with the load. However, this signifies
that individual compensation is solely motivated for apparatus and
machines which have a very good load factor.
Large machines with a good load, factor are always suitable for individual
compensation. Small machines require small capacitors and the price per
kVAr increases as the size of capacitor decreases.

A
B
C
D

Central compensation on the high voltage side

Central compensation on the low voltage side
Group compensation
Individual compensation
7

Figure 5

Schematic diagram of different p.f. correction alternatives

TableI below gives the limitation and advantages of all types of compensation.
TABLE I : TYPES OF COMPENSATION
Type of
Compensation
Individual
Compensation

Limitations

Advantages

Compensation value limited

by the no load kVA of the
motor.

Additional control and

protection equipments not
required.

Risk of high inrush currents

due to parallel switching.

Overcompensation avoided.

Not feasible to design an

effective harmonic filter
Group Compensation

Require separate control

and protection devices.

No limitation on compensation
value.

Possibility of
overcompensation.

Single or multi step

compensation as required can
be given.
Risk of high inrush current
eliminated.
Proper protection scheme can
be provided.
The scheme and sizing can be
tailor made based on load
flow studies and harmonic
analysis.
Can be used as effective
harmonic filters.

Central Compensation

Cannot unburden the

transformer from reactive
power loading

This could be most

economical if a single large
bank has to be used for
improvement of P.F. only to
avoid penalty.

Cannot reduce system loss.

b.

Basis for deciding the location of capacitors

The location of the capacitor depends on the object and the motive for
compensation. To state clear directions for location and distribution is
difficult, however, the following general rules should be considered :
1.

Place the capacitors as close as possible to the load for

compensation. The largest profit, from reduced losses are thereby
obtained.

2.

At first hand, install capacitors which make it possible to postpone

an immediate or imminent extension of the existing plant or
network.

3.

Aim at covering the average steady reactive load demand by fixed

capacitors, to reduce the cost of installation (switchgear etc.). If
there is a possibility of load drawing excess reactive power above
the average for long duration, an additional capacitor step can be
planned.

4.

Allocate the reactive power on more than one bank or step, if

switching of only one big capacitor bank causes too high voltage
fluctuations.
The advantage of allocating the reactive power on more than one
bank must be weighed against the fact that the price per kVAr
increases with decreasing bank size. Furthermore, low voltage
capacitors are usually more expensive per kVAr than high voltage
capacitors.

c.

Automatic Power Factor Correction (APFC)

If the capacitor output is fixed when the load decreases, total (apparent)
load will be capacitive at low active load, i.e. the plant will pump reactive
power in to the power supply network.
Thus depending on the actual short circuit capacity of the bus, the
additional reactive power will cause a rise in the voltage on that bus.
In order to avoid the above disadvantage, plants with fluctuating loads are
often provided with automatic regulation, i.e. switching capacitors in and
out in pace with the load.

Automatic banks with division into several steps make it possible to

maintain desired power factor with a fluctuating load. This is generally
used in low voltage systems.
d.

Fixed compensation Vs. dynamic compensation

Fixed Compensation : Here the reactive power fed by the capacitors to
the system is fixed (i.e it is constant). Fixed compensation are
basically breaker controlled capacitors and are used in system which
has constant loads or loads having a set pattern of operation.
Dynamic Compensation : Here the reactive power fed by the
capacitors to the system is dynamic/varying. This is done using
Thyristor contolled capacitors, thyristor controlled reactors with fixed
capacitors or a combination of banks. Dynamic compensation are
used in systems where the loads are fluctuating in nature like arc
furnace loads.

10

Chapter III : Switching Current Surges (Inrush current)

~
XL

IS =

2 Uf
XC XL

= Ic

Sk
Qc

Uf = phase voltage
Xc = phase reactance of capacitor
XL = phase reactance of supply
Ic = rated current of capacitor
Sk = short circuit power
Qc = rated output of capacitor

Xc

Figure 6 : Current surge of switching a capacitor bank to the supply

XL

11

Qc1

Is =

2
3

Qc2

Qc1 Qc2
(Qc1 + Qc2)XL

Qc1-2 = output of relevant capacitor bank

XL = reactance between banks
Figure 7 : Current surge with capacitor banks connected in parallel

When a capacitor is switched ON to a supply, there is a powerful current surge

because for the first instant, the capacitor appears to be short circuit. These
current surges will be particularly large if the capacitor is connected in parallel
with one or more capacitors that are already charged.
If the damping impedance between the capacitor banks is too low, it may
therefore be necessary to connect series reactors between such capacitor banks
to reduce the stresses on circuit breakers and even on the capacitor themselves.
Capacitors can withstand current surges of up to 100 times the rated current, but
the circuit breakers often limit the maximum permissible current surge to far
lower values.
The formula in Figure 6 and 7 can be used for approximate calculation of the
switching current surge when capacitor is connected alone or in parallel.

12

Chapter IV : Harmonics and their effects.

a.

Harmonics
A distorted AC supply signal can be seen as a pure sinusoidal waveform
of the fundamental frequency with pollution signals ( signals of different
frequency other than fundamental) imposed. These pollution signals are
called harmonics.

b.

Sources of harmonics
Some of the major source of harmonics are :

c.

Static power converters

Rectifiers
Inverters
Arc and ladle Furnaces
Thyristor controlled reactors

Effects of harmonics

Increased line losses

Reduced efficiency and increased losses in rotating machines
Overstressing of capacitors
Cable insulation failure
Increased losses and stress on insulation of transformers
Mal operation of relays
Errors in metering equipment
13

d.

Harmonic Filter
A harmonic filter is a tuned capacitor bank i.e. a capacitor bank with a
suitable reactor in series.

e.

Benefits of harmonic filters

Improvement in power factor.
Provides low impedance path for harmonics there by reducing the
harmonic distortion in the network.
Avoids harmful resonance of harmonic current.

Chapter V
Information required for designing Reactive Power Compensation Systems
Shunt Compensation (for p.f. improvement and harmonic filters) :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

System Voltage with Variation

System frequency with variation
Single line diagram of the system
Actual System Fault level (minimum and maximum)
Average load or load cycle.
Uncompensated power factor
Improvement in power factor desired
Details of harmonic generating loads or harmonic currents
generated in the system.

Series Compensation (for voltage control and reduction of

losses) :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Load details at each bus.

Line parameters (R, X and length of the line).
Voltage improvement required.
Rated current of the line.
Maximum and minimum load.
Expected future load.

14

1NDSO1006 YN (edition 1)

15