Selected Topics in Heat and Mass Transfer

Selected Topics in heat and Mass
Transport
..A compilation of selected presentations
2011
Jundika Candra Kurnia

Agus Pulung Sasmito
Sachin Vinayak Jangam
Hee Joo Poh
PREFACE
This e-book consists of selected topics to be covered as part of the postgraduate
course entitled ME6203 Mass Transport in the Mechanical Engineering Department of
the National University of Singapore, given by Professor A. S. Mujumdar.
For the benefit of wider audience interested in the themes covered, this e-book is
being offered freely. It contains handouts of the PowerPoint presentations made by the
authors. We hope that this compilation will be useful to research students as well as
researchers in academia and industrial R&D. Professor Mujumdar recommended and
provided guidance to the authors of various chapters included in this e-book.
The authors would be happy to hear from readers about any related matter they
wish to discuss or seek clarification on.
Agus Pulung Sasmito
Sachin Vinayak jangam
Hee Joo Poh
Singapore
Index
Presentation Title / Author names

No
01
02
03
04
05
06
Heat Transfer in Square duct

Jundika C. Kurnia
Computational Study of Energy-Efficient Thermal Drying Using
Intermittent Impinging Jets
Jundika C. Kurnia
Mass transport in a micro-channel T-Junction with coiled-base
channel design
Agus P. Sasmito
Mass Transport Considerations in PEM Fuel Cell Modeling
Hee Joo Poh
Heat Transfer in Fluidized Beds-An Overview
Sachin V. Jangam
Mass Transfer in Fluidized Beds - An Overview
Sachin V. Jangam
Heat Transfer in
Square duct
ME 6204: Convective Heat Transfer
Heat Transfer in Square Duct
Prof. Arun S. Mujumdar

mpeasm@nus.edu.sg
Mathematical formulation
Governing equations:
Conservation of mass
Conservation of momentum
Conservation of energy
( u) = 0
( u u) = P + u + ( u )
c p u T = k 2T
Constitutive equation (air)
Density
Dynamic viscosity
Thermal conductivity
Specific heat
=
k=
Pabs
RspecificT
6
, = 2.67 10
R
15 R 4 c p M 1
+ , cp = .
M
4 M 15 R
3
For water, properties are set

as constant
Nomenclature:
= fluid density
= fluid viscosity
u = fluid velocity
T = fluid temperature
kt = fluid thermal conductivity
MT
(T )
Pabs = Absolute pressure

Rspecific= Specific gas constant
cp = specific heat
= Collision diameter
= Collision integral
M = molecular weight
Mathematical Formulation
Turbulent model used in this simulation is k-
model

k
+ ( uk ) = + t k + t G ,
t
k
C G
2
+ ( u ) = + t + 1 t
C2 ,
t
k
k
k
u 2 v 2 w 2 u v 2 u w 2 w v 2
+
+
G = 2 + + + + + +
,
x y z y x z x y z
k2
t = C ,
Nomenclature:
u, v, w = component velocity
t= turbulent viscosity
k = turbulent kinetic energy
= turbulent dissipation
G = turbulent generation rate
C1 = 1.44
C2 = 1.92
C = 0.09
k = 1.0
= 1.0
Mathematical Formulation
Nusselt number calculation
Tmean =
V=
h=
1
Ac
1
VAc
TudA ,
c
Ac
udA ,
c
Ac
Q&
,
Tsurface Tmean
Nu =
hD
k
Nomenclature:
Tmean = mixed mean temperature
Tsurface
Ac
h
Q&
= surface temperature
= cross-section area
= convective heat transfer
= heat flux
Nu = Nusselt number
D = Hydraulic diameter
k = Conductive heat transfer
V = mixed mean velocity
Geometry
The flow configuration considered is full tube
flow inside square duct, as illustrated in figure
Schematic representation of flow in a) square duct and b) development

of a momentum boundary layer
Numerics
Finite-volume based solver: Fluent 6.3.
Mesh independence study ~10000 cells.
Pressure velocity coupling: SIMPLE (Semi-Implicit
Method for Pressure-Linked Equation).
Second-order upwind discretization.
Algebraic Multi-grid Method (AMG).
Relative residual ~10-6.
It took around one minute to converge in Quad-core 2.83
GHz with 8 GB RAM.
CFD analysis was carried out by Agus Pulung Sasmito
and Jundika Candra Kurnia (ME, NUS)
LAMINAR FLOW
7
Boundary condition
Air
Water
Case 1: Constant heat flux at

wall

wall
Inlet: air velocity = 1.6 m/s; T

air = 25 C.
Wall: no-slip; Q = 30 watt/m2.
Outlet: Pout = 1 atm; Q=0.
Re 1000.
Case 2: Constant wall

temperature
air = 25 C.
Wall: no-slip; T wall = 50 C.
Re 1000.
Inlet: water velocity = 0.1 m/s;

T water = 25 C.
Wall: no-slip; Q = 2870
watt/m2.
Re 1000.

temperature
Inlet: water velocity = 0.1 m/s;
T water = 25 C.
Re 1000.
Velocity in the middle channel
Air (Cases 1 and 2)
Water (Cases 3 and 4)
Temperature in the middle of the channel
Air (Case 1)
Air (Case 2)
Water (Case 3)
Water (Case 4)
10
Temperature in the wall of the channel
Air (Case 1)
Water (Case 3)
11
Heat flux at the wall
Air (Case 2)
Water (Case 4)
12
Nusselt Number
Air (Cases 1 and 2)
Nusselt number asymptotic

Case 1: 2.8
Case 2: 2.7
Case 3: 2.7
Case 4: 2.2
13
Wall and Mean temperature
Air (Case 1)
Air (Case 2)
Water (Case 3)
Water (Case 4)
14
TURBULENT FLOW WITH

RE=20000
15
Boundary condition
Air
Water

wall

wall
Inlet: air velocity = 30 m/s; T

air = 25 C.
Re 20000.

temperature
air = 25 C.
Re 20000.
Inlet: water velocity = 2 m/s; T

water = 25 C.
watt/m2.
Re 20000.

temperature
water = 25 C.
Re 20000.
16
Air (Cases 1 and 2)
17
Air (Case 1)
Air (Case 2)
Water (Case 3)
Water (Case 4)
18
Air (Cases 1)
Water (Cases 3)
19
Air (Cases 2)
Water (Cases 4)
20
Nusselt Number
Air (Cases 1 and 2)

Case 1: 45
Case 2: 34
Case 3: 623
Case 4: 127
21
Air (Case 1)
Air (Case 2)
Water (Case 3)
Water (Case 4)
22
TURBULENT FLOW
WITH Re=60000
23
Boundary condition
Air
Water

wall

wall

air = 25 C.
watt/m2.
Re 60000.

temperature
air = 25 C.
Re 60000.

water = 25 C.
watt/m2.
Re 60000.

temperature
water = 25 C.
Re 60000.
24
Air (Cases 1 and 2)
25
Air (Case 1)
Air (Case 2)
Water (Case 3)
Water (Case 4)
26
Air (Cases 1)
Water (Cases 3)
27
Air (Cases 2)
Water (Cases 4)
28
Nusselt Number
Air (Cases 1 and 2)

Case 1: 105
Case 2: 67
Case 3: 1700
Case 4: 314
29
Air (Case 1)
Air (Case 2)
Water (Case 3)
Water (Case 4)
30
Summary of heat transfer calculation
Air (Laminar)
Water(Laminar)
Air (Turbulent Re 20000)
Water (Turbulent Re 20000)
31
LAMINAR FLOW WITH VARIABLE T

and Q BOUNDARY condition
32
Boundary conditions-Variable T,Q

Air
Constant heat flux at wall
air = 25 C.
Re 1000.
Constant wall temperature

air = 25 C.
Re 1000.
33
Temperature distribution
Distance from entrance: 5 cm
34
Temperature distribution
35
LAMINAR FLOW WITH

HEATING/COOLING
36
Boundary condition
Case 1: Heating
Inlet: air velocity = 1.6 m/s; T air = 25 C.

Wall: no-slip; T wall = 50 C, 100 C, 200 C.
Re 1000.
Case 2: Cooling
Inlet: air velocity = 1.6 m/s; T air = 50 C, 100 C,
200 C.
Re 1000.
37
Nusselt number distribution in entry length
Heating
Cooling
38
LAMINAR FLOW WITH BOUYANCY

39
Boundary condition
Laminar flow (Air)
Boundary conditions
Inlet: air velocity = 0.15 m/s;
T air = 25 C.
Re 100.
Case 1: No gravity force

Case 2: Horizontal placement
Case 3: Tilted 45
Case 4: Vertical placement
Gravity force is applied for
case 2, 3 and 4.
40
Velocity at entry region (z=2.5 cm)
Case 1
Case 3
Case 2
Case 4
41
Temperature at entry region (z=2.5 cm)
Case 1
Case 2
Case 3
Case 4
42
Velocity at z= first 10 cm
Case 1
Case 2
Case 3
Case 4
43
Temperature at z= first 10 cm
Case 1
Case 2
Case 3
Case 4
44
Nusselt number
45
TAPERED DUCT
46
Boundary condition
Laminar flow (Air)
Case 1: Divergent duct
Inlet: air velocity = 16

m/s;
T air = 25 C.
Wall: no-slip; T wall = 50
C.
Outlet: Pout = 1 atm;
Q=0.
Re 1000.
Case 2: Convergent duct
Inlet: air velocity = 0.16

m/s; T air = 25 C.
Wall: no-slip; T wall = 50
C.
Outlet: Pout = 1 atm;
Q=0.
Re 1000.
47
Divergent duct (Case1)
Convergent duct (Case 2)
48
Temperature in the middle channel
Divergent duct (Case1)
Convergent duct (Case 2)
49
Nusselt number
50
POWER LAW FLUID
51
Boundary condition
Power law fluid
u
=K
where:
K = flow consistency index (Pa s n )

u
= shear rate or the velocity gradient (s 1 )
y
n = flow behaviour index
u
n 1
eff = K
eff = apparent or effective viscosity (Pa s )

n
Type of fluid
<1
Pseudoplastic
Newtonian
>1
Dilatant
Laminar flow (Air)

Case 1 (Pseudoplastic n=0.5)
air = 25 C.
Case 2 (Dilatant n=1.5)

air = 25 C.
52
Pseudoplastic (Case1)
Dilatant (Case 2)
53
Pseudoplastic (Case1)
Dilatant (Case 2)
54
Nusselt number
55
PULSATING FLOW
56
Boundary condition
Case 1 (Frequency = 5 Hz)
Inlet: air velocity = Vin; T air =
25 C.
Re 1000.
Case 2 (Frequency = 10 Hz)

Inlet: air velocity = Vin; T air =
25 C.
Re 1000.
57
0s
0.05 s
0.1 s
0.15 s
Case 1 (frequency 5 Hz)
58
0s
0.05 s
0.1 s
0.15 s
59
0s
0.01 s
0.02 s
0.03 s
60
0.04 s
0.05 s
61
0s
0.01 s
0.02 s
0.03 s
62
0.04 s
0.05 s
63
Average Nusselt number
64
Summary
Flow inside square duct has been simulated for variety of
BCs and for buoyancy effect.
Several cases - laminar and turbulent flow are
considered
Cooling/heating, buoyancy effect, power law fluid,
tapered duct and pulsating inlet flow have also been
simulated; no analytical solution possible
Heat transfer distributions are calculated
65
References
W. Kays, M. Crawford, B. Weigand, Convective
heat and mass transfer 4th Edition, McGraw-Hill,
2005.
S. Kakac and Y. Yener, Convective Heat
Transfer, Hemisphere Pub, 1982.
A. Bejan, Convection heat transfer, Wiley, 2004.
F. P. Incropera and D. P. Dewitt, Fundamentals
of Heat and Mass Transfer, 5th Edition, Wiley,
2001.
J. H. Leinhard IV and J. H. Leinhard V, A Heat
Transfer Textbook, 3rd edition, 1980.
66
Computational Study of
Energy-Efficient Thermal
Drying Using Intermittent
Impinging Jets
ME 6203 Mass Transport
Computational Study of Energy-Efficient

Thermal Drying Using Intermittent
Impinging Jets
Prof. Arun S. Mujumdar
Email: mpeasm@nus.edu.sg
Tel: +65-6516-4623, Fax: +65-6777-6235
2011
Guest lecturer
Department of Mechanical Engineering
National University of Singapore
Outline
Overview of drying
Physical model
Problem description
Key assumptions
Numerical methodology
Selected results
Case study
Velocity
y contours
Temperature contours
Drying kinetics
Summary
Q&A
Overview
Drying
Widely known as the most common way to preserve food
Essential operation in chemical, agricultural, biotechnology, food,
polymer ceramics,
polymer,
ceramics pharmaceutical,
pharmaceutical pulp and paper
paper, mineral
processing and wood processing industries
Involves simultaneous transport process
Transport processes in drying:

Mass transfer
Heat transfer
Flow
Occur simultaneously both internally and externally
Induces deformation:
Shrinkage
Cracking
(Not modeled here)
Impinging jet drying

Various drying methods are available for
different material
p g g jjet drying
y g
One of this method is impinging
Offer high transport rate (mass and energy)
Effective for drying of continuous sheets (paper
drying); discrete flat/curved objects.
Impinging jets, however, have several

drawbacks
Non-uniform drying
High energy consumption compare to parallel flow
Further study in impinging jet drying is required

Pulsating jet is proposed to speed up drying kinetics
Not commonly used yet
Physical Model
An orifice nozzle is used in this study- Axisymmetric case
Substrate dried is a potato chip. It is placed in a drying chamber under one

impinging jet. Pulsating and intermittent flow is applied on the inlet
Physical model
The aforementioned condition can be brought into computational domain as follows
Drying chamber
Inlet
L 0.4 m
Tin 45 C
z 0.02 m
Substrate dimension (chip)

Ls 30mm
Vin fixed pulsating and intermitent H s 0.5 and 5mm

RH in 17.5%
What phenomena occur during drying?

Transport mechanism of mass? Energy?
Physical model
Basic mechanisms
moisture diffusion from the inner drying
substrate towards its surface,
surface where it
evaporates
conductive heat transfer within the drying
substrate
evaporation and convection of the vapor
from the surface of the drying substrate
into the drying air
convection heat transfer from drying air to
8
the surface of the drying substrate
Why do we need assumptions?

What are the key assumptions?
Comment on validityy of assumptions?
p
Assumptions
In developing the mathematical model, several assumptions are
made- some for simplicity
The drying substrate is compact and homogeneous with uniform
initial temperature and moisture content.
Within the drying substrate, the diffusivity of water vapor is 100
times larger than the diffusivity of liquid water.
The thermophysiscal properties of the drying substrate are
temperature and moisture content-dependent and isotropic (equal in
all directions).
Variations in dependent variables in span wise direction are
negligible since width of the drying substrate is much larger than its
negligible,
height (reduction in dimensionality from three to two dimensions).
The shape of the drying substrate remains constant. No shrinkage
or deformation is accounted for.
Newtonian fluid
10
How to translate these physical phenomena into

mathematical model?
What conservation equations do we need to model
th physical
h i l phenomena?
h
?
the
Do we need more information?
11
Conservation equations
For drying substrate (chip)
Conservation of
mass:
Liquid water
Water vapor
Transient term (time dependent)

Diffusion
cl
Dlbcl Kcl ,
t
cv
Dvb cv Kcl ,
t
Evaporation
Diffusion
Transient term (time dependent)
Conservation of
energy Transient term (time dependence; heat capacity)
Conduction
T
b c pb
kbT q
t
Cooling due to
evaporation
12
Conservation equation
For drying air (Impinging jet) unsteady case
u 0,
Mass
Inertia/net rate
Viscous
u u p u - a u ' ,
t
Momentum
Energy
For incompressible fluid
Pressure gradient
uT ka T a c pa u ' T ' ,
t
a c pa
Mass
M
off
water vapor
Advection/bulk motion
Conduction
Turbulent
T
b l t
heating
cv
Dva cv u cv ,
t
Convection
Transient term (storage)
Diffusion
13
What is a turbulence model?

Why do we need one?
What is Reynolds averaging?
Basic /popular turbulence models
14
Turbulence model
A turbulence model is a model which is used to approximates the
physical behavior of turbulent flows*
Turbulence model are necessary in numerical simulation due to
impracticality in computing all scales of turbulent motion. Therefore,
approximate
i t methods
th d (turbulence
(t b l
models)
d l ) are introduced
i t d
d to
t simplify
i lif
and reduce computational cost.
Reynolds averaging refers to the process of averaging a variable or
an equation in time. For example, if we have time dependent
variable , we can decompose this variable into an average part
and fluctuating part in the following way:
1
(t )dt , ' .
TT
where T has to be long enough to phase out fluctuation part on (t).

Aside from time averaging, Reynolds averaging also deals with
space averaging and Ensemble averaging**
*J.J. Bertin, J. Periaux, J. Ballmann, 1992, Advances in hypersonics v2: Modeling hypersonic flows, Birkhauser, Cambridge
**J. Sodja, 2007, Turbulence model in CFD, Ljubljana, Slovenia (http://www-f1.ijs.si/~rudi/sola/Turbulence-models-in-CFD.pdf)
15
Turbulence model
Various turbulence models have been developed. They
can be categorized as*:
Algebraic/Zero-equation models
One equation models
Two equation models
Second-order closure models
Among these models,

k-, k-, LES (Large Eddy Simulation), RSM (Reynolds
Stress Model) are among the most popular turbulence
model used in computational fluid dynamics.
In this study, Reynolds Stress Model (RSM) is used as it
has been shown to be superior to k- and k- turbulence
models in steady impinging jets
16
*D. C. Wilcox, 2006, Turbulence modeling for CFD, DCW Industries, La Canada, Clifornia
** P. Xu, B. Yu, S. Qiu, H. J. Poh and A. S. Mujumdar. Turbulent impinging jet heat transfer enhancement due to intermittent pulsation. International Journal of
Thermal Science, 49 (7): 1247-1252, 2010.
Turbulence model for impinging jet drying

Reynolds stress model (5 equations)
Rij
t
Cij Pij Dij ij ij ij
Accumulation
A
l ti
Convective
Rij
ui'u 'j
t
t
Cij a ui' u 'j U
Production
U j
U i
R jm
Pij Rim
xm
xm
Rotation
ij 2k u 'j um' eikm ui' um' e jkm
k2
Dij t Rij with t C , C 0.09 and k 1.0
2
ij ij
Dissipation
3
2
2
C1 Rij k ij C2 Pij P ij
ij
Pressure strain
3
3
k
interaction
with C1 1.8 and C2 0.6
Diffusion
To solve this model, k- turbulence model is required
17
Governing equations
k- turbulence model
k
uk t
t
k

k t G ,

C G
2
u t 1 t
C2 ,
t
k
k
k
u 2 v 2 w 2 u v 2 u w 2 w v 2
,
G 2
x y z y x z x y z
k2
t C ,
Nomenclature:
u, v, w = component velocity
t= turbulent viscosity
k = turbulent kinetic energy
= turbulent dissipation
G = turbulent generation rate
C1 = 1.44
C2 = 1.92
C = 0.09
k = 1.0
= 1.0
18
Constitutive relations
Density air
air 1.076 105 Tair2 1.039 102 Tair 3.326
Dynamic viscosity of air
air 5.211015 Tair3 4.077 1011Tair2 7.039 108 Tair 9.19 107
Conductivity of air
kair 4.084 1010 Tair3 4.519 107 Tair2 2.35 104 Tair 0.0147
Specific heat of air
c p , air 4.647 106 Tair3 4.837 103 Tair2 1.599Tair 1175
Heat evaporation
h fg 1000 2.394(T 273.15) 2502.1
Density of substrate
b ,ref 1 X
1 SbX
0.049
0
049
47
1
1 0.611
0 611X
X
Conductivity
C d ti it off substrate
b t t kb
exp

3
1 X
8.3143 10 Ts 273.15 335.15 1 X
Specific heat of substrate c 1750 2345 X
p ,b
1 X
Diffusivity of water vapor and
2044
0.0725
Dvb Dlb 1.29 106 exp
exp
X
Ts 273.15
liquid water inside substrate
19
Heat of wetting (heat to evaporate
H w 8.207 106 X 4 4.000 106 X 3 6.161105 X 2

2.368 104 X 1163 for 0.01 X 0.2
bound water)
hevap h fg H w
Total heat of evaporation

Moisture content
mass of water
l
mass of dry product s
X
mass of water
l
mass of wet product s l b 1 X
Dry basis
Wet basis
Equilibrium moisture content

(GAB model)
Free moisture content
Xe
X mCKAw
1 KAw KAw CKAw
X m 0.0209, K 0.976, C 4.416
X free X X e
(free to be removed)
Cooling rate due to evaporation q hevap M l Kcl
Rate of water evaporation

Diffusivity of water vapor in air
Ea
K K 0 e RT
20
Dva 2.775 106 4.479 108 T 1.656 1010 T 2
10
Relation of moisture content to concentration of water inside substrate

w W b ,
w
b ,ref 1 X
X
,
1 X
1 SbX
M w cw
b ,ref X X 2
1 SbX X SbX 2
SbX 2 Sb 1 X 1
b,ref
M w cw
X X ,
2
b,ref 2
b ,ref
Sb
X Sb 1
X 1 0,
M w cw
M wcw
can be solved analytically for X and by neglecting wrong root the solution is
b b 2 4ac
,
2a
where
X
b ,ref
a Sb
,
M wcw
b,ref
b Sb 1
,
M w cw
c 1.
21
Correlations
Calculation of h, Nu, Nu distributions in impinging jets
Local Nusselt number
Nu ( x, t )
hx D jet
along the target surface

Local heat transfer
coefficient
Local heat transfer flux
Time
Ti
averaged
d llocall
Nusselt number
hx
k fluid
qx
T
jet Twall
qx k fluid
T ( x)
y
t
Nuavg ( x)
1
Nu ( x, t )dt
t 0
x
Time averaged Nusselt

number
y 0
Nuavg
1 1
Nu ( x, t )dtdx
x 0 t 0
22
11
Nomenclature
cl
concentration of liquid water [mol m-3]
Pressure [Pa]
cv
concentration of water vapor [mol m-3]
Dva
diffusivity of vapor on the drying air [m2 s]
Dlb
diffusivity of liquid inside the drying substrate [m2 s]
dynamic viscosity of the drying air [Pa s]
Dvb
diffusivity of vapor inside the drying substrate [m2 s]
density of the drying air [kg m-3]
temperature [K]
cpa
specific heat of the drying air [J kg-1 K-1]
cooling rate due to evaporation [W m-3]
ka
thermal conductivity of the drying air [W m-2 K-1]
production of water vapor mass per unit volume
Ea
activation energy [kJ mol-1]
-3
density of the drying substrate [kg m ]
universal gas constant [J K1 mol1]
cpb
specific heat of the drying substrate [J kg-1 K-1]
Ml
molecular weight of water [kg kmol-1]
kb
thermal
h
l conductivity
d i i off the
h drying
d i substrate
b
[W m-22 K-11]
hhevap
totall heat
h off evaporation
i [J kg
k -11]
-1
mean velocity [m s ]
moisture content (dry basis) [kg kg-1]
fluctuate velocity [m s-1]
moisture content (wet basis) [kg kg-1]
23
Initial and boundary conditions

Initial conditions:
where
Substrate
T T0 , cl cl 0,b , cv cv 0,b ,
cl 0.b
Drying air
cv 0,b 0,
0
T T0 , cl cl 0, a , cv c v 0, a , u v 0,
Boundary conditions:
W b ,0
Ml
cl 0.a 0,
cv 0,a 1000
Drying chamber inlet
RH a ,0
1 RH M l
u 0, v vin , T Tin , RH RH in , cv cv 0,,a .

Drying chamber outlet
p pout , n Dcv 0, n k T 0.
Drying chamber wall
u v 0, n Dcv cv u 0, n (k T ) 0.
24
12
Boundary conditions and parameters

Parameters needed to solve
the model are
Inlet velocity for various cases

Steady laminar jet
b ,ref 1420 kg m 3 ,
vin = 2 m s-1
Pulsating
g laminar jjet
vin = 1+1sin(2ft) m s-1
Tin
45C ,
Ml
0.018 kg mol 1 ,
X0
4.6,
Intermitent laminar jet

vin= 2 m s-1(on),0 m s-1(off)
a ,45C 1.110 kg m 3 ,
Steady turbulent jet
a ,45C 1.934 105 kg m 1 s 1
vin = 20 m s-1
Pulsating turbulent jet

vin = 10+10sin(2ft)
10+10 i (2 ft) m s-11
Intermitent laminar jet

vin= 2 m s-1(on),0 m s-1(off)
8.314 J K 1 mol 1 ,
Ea
Sb
48.7 kJ mol 1 ,
1.4
1
Hz
120
25
Numerics
Gambit: creating geometry, meshing,
labeling boundary condition
Fluent: solver based on finite volume
method
Domain is discretized onto a finite set of
control volumes (or cells).
General conservation (transport)equations
for mass, momentum, energy, species, etc.
are solved on this set of control volumes.
dV V dA dA S dV
t V
A
A

V

Unsteady
Convection
Diffusion
Generation
Partial differential equations are discretized

into a system of algebraic equations.
All algebraic equations are then solved
numerically to render the solution field.
26
13
Numerics
Flow chart of computational fluid dynamics (CFD)*
27
*http://progdata.umflint.edu/MAZUMDER/Fluent/Intro%20Training/L-1%20Introduction%20to%20CFD.pdf
Numerics
User Defined Scalars: solving for water liquid and vapor
User Defined Functions Macros
DEFINE_SOURCE, DEFINE_DIFUSIVITY, DEFINE_FLUX,
DEFINE UNSTEADY DEFINE
DEFINE_UNSTEADY,
DEFINE_PROFILE,
PROFILE ETC
Three different mesh sizes of 2000, 4000, 8000 elements

were implemented and compared in terms of velocity,
temperature and moisture content to ensure a meshindependent. We found that the result from the mesh
size 2000 deviates 5% and 4000 deviates 1% from 8000
elements Therefore
elements.
Therefore, a mesh of around 4000 was
chosen.
Relative residual 10-6 for all dependent variable.
It took around 30-50 min to converge in Quadcore 1.8
GHz with 8 GB RAM for 5 to 8 h drying time
28
14
SELECTED RESULTS
29
Contours of velocity
Laminar steady jet
Turbulent steady jet
30
15
Contours of temperature
Laminar steady jet
Turbulent steady jet
31
Temperature contours in substrate
32
16
Moisture profile in substrate
33
Drying kinetics (0.5 mm substrate)
Impinging jet is not recomended

especially when drying cost is
considered (energy cost).
Effect of the pulsating and
intermittent flow can be seen on this
case
Frequency and velocity have no
effect on this case, most likely due
to the thin substrate
34
17
Drying kinetics (5 mm substrate)
Velocity slightly affect drying

kinetics. It is clearer compare to
that for thin substrate.
Effect of the pulsating and
intermittent flow can be seen in this
case
Frequency has no effect
35
Conclusion
Simple physical model to show how one
can use a math model consisting of
conservation equations and relevant
boundary conditions
For gas-side, we use continuity,
momentum, energy and species equations
On drying material side we consider
simple diffusion model for both water and
vapor. For low temperature only liquid
diffusion model is adequate.
36
18
References
[1] M. V. De Bonis, G. Ruocco, 2008, A Generalized Conjugate Model for
Forced Convection Drying Based on An Evaporative Kinetics, Journal of
Food Engineering, Vol. 89, pp: 232-240
[[2]] M. R. Islam,
s a , J.
J C
C. Ho,
o, A. S
S. Mujumdar,
uju da , 2003,
003, Convective
Co ect e Drying
y g with
t Timee
Varying Heat Input, Drying Technology, Vol. 21(7), pp: 1333-1356
[3] J. Srikiatden a, J. S. Roberts, 2008, Predicting moisture profiles in potato
and carrot during convective hot air drying using isothermally measured
effective diffusivity, Journal of Food Engineering, Vol. 84, pp: 516-525
[4] W. Kays, M. Crawford, B. Weigand, 2005, Convective Heat and Mass
Transfer 4th ed., McGraw Hill, Singapore
[5] F. P. Incropera and D. P. Dewitt , 2001, Fundamentals of Heat and Mass
Transfer 5th Edition
Transfer,
Edition, Wiley
[6] P. Xu, B. Yu, S. Qiu, H. J. Poh, A. S. Mujumdar, 2010, Turbulent Impinging
Jet Heat Transfer Enhancement Due to Intermittent Pulsation, International
Journal of Thermal Sciences. doi:10.1016/j.ijthermalsci.2010.01.020
[7] H. J. Poh, K. Kumar, A. S. Mujumdar, 2005, Heat transfer from a pulsed
laminar impinging jet, International Communications in Heat and Mass
Transfer, Vol. 32, pp:13171324
37
For Self-Study
How would you model
Case where jet temperature is 200 C?
The jet is superheated steam at atmospheric
pressure and 200 C?
The drying chamber is at very low (but finite)
pressure and dried by superheated steam
Will drying time be reduced if the slab is
flipped after some time? Why?
38
19
Mass transport in a microchannel T-Junction with

coiled-base channel design
ME 6203 Mass Transport Guest Lecture
Mass transport in a micro-channel

T-Junction with coiled-base channel design
Prof. Arun S. MUJUMDAR
Email: mpeasm@nus.edu.sg
Tel: +65-6516-4623, Fax: +65-6777-6235
Guest lecturer
Agus Pulung SASMITO
Minerals Metals Materials Technology Center
National University of Singapore
2011
Outline
Overview of micro-channel T-Junction
Physical model
Problem description
Key assumptions
Numerical methodology
Selected results
Mass transport enhancement
Concluding remarks
2
Overview
Micro-channel T-Junction
Widely used in industry, especially pharmaceutical, for mixing
and reaction processes
Relatively easy to control the reactions, especially for highly
exothermic reaction
Involves simultaneous transport process
Transport process in T-Junction:

Momentum transfer
Mass transfer
Heat transfer
Occur simultaneously
Main phenomena:
Mixing
Surface reactions
3
Micro-Channel T-Junction
Passive mixing for various chemical reaction; it
does not require additional energy for mixing
processes
Micro-channel T-Junction, however, has several
drawbacks
Poor mixing, especially at short channel and high
Reynolds number
High pressure drop due to impingement effect
Various innovative designs are proposed to

improve mixing and reactions
Coiled channel
Channel with fins
Impinging jet channel
Typical geometry
Example case of mixing and reaction of
methane oxidation in platinum surface
A typical micro-channel Tjunction is used to mix methane

and air; the channel surface is
coated with catalyst (platinum)
Inlet
O2
N2
T = 300K
Tin = 300 K
Ptsurface;T1290K
h
Ptsurface;T1290K
Vin Re 500
Micro-channel T-junction
CO
CO2
H2O
L = 120 mm
h = 1 mm
Gas species: CH 4 , O 2 , H 2 , H 2 O,
CO 2 , HO 2 , N 2
Surface species: Pt(s), H(s), O(s),
CH4
H2
T = 300K
OH(s), H 2 O(s), H3 (s),

CH 2 (s), CH(s), C(s),
CO(s), CO 2 (s)
Solid species: Pt(b)
Innovative coiled-base design

Coiled-base channel design is
proposed to enhance heat and
mass transfer.
Coiled-base channel design
has been widely used in
industrial applications due to
compact structure, ease of
manufacture, higher heat and
mass transfer.
The presence of secondary
flow induced by coil curvature
and complex temperature and
concentration profiles caused
by curvature-induced torsion
are among significant
phenomena observed in
coiled-base channel.
Length is kept constant for
comparison purpose.
Typical straight T-junction
Conical T-junction
Helical T-junction
In-plane spiral T-junction
6
Physical model
Basic mechanisms
Convective heat and mass transfer

Mixing in the opposing jet at T junction
Surface reactions at the channel wall which include
mass consumptions and generation,
heat release due surface reaction,
multi-step surface reactions including adsorption
reaction, surface reaction, and desorption reaction.
Surface species are calculated from site balance
equations
Surface reactions create sources of bulk phase, which
determines its deposition rate on a surface.
Assumptions
In developing the mathematical model, several assumptions are
taken:
The flow is steady-state, laminar, newtonian flow and
species mixture is follows ideal gas law.
There are three types of species: gas, surface (site) and
solid species. The model treats chemical species
deposited on surfaces as distinct from the same
chemical species in the gas
Thermo-physical properties of species mixture follows
mixing law of ideal gas with temperature dependent
effect.
Gas phase reaction are closely coupled with surface
reactions.
8
How to translate this physical phenomena into a

mathematical model?
What conservation equations do we need to interpret
the physical phenomena?
Conservation equations
u = 0
Mass
Compressible
flow
Momentum
viscous
Effect of volume
dillatation
2
T
u u = p + u + ( u ) ( u ) I
3
Pressure
Inertia/net rate
Species
gradient
( ui ) = ( Dii ) + Ri
convective
Energy
diffusive
reaction
i: CH 4 , O 2 , H 2 , H 2 O, CO 2 , HO 2
( cpuT ) = ( keff T ) + S temp

convective
conductive
Heat due to
reactions
Detailed reactions
Theory: consider the rth wall surface reaction written in general forms
Ng
Nb
Ns
Ng
Nb
Ns
i =1
i =1
i =1
Kr
gi'',r Gi + bi'', r Bi + si'',r Gi
g Gi + b Bi + s Gi
i =1
'
i ,r
'
i ,r
i =1
i =1
'
i ,r
where Gi, Bi, and Si represents the gas phase species, the solid species, and the
surface-adsorbed (or site) species, respectively. g, b, s are the stoichiometric
coefficients for each reactant species; g, b, and s are the stoichiometric coefficients
for each product species; and Kr is the overallNreaction rate constant.
g
i ,r
i ,r
r = k f ,r [Gi ]wall
[ Si ]wall
The rate of rth reaction is
g'
s'
i =1
The net molar rate of production or consumption of each species i is

N
given by
R =
g '' g '
i = 1, 2,3,..., N
(
rxn
i ,gas
i ,r
i ,r
Ri ,bulk = ( bi'',r bi',r )r
i = 1, 2,3,..., N b
r =1
N rxn
r =1
N rxn
Ri ,site = ( si'',r si' ,r )r
i = 1, 2,3,..., N s
r =1
Reaction rate constant is computed using Arrhenius expresion
k f , r = Ar T r e Er / RT
Wall surface reaction boundary conditions

It is assumed that, on the reacting surface, the mass flux of each gas
species is balanced with its rate of production/consumption
wall Di
i ,wall
n
m depi,wall = M w,i Ri,gas

[ Si ]wall
t
= Ri,site
i = 1, 2,3,..., N g
i = 1, 2,3,..., N s
The mass fraction at the wall is related to concentration by
[Gi ]wall =
walli,wall
M w ,i
mdep is the net rate of mass deposition or etching as a result of surface

reaction
Nb
m dep = M w,i Ri ,bulk
i =1
[Si]wall is the site species concentration at the wall, and defined as

where
[ Si ]wall = site zi
site is the site density and
zi is the site coverage of species i
Multi-step reaction mechanism

Ar
H2 + 2Pt(s) => 2H(s)
4.36e7
0.5
2H(s) => H2 + 2Pt(s)
3.7e20
6.74e7
No
Reaction
Er (J/kmol)
O2 + 2Pt(s) => 2O(s)
1.8e17
-0.5
O2 + 2PT(s) => 2O(s)
2.01e14
0.5
2O(s) => O2 + 2Pt(s)
3.7e20
2.13e8
H2O + Pt(s) => H2O(s)
2.37e8
0.5
H2O(s) => H2O + Pt(s)
1e13
4.03e7
OH + Pt(s) => OH(s)
3.25e8
0.5
OH(s) => OH + Pt(s)
1e13
1.93e8
10
H(s) + O(s) => OH(s) + Pt(s)
3.7e20
1.15e7
11
H(s) + OH(s) => H2O(s) + Pt(s)
3.7e20
1.74e7
12
OH(s) + OH(s) => H2O(s) + O(s)
3.7e20
4.82e7
13
CO + Pt(s) => CO(s)
7.85e15
0.5
14
CO(s) => CO + Pt(s)
1e13
1.25e8
15
CO2(s) => CO2 + Pt(s)
1e13
2.05e7
16
CO(s) + O(s) => CO2(s) + Pt(s)
3.7e20
1.05e8
17
CH4 + 2Pt(s) => CH3(s) + H(s)
2.3e16
0.5
18
CH3(s) + Pt(s) => CH2(s) + H(s)
3.7e20
2e7
19
CH2(s) + Pt(s) => CH(s) + H(s)
3.7e20
2e7
20
CH(s) + Pt(s) => C(s) + H(s)
3.7e20
2e7
21
C(s) + O(s) => CO(s) + Pt(s)
3.7e20
6.28e7
22
CO(s) + Pt(s) => C(s) + O(s)
1e17
1.84e8
23
OH(s) + Pt(s) => H(s) + O(s)
1.56e18
1.15e7
24
H2O(s) + Pt(s) => H(s) + OH(s)
1.88e18
1.74e7
25
H2O(s) + O(s) => OH(s) + OH(s)
4.45e20
4.82e7
Mixture density
= pM / RT
Mean molecular mass
M = CH4 / M CH4 + H2 / M H2 + O2 / M O2 + H2O / M H2O + OH / M OH + CO2 / M CO2 + CO / M CO + N2 / M N2
Mixture viscosity
=
x
x ,
with , = CH 4 , H 2 , O 2 , H 2 O, OH, CO, CO 2 , N 2
1 M
=
1 +
8 M
1/ 2
1
1
(g) 2
1 + M 4
(g) M

Effective thermal conductivity; heat capacity

keff = ki i
cp = i cp,i
i
Constitutive relations (Contd)

Figure of Merit is used to evaluate the effectiveness of the
mixing and reaction rate in the micro-channel T-Junction. It
defined as reactant conversion rate over pumping power
required. Since the mass flow rate is kept constant; hence
in out
FoM =
V=
Mean velocity
Mixed-mean temperature
Mixed-mean mass fraction
1
Ac
udA ,
c
Ac
Tmean =
1
VAc
i ,mean =
TudA ,
c
Ac
1
VAc
udA
i
Ac
Boundary conditions
At the air inlet
Uin = 5 m/s (Re~500)

Tin = 300K
O2 = 0.21
N2 = 1- O2
At the methane
inlet
Uin = 5 m/s (Re~500)

Tin = 300K
CH4 = 0.9
H2 = 0.1
At the walls
No-slip condition
No species flux
Twall = 1290 K
At the outlet
Pout = 101325
T = i = 0
Numerics
AutoCad for creating geometries
Gambit for meshing and labeling boundary conditions:
fine structured mesh near wall to resolve boundary layer;
increasingly coarser mesh to the middle of the channel to reduce
computational cost
Mesh independence test were carried out for three different
mesh sizecoarse, medium, finein terms of velocity, pressure,
temperature and species.
Fluent for discretization and solving dependent variables

Based on finite volume discretization method
Pressure-velocity coupling is solved by well-known SIMPLE
method
Overall, it requires ~300 MB memory and 2 h solving time on
workstation with Quadcore 2.63 GHz processor for convergence
criteria 10-6 for all dependent variables.
ChemKIN for reaction kinetics

To set up details multi-step reaction mechanism and thermophysical properties of gas species.
Flow chart for numerical solver
Results and discussion

Velocity profiles at channel length 50mm
m/s
Fully developed
flow exists in
the straight
channel
Secondary flow
is developed in
the coiled base
channel.
Higher velocity
intensity exists
in the outer wall
of the coiled
base channel
Oxygen mass fraction at channel length 50mm

Straight channel has
higher oxygen mass
fraction means that
lesser oxygen is
consumed for
reactions.
Among the coiled
base channel design,
helical coil gives
better conversion
rate.
Secondary flow
enhance mass
transport in the
surface reaction
Methane mass fraction at channel length 50 mm

At straight channel, the
methane concentration
is higher at the right
side of the wall, it
means that the
methane is not mixed
well with air.
Helical coil yields the
best mixing and
reaction among others
The presence of
secondary flow
improve the mixing rate
of reactant species
Oxygen mass fraction along channel

0.18
helical
straight
in plane spiral
conical
Oxygen mass fraction
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Length / mm
Helical coil gives the best conversion rate among other designs.
Straight T-junction yields the lowest conversion rate due to poor
mixing.
Mixed mean temperature along channel

1300
1200
1100
Temperature / K
1000
900
800
700
conical
in plane spiral
helical
straight
600
500
400
300
0
20
40
60
Length / mm
80
100
120
Coiled base channel also gives higher heat transfer rate as

compared to straight channel
Coiled base channel is suitable for highly exothermic/endothermic
reaction to control the desired environment/temperature.
Effect of Reynolds number

Re 100
Re 500
Re 1000
0.17
0.15
Re increasing
0.13
0.11
0.09
0.07
0.05
0.03
0
20
40
60
80
100
Length / mm
Lower mass flow rate performs better conversion rate

This is due to longer residence time of the species
120
Effect of coil diameter

0.18
r4
r3
r5
0.16
0.14
diameter increasing
0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Length / mm
Smaller coil diameter produces slightly better conversion rate.

This is due to higher secondary flow produced in smaller coil
diameter.
Pressure drop
20000
straight
conical
in-plane
helical
18000
16000
14000
p / pa
12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
0
200
400
600
800
1000
Reynolds
Straight channel requires the lowest pressure drop;

whereas, the helical coil has the highest pressure drop
Pressure drop increses as the mass flow increasing
Figure of Merit
3.50E-04
straight
conical
in-plane
helical
3.00E-04
Figure of Merit
2.50E-04
2.00E-04
1.50E-04
1.00E-04
5.00E-05
0.00E+00
100
500
Reynolds
1000
Straight channel has the highest figure of merit among other

designs; however, for industrial application where space is limited
and pumping power is not an issue, such as in pharmaceutical
industry, coiled base channel design can be a desirable choice
Concluding remarks
Coiled base channel design can improve heat

and mass transfer as compare to straight Tjunction channel.
This improvement is due to the presence of
secondary flow.
However, higher pressure drop is required for
coiled base channel design.
For industrial application where space is limited,
conversion rate is the most important, and
pumping power is not an issue, coiled base
channel design can be a desirable choice
Nomenclature
= density, kgm 3
= rate of rth reaction
u = velocity, ms 1
p = pressure, pa
k f ,r = reaction rate constant using Arrhenius expression

Ar = pre-exponential factor
= dynamic viscosity, Pas

i = mass fraction of species i
Di = diffusivity of species i, ms
r = temperature exponent
Er = activation energy for the reaction, Jkgmol
2
Ri = reaction rate of species i, kgm 3

c p = specific heat, Jkg 1K 1
R = universal gas constant, Jkg -1mol-1K -1

M = mean molecular mass
m dep = net rate of mass deposition, kg
x = mol fraction
T = temperature, K
keff = effective thermal conductivity, WmK 1
S temp = heat release due to reactions, Wm -3
Gi = gas species, mol
Bi = bulk/solid species, mol
Si = surface-adsorbed/site species, mol
gi' , gi'' = stoichiometric coefficient for gas reactant, and product
bi' , bi'' = stoichiometric coefficient for bulk reactant, and product
si' , si'' = stoichiometric coefficient for site reactant, and product
References
[1] O. Deutschmann, L.i. Maier, U. Riedel, A.H. Stroemman, R.W. Dibble,
Hydrogen Assisted Catalytic Combustion of Methane on Platinum,
Catalysis Today 59,141--150 (2000).
[2] V. Kumar, M. Paraschivoiu, K.D.P. Nigam, Single phase fluid flow and
mixing in microchannel, Chemical Engineering Science, 2011, in press.
[3] S. Vatisth, V. Kumar, K.D.P. Nigam, A review on the potential application
of curved geometries in process industry, Industrial Engineering Chemistry
Research 47, 3291-3337 (2008).
[4] J.C. Kurnia, A.P. Sasmito, A.S. Mujumdar, Evaluation of heat transfer
performance of helical coils of non-circular tubes, J. Zhejiang University
Science: A, 2011, in press.
[5] J.C. Kurnia, A.P. Sasmito, A.S. Mujumdar, Laminar convective heat
transfer in coils of non-circular cross-section tube: a computational fluid
dynamics study, Thermal Science, 2011, accepted.
[6] J.C. Kurnia, A.P. Sasmito, A.S. Mujumdar, Numerical investigation of
laminar heat transfer performance of various cooling channel designs,
Applied Thermal Engineering, 2011, in press.
[7] Fluent user guide documentation, http://www.fluent.com
30
For Self Study
How can one reduce pressure drop in the coiled

base channel design?
What happens if the channel is not in square
cross-section, e.g. circular, triangle, star-shape
etc?
Will reaction and mixing rate improve if we add
fins inside the channel?
What if the reactant species are in different
phase, e.g. gas and liquid? Is the model
presented still valid?
Mass Transport
Considerations in PEM
Fuel Cell Modeling
ME6203 Mass Transport

Mass Transport Considerations
in PEM Fuel Cell Modeling
Prof. Arun S. Mujumdar, ME, NUS

Dr. Poh Hee Joo, IHPC
March 2010
1
Outline - Part 1 (Handout)
Fuel Cell Introduction

Fuel cell Mass Transport
Diffusive transport in electrode

Convective transport in flow structures
Analytical Modeling with MATLAB

Summary
Why PEMFC Modeling in Mass

Transport course?
Fuel cells are becoming important in academic
and industrial R&D. Some already
commercialized. Much more development is
needed to enhance performance cost-effectively
Excellent industrial illustration of a case where
math modeling of transport phenomenaincluding mass transport is critically important
It is an excellent illustration of how very complex
transport processes can be modeled and what
are the different levels of math models which are
possible
3
Why PEMFC model?

In ME6203 one objective is to look at advanced mass
transport problems of real interest and examine how a
model can be developed based on fundamentals
It is also an example of complex interaction between
various transport phenomena. Illustrates need for
significant information needed for such a model
Due to time limitation, different levels of modeling e.g.
1D, 2D,2.5D, 3D steady/unsteady, single phase/ two
phase models etc are not discussed. Model is only as
good as assumptions made- they must be realistic.
4
Mass Transport and PEMFC

Whenever there is species movement causing
concentration changes there is mass transport
Mechanisms are: diffusion, convection, electro-osmosis
etc
PEMFC includes flow in channels, flow in porous media
Involves proton and electron transfer, catalytic chemical
reactions, heat transfer etc
An excellent-but complex-example for study of transport
phenomena
Here, please focus on the technique of math modeling
rather than the complex details which are beyond the
scope of this course.
Suitable for Term Paper Projects e.g. 1D analytical
modeling of different types of fuel cells
5
Preamble
With this preamble , let us proceed to fuel cells..
Numerous resources are available on the web for
self-study
Advanced models are being worked on at hundreds
of labs around the world-useful for innovation!
Several excellent textbooks available as well
No need to go beyond what is in this PPT-except for
those who choose to work on term papers on this
subject.
Poh Hee Joo will be happy to provide relevant
resources and ideas to those interested
Caution: Some aspects are complex and are
included only for completeness of coverage. You do
not need to get into those details.
6
What is a Fuel Cell ?

A fuel cell is a device that generates electricity by a chemical
reaction taking place at two electrodes (anode and cathode)
Backing layer
Backing layer
Physical Description of a PEMFC

PEMFC Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell
Anode bipolar plate

Anode gas channel
Anode gas diffusion layer
Anode catalyst layer
MEA Membrane
Electrode
Assembly
Membrane
Cathode catalyst layer

Cathode gas diffusion layer
Cathode gas channel
Cathode bipolar plate
8
Basic Fuel Cell Operation

1. Reactant transport
Efficient delivery of reactants by using flow field plates in
combination with porous electrode structures.
2. Electrochemical reaction
Choosing right catalyst and carefully designing reaction
zones
3. Ionic (and Electronic) Conduction
Thin electrolyte for ionic conduction, without fuel cross over
4. Product Removal
Flooding by product water can be major issue in PEMFC
9
Applications of fuel cells
Transportation
Stationary Power Generation
Residential
Portable Power Generation
Space and Defense
10
Fuel Cells: Classification

PEM fuel cell
Solid oxide fuel cell
Polymer membrane
Ceramic membrane
800C
At Anode
Characterized by
Electrolyte materials
Operating temperature
Fuel used
600 10000C
PEM Fuel Cell

Solid Oxide Fuel Cell
Direct Methanol Fuel Cell
2H2 4H+ + 4e
At Cathode
O2 + 4e + 4H+ 2H2O
O2 + 2e O2-
H2 + O2-CO2 + H2O + 2e
CH3OH + H2O CO2 + 6H+ + 6e
3/2O2 + 6H+ + 6e 3H2O
11
Fuel Cells: Some Advantages
Replacement for IC Engines in

transportation
Higher energy efficiency

Zero or ultra-low emission
Replacement for batteries in portable

electronics
Higher energy density

Nearly zero recharge time
Independent scaling between power
(determined by fuel cell size) and capacity
(determined by fuel cell reservoir)
12
Fuel Cells: Some Limitations
High cost of fuel cell

Low volumetric power density comparing to I.C.
engines and batteries
Safety, Availability, Storage and Distribution of
pure hydrogen fuel
Alternative fuels (e.g. methanol, gasoline)
difficult to use directly and require reforming
Susceptibility to environmental poisons
Operational temperature compatibility concerns
13
Challenges to Fuel Cell Commercialization

Simple question, but difficult answer
Prototype developed by SERC-PEMFC for
2W portable battery charger fuel cell of
NOKIA mobile phone cost about $300
14
Fuel cells: Interdisciplinary field of

science and engineering:
Thermodynamics
Electrochemistry
Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
Fluid Mechanics
Heat and Mass Transfer
Material Science (metallurgy) and materials engineering
Polymer Science and specifically ionomer chemistry
Design, manufacturing and engineering optimization
Solid mechanics and mechanical engineering
Electromagnetism and electrical engineering
Etc etc
15
PEMFC (Interdisciplinary!)
Membrane Science
High temperature
cation membrane
Reduce CO poisoning
of catalyst)
Catalysis
and
Electrochemistry
Alternative catalyst
(reduce cost)
High catalyst utilization
(reduce catalyst loading)
Membrane for DMFC

Improved performance
(prevent methanol crossover)
(electro-oxidation/Reduction)
Anion membrane
(use of low cost catalyst)
Measurement and
Characterization
(relate performance to
electrochemical processes)
Thermofluids
and
Component Design
System Integration
Transport phenomena System design & configuration

(molecular diffusion, (reduce cost, improved efficient)
ion migration,
convection)
Interconnection
(increase power o/p)
Multi-phase physics
(water management) Heat and water management
(operational stability)
Heat transfer
(performance stability)
Fluid dynamics
(flow channel design)
Courtesy of SERC Fuel Cell Project 16
Schematic of a cross sectional view of PEM

Fuel Cell unit
Load
Cathode
Catalyst
Cathode
Bipolar Plate
Air
channel
Cathode
Electrode
(GDL)
O2
O2 + 2H+ + 2e H2O
e-
Anode
Catalyst
Membrane
H+
Anode
Anode
Electrode Bipolar Plate
(GDL)
H2
H2
channel
H2 2H+ + 2e
17
Role of Each Component

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Cathode/Anode Bipolar plate

Electronic Conduction
Heat Transport
Air/H2 channel
Reactant Transport & Product Removal (Mass Transfer)
Heat Transport
Cathode/Anode GDL
Ionic and Electronic Conduction
Reactant Transport & Product Removal (Mass Transfer)
Heat Transport
Cathode/Anode Catalyst
Electrochemical reaction (Mass Transfer reactant consumption and
product generation)
Ionic and Electronic Conduction
Membrane
Ionic conduction
Water transport
18
Water Management in PEMFC

Cathode
Electrolyte
membrane
Anode
Water produced
within cathode
Water is dragged from
anode to cathode sides by
protons moving through
electrolyte (electro-osmotic
drag)
Water is back diffused from

cathode to anode, if cathode side
holds more water
Water is supplied by
externally humidifying
air/O2 supply
Water is supplied by
externally humidifying
hydrogen supply
Water is removed by
O2 depleted air
leaving the fuel cell
Water is removed by
circulating hydrogen
19
Why Mass Transfer is Important in PEMFC

Component
Mass Transport Implication
Where mass transport

limitation exists
Air/H2 channel
To provide homogenous distribution

of reactants across an electrode
surface while minimizing pressure
drop and maximizing water removal
capability
Reactant depletion for

downstream channel
Impurity contamination, e.g.
N2
Cathode/Anode GDL
Porous electrode support to

reinforce catalyst, allow easy gas
access to catalyst layer, and
enhances electrical conductivity
Liquid water flooding block the

pores for gas diffusion into
catalyst layer
Cathode/Anode Catalyst
Electrochemical reaction takes

place at the catalyst layer,
consume reactant (H2 and O2) and
generate product (H2O)
Poor total reaction surface

area (catalyst loading) for
optimal electrochemical
performance
Membrane
To separate the air and H2 while

allowing liquid water and ionic
transport across membrane
Membrane dry-out at high

temperature, and loss of its
proton conducting capability
20
10
Fuel Cell : Mass Transport
To produce electricity, fuel cell must be continually

supplied with fuel and oxidant. At the same time,
products must be continuously removed so as to
avoid strangling the cell. The process of
supplying reactants and removing products is
termed fuel cell mass transport.
Why is it important? Poor mass transport can lead

to significant fuel cell performance loss, as the
reactant depletion and/or product accumulation
within catalyst layer (not at the fuel cell inlet) will
adversely affect performance. This is called
concentration or mass transport loss, and can be
minimized by careful optimization of mass
transport in the fuel cell electrodes and fuel cell
flow structures
21
Transport in Electrode vs. Flow

Structure
Difference between mass transport in fuel cell electrode and fuel

cell flow structures in one of length scale, and this lead to
difference in transport mechanism
For fuel cell flow structures, dimensions are generally on the

millimeter or centimeters scale. Flow pattern typically consisted of
well-defined channel arrays. Gas transport in the channel is
dominated by fluid flow and convection.
For fuel cell electrodes, it exhibit structure and porosity on the

micrometer and nanometer length scale. The tortuous geometry
of electrodes insulated gas molecules from convective forces
present in flow channel. Gas transport within electrodes is
dominated by diffusion.
Velocity scale could also affect transport

mechanism
*
22
11
Transport in Electrodes: Diffusive

Transport
Flow
Structure
Anode
Electrode
Reactants (R) In
Catalyst
Layer
Electrolyte
JR
jrxn
Products (P) Out
Concentration
An electrochemical
reaction on catalyst layer
side of an electrode and
convective mixing on the
other flow channel side of
the electrode set up
concentration gradients,
leading to diffusive
transport across the
electrode.
Flow
channel
JP
c Ro
c *P
c Po
c R*
Reaction in catalyst
layer consumes R,
generates P
Schematic of mass transport situation within

typical fuel cell electrode
23
Faradays Law
From Faradays Law : current i evolved by an
electrochemical reaction is a direct measure of

the rate of electrochemical reaction i = dQ = nF dN
dt
n is the number of electrons transferred,

F is Faradays constant, 96,485 C/mol,
dN
is the rate of electrochemical reaction, mol/s.
dt
*The
dt
current density
j=
i
1 dN
= nF
= nFJ
A
A dt
J is the molar flux, mol/cm2s.

24
12
Transport in Electrode: Diffusive Transport
At steady state, the diffusion flux of reactants and

products down the concentration gradient across the
electrode (diffusion layer) will exactly match the
consumption/production rate of reactants and products
at the catalyst layer.
Diffusion flux (kmol/m2s) of reactants to the catalyst
layer may be described by
dc J = D eff c *R c Ro
J diff = D
diff
dx
*
o
eff c R c R
j
=
nFD
From Faradays Law
Using the flux balance equation, one can solve for

reactant concentration in the catalyst layer
j
*
0
cR = cR
25
nFD eff
Transport in Electrode: Diffusive

Transport
jL = nFD
cR0
Limiting Current Density, jL
Limiting current density of fuel cell will be encountered

when reactant concentration in the catalyst layer drops
all the way to zero.
Fuel cell mass transport design strategies focus on
increasing the limiting current density by:
1.
2.
eff
Ensuring a high reactant concentration at flow channel by

designing good flow structures that even distribute reactants
Ensuring that effective diffusivity is large and diffusion layer
thickness is small by carefully optimizing fuel cell operating
conditions, electrode structure, and diffusion layer thickness.
Theoretical typical jL are on the order of 1-10A/cm2

26
13
Question 1
1. Discuss the factors that determine jL,
limiting current density. List three ways to
increase jL.
27
Answer for Question 1

Answer
c
The limiting current density is given by j = nFD
Factors determining the jL are reactant concentration at flow
channel, effective diffusivity and diffusion layer thickness. We
could increase jL by
Ensuring a high reactant concentration at flow
channel by designing good flow structures that
even distribute reactants
Ensuring effective diffusivity is large;
Ensuring diffusion layer thickness is small
by carefully optimizing fuel cell operating
conditions, electrode structure, and diffusion
layer thickness
eff
0
R
28
14
Typical process of reactant

transport to reactant sites
If considering the convection mass transfer across electrode surface,

how is the limiting current density being derived?
x=H
o
R
Convection, hm
Diffusion
Diffusion and
reaction
c Rs
Reactant molar
flux, JR
Flow channel
c *R
HE
x=0
Gas Diffusion
Layer (porous)
Catalyst Layer
(porous)
29
Process of reactant transport to reactant sites

Convection mass transfer at the electrode surface
J = hm c Ro c Rs
(1)
Diffusion mass transport through the Gas Diffusion Layer
c s c R*
J = D eff R
HE
(2)
Combining Equation 1 & 2
J=
c Ro c R*
Rm
H
1
+ effE
hm D
(3)
From Faradays Law, current density is proportional to the rate of

electrochemical reaction
1
H
i
1 dN
+ effE (C Ro C R* ) (4)
j = nF
j = = nF
= nFJ
h
A
m D
A dt
Limiting current density
1 H
jL = nF + effE
hm D
o
CR
(5)
30
15
Transport in Electrode: Diffusive

Transport
Concentration affects fuel cell performance through reaction

kinetics.
This is because reaction kinetics also depend on the reactant and
product concentration at the reaction sites.
Reactant depletion/product accumulation in the catalyst layers
lead to fuel cell performance loss.
This is called fuel cell concentration (or mass transport) loss.
conc =
RT 1 jL
1 +
nF jL j
conc - Voltage loss due to reactant depletion in the catalyst layer
Increasing jL can greatly extend a fuel cells potential operating

range; therefore mass transport design is an active area of
current fuel cell research.
31
Question 2
2.
Using the limiting current density equation, calculate

the limiting current density for a fuel cell cathode
running on air at 1 Atm and 25C. Assume only O2 and
N2 and ignore the presence of water vapor. Mass
fraction of O2 in air is 0.23. Assume the diffusion layer
is 500m and has a porosity of 40%.
Hint* : Using Chapman-Enskog theory (Chp 5, Cussler)

to find the binary diffusion coefficient, and
Bruggemann correction to account for the effective
diffusivity in porous structure. Molar concentration for
O2 can be obtained by mole fraction of O2 multiply by
the total molar concentration for the air mixture. n is
the number of electrons consumed per mole of the
reactant consumed. Molecular weight for N2 and O2
are 28 and 32, respectively
32
16
Answer for Question 2
In the H2-O2 fuel cell, the electrochemical reaction at

the cathode is given by O2 + 4H+ + 4e H2O. Hence
n = 4. F is the Faraday constant, 96,485 C/mol. The
binary diffusion coefficient is given by ChapmanEnskog theory.O2 = 3.467. N2 = 3.798. O2-N2 =
3.6325. From the necessary calculation, = 0.9186.
Therefore, Dij = 2x10-5 m2/s. From Bruggemann
correction Dij,eff = 5.06 x 10-6 m2/s. From the ideal gas
equation, total molar concentration for the mixture is =
40.9 mol/m3. Molecular weight for the mixture O2-N2 is
= 28.92. Mole faction of O2 = = 0.20786. Therefore,
molar concentration of O2 = 8.5015 mol/m3. Limiting
current density = 33,204 A/m2 = 3.32A/cm2
33
Transport in Flow Structure:

Convective Transport
Fuel cell flow structures are designed to distribute
reactants across fuel cell
One could possibly use single-chamber structure, and
encapsulate the entire fuel cell collector in a single
compartment. Unfortunately, this would make reactants
tend to stagnant inside the chamber, leading to poor
reactant distribution and high mass transport losses;
hence poor fuel cell performance
Conversely, employing intricate flow structure containing
many small flow channels keeps the reactants constantly
flowing across fuel cell, encouraging uniform convection,
mixing and homogenous reactant distribution.
34
17
Convective Transport Contd

Analyzing convective gas transport in the
complex real world flow structures is only really
possible with numerical methods. A common
technique is to use CFD modeling
However, basic analysis of simple flow scenarios
is still possible with the principle of fluid
mechanics, which can still yield great insight into
fuel cell mass transport and flow structure
design
35

Inlet
Outlet
u
x
y
Dh
JC
Convection transfer at surface
JD
Diffusion
Electrode
Membrane
Pressure difference between inlet and outlet drives the fluid flow.
Although gas flowing in stream-wise direction along flow channel,
convective mass transport can also occur in transverse direction from
flow channel into (or out of) electrode. This happens when
concentration of species i is different at the electrode surface versus
the flow channel bulk.
36
18

Mass flux (kg/m2s) due to convective mass transfer
may be estimated by
J C ,i = hm i , s i
Mass transfer convection coefficient, hm, is dependent

on the channel geometry, the physical properties of
species i and j, and the wall conditions. It can be found
from the nondimensional Sherwood number
hm = Sh
Dij
Dh
37

Gas is depleted along flow channel
As hydrogen or air is consumed continuously along
a flow channel, the reactants tend to become
depleted, especially near the outlet. Depletion poses
adverse effect on fuel cell performance, since
concentration losses increase as reactant
concentrations decrease.
A simple 2D mass transport model for fuel cell
cathode is developed. This is to determine how the
oxygen concentration decreases along flow channel
using macro-scale mass flux balance.
*
Refer to Note 1 for O2 mass concentration profile
along cathode catalyst layer.
* important
38
19
Transport in Flow Structure: Convective

Transport
Gas is depleted along flow channel
To find oxygen concentration profile along the catalyst

layer
Electrolyte
C
J O2
RXN
J O2
uin
J O2
2
y =C
Cathode catalyst layer
DIFF
y=E
Gas diffusion layer
HE
CONV
y=E
O
Cathode flow channel
HC
x
Schematic of a 2D fuel cell transport model including diffusion and convection

39
Convective Transport in Flow Structure :

Assumptions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Steady state and isothermal operation

Flow channel has a square cross section.
The catalyst layer is infinitely thin.
Water exists only in vapor form.
Diffusive mass transport dominates in
the diffusion layer. Furthermore, only ydirection diffusion is considered.
6. Convection mass transport dominates in
the flow channel
40
20

From Faradays Law, if fuel cell is producing a current density at location X,

then the O2 mass flux (kg/cm2s) that is consuming is given by
^
J O2
rxn
x = X , y =C
= M O2
j( X )
4F
(1)
The O2 flux consumed by the electrochemical reaction must be provided by

diffusion in the gas diffusion layer, described by Ficks law
diff
J O2
x= X , y=E
= DOeff2
x = X , y =C
O2
x= X , y=E
(2)
HE
O2 mass flux due to mass transport through the gas diffusion layer is provided
by convective mass transport between the flow channel and gas diffusion layer
^
J O2
conv
x= X , y=E
= hm O2
x= X , y=E
O2
x = X , y = channel
(3)
41
Mass flux balance between convective transport in flow

structure and diffusion transport in GDL
1. O2 mass flux consumed by the

electrochemical reaction at the catalyst
layer
2. O2 mass flux due to diffusion mass
transport through the gas diffusion layer
3. O2 mass flux provided by convective
mass transport between the flow channel
and gas diffusion layer surface.
Mass flux 1 = Mass flux 2 = Mass flux 342
21

To maintain the flux balance, O2 mass flux in equations 1, 2 & 3 must be same
rxn
J O2
diff
= J O2
x = X , y =C
x= X , y= E
conv
= J O2
(4)
x= X , y= E
The following relations can be derived

diff
J O2
x= X , y=E
x = X , y =C
= M O2
= O2
x= X , y=E
j(X )
4F
x= X , y=E
= O2
(5)
M O2
x = X , y = channel
j( X ) H E
4 F DOeff2
M O2
(6)
j(X ) 1
4 F hm
(7)
43

Couple y direction O2 mass transport in the diffusion layer to the x direction O2
mass transport in the flow channel by considering the overall flux balance in
the control volume (dotted box)
u in H C O2
x = 0 , y = channel
u in H C O2
x = X , y = channel
= J O2
0
conv
dx (8)
y=E
O2 leaving out of the top of the control volume can be related to the current
density produced by fuel cell.
J O2
conv
y=E
dx = M O2
X
j (x )
dx
4F
(9)
Combining equations 6, 7, 8 & 9

O
x = X , y =C
= O2
x = X , y = channel
M O2 j ( X ) H E j ( X ) X j (x )
+
+
dx (10)
eff
0
4 F hm
u in H C
DO2
44
22

Assume current density is constant along the x direction
O
= O2
x = X , y =C
x = X , y = channel
M O2
H
j 1
X
+ E +
4 F hm DOeff2 u in H C
(11)
hm can be determined based on constant-flux Sherwood number

hm =
ShF DO2
(12)
HC
Final expression for oxygen concentration profile along the catalyst layer
O
x = X , y =C
= O2
x = X , y = channel
M O2
H
j H C
X
+ E +
4 F ShF DO2 DOeff2 u in H C
(13)
Linear profile
45

Three terms that affect O2 concentration profile at the
reaction site for fuel cell are
1.Inlet flow velocity, uin
Supplying more O2 improves mass transport, thus

increasing O2 concentration at the catalyst layer
2.Diffusion layer thickness, HE
Decreasing diffusion layer thickness also increases the

O2 concentration at the catalyst layer.
3.Channel size, HC
A little tricky as HC appears in both numerator of the

first term and denominator of third term in the
parentheses. However, with constant volume flow rate,
uinHC is constant. Therefore, decreasing channel size
will increase the O2 concentration.
46
23

Flow Structure Pattern

Flow plate typically contain dozen or even
hundreds of fine channels (or groves) to
homogenously distribute gas flow over the fuel
cell surface. The shape, size and pattern of
flow channels can significantly affect fuel cell
performance.
In PEMFCs, flow field design effort often focus
on the water removal capability of cathode
side.
47
1.

Three basic flow structure patterns are
Outlet
Parallel flow
2.
Serpentine flow
3.
Low overall pressure drop between gas inlet and

outlet
However, when the width of the flow field is relatively
large, flow distribution in each channel may not be
uniform
Outlet
Excellent water removal capability, as only one flow

path exists in the pattern and liquid water is forced to
exit the channel
However, in large area cell, serpentine design leads
to large pressure drop
Interdigitated flow
Inlet
Promotes forced convection of the reactant gases

through the gas diffusion layer.
Far better water management, leading to improved
mass transport
Significant pressure drop, but possible to be
overcome by employing extremely small rib spacing.
Inlet
Outlet
Inlet
48
24
Analytical Modelling with MATLAB

Motivation
Shorter turnaround time
Accessibility
Working with basics: enhancing understanding
Issues:
Oversimplification
Disregard for physical factors
Incapable of complex reality simulations
Way out:
Compare results with numerical methods
49
Analytical Modelling with MATLAB

Working directly with equations :
parametric study
Basics:
Conservation of Momentum
Conservation of Mass
Conservation of Energy
Conservation of Species
Conservation of Charge
50
25
Modelling different components

Cathode gas flow field
Cathode: rate determining reaction
Falls first in the flow of events taking place in
the fuel cell
Can define the inlet conditions and assess the
resulting effects without considering other
components
Single channel flow field for simplicity
51
Cathode Gas flow channel
(b)
Charge Conductor
(a)
Gas Diffusion Layer
(c)
Flow Channel
Figure 6 (a): PEM Fuel Cell Structure; (b): GDL and Current Conductor assembly;
(c): Flow Channel dimensions w=width, d=depth, L=length
52
26
Limiting current density

theoretical maximum value of the current density
calculated by assuming zero concentration of oxygen at
the GDL/cathode catalyst layer interface
i L = nFhm [
(C m ,in C m ,out )
]
C m ,in
ln(
)
C m ,out
hm = Sh
Di , j
Dh
C m,out
C m ,in
= exp
hm L
vm d
Dh = [
4d w
]
2( d + w)
53
Assumptions
The fuel cell system is assumed to be operating at a constant temperature

Fuel cell operating pressure is assumed to be constant
Velocity in the gas flow channel is assumed to be constant
The cell is in steady state operation
The current density is assumed to be constant on the electrode surface
Chamber gases are assumed to be of uniform composition
Ideal gas properties are observed by all gases
Incompressible and laminar flow in flow channel
Isotropic and homogeneous membrane and electrode structures
Negligible ohmic potential drop in solid components
The mass and energy transport is modeled from macro-perspective using volumeaveraged conservation equations
Any model is only as good as the assumptions it is based upon are valid Franco Barbir
54
27
(Analytical) Procedure
Eqn in question: i L = nFhm [
(C m ,in C m ,out )
]
C m ,in
ln(
)
C m ,out
Two cases: Square and Rectangular cross section

Range: L 10cm-30cm; w 1mm-5mm; d 1mm-5mm
for loop and data point for iL for every 10m of channel
depth/width, and for every 100mm of channel length
for i=100:500
d(i) = i/100000;
*Refer
for i=100:500
w(i) = i/100000;
for i=1000:3000
channel_length(i) = i/10000;
to Appendix for MATLAB code

55
Square cross section
56
28
Square cross section

10
9.5
85
80
8.5
75
8
70
7.5
65
7
60
6.5
55
50
5.5
45
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
5
0.35
Channel Length (L) / m
Maximum Limiting Current Density

(iLmax) / Acm-2
Channel Lenght/Channel Depth (L/d)
90
L/d
(iLmax)
57
Rectangular cross section: iL v. d

w=1mm
w=3mm
w=5mm
58
29
14
80
13
70
12
60
11
50
10
40
9
30
8
20
10
6
5
0
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
Channel Lenght/Channel Depth (L/d)
Maximum Limiting Current Density

(iLmax) / Acm-2
Rectangular cross section
iLmax (w=3mm)
iLmax (w=5mm)
L/d (w=3mm)
L/d (w=5mm)
Channel Length (L)/ m
59
Rectangular cross section: iL v. w

d=1.5mm
d=3mm
d=5mm
60
30
Rectangular cross section: iL v. L

d=1 mm
d=3mm
d=5mm
61
Analytical Approach - Discussion
Square cross section: There exist optimum channel depths (widths)
Rectangular cross section:

o channel length
iL
o channel width
iL
for lower depths (d< ~ 1-2.5mm depending upon L),
channel width
iL
for higher channel depths
o channel depth
iL
for a very narrow channel,
There exist optimum channel depths for channels wider than ~ 1.5mm
62
31
Closing Remarks
Mass transport is critical for enhanced fuel
cell performance solution could be
obtained through simple analytical or more
complicated computational fuel cell
dynamics simulation
All fuel cell model necessarily incorporates
assumptions - accuracy is strongly
dependent on validity of assumptions
63
Analytical Approach - Conclusion
Establish the relation between geometric parameters and corresponding

performance of the fuel cell (in terms of current density)
Analytical and numerical studies did not coincide, mainly due to the
assumptions with which the analytical study is carried out
Numerical trend for change in values for current density v. channel depth
was similar to the analytical one a big positive!
64
32
Acknowledgements
Erik Birgersson, Department of Chemical
and Bio-molecular Engineering, NUS
Rina Lum, IHPC
Agus Pulung Sasmito, NUS
Narissara Bussayajarn, SIMTech
Xing Xiuqing & Wu Yanling, IHPC
Gaurav Pundir, NUS
65
33
APPNDIX B: MATLAB CODE [SQ CS LCD v CD]

% Square cross section, limiting current density v channel depth for diff lengths
T=25;
% Fuel Cell operating temperature in degrees
C
air_velocity = 2;
% Air velocity (m/s)
temperature = T+273;
% Temperature in K
reference_temperature = 273;
% Reference Temperature
meu = 15.89e-6;
% Kinematic viscosity (m2/s)
D_O2_N2_at_reference = 1.84e-5; % Diffusion coefficient
Sh=4.86;
% Sherwood no (uniform surface concentration)
X_O2 = 0.21;
% Mole fraction of
Oxygen
R=8.314;
% Ideal Gas Constant
P=101.325;
% Pressure (kPa)
n=4;
% Number of electrons transferred per mol of
reactant consumed
F=96487;
% Faraday's constant
% Define different channel lengths
channel_length1=0.1;
% Convective Mass Transfer Coefficient
D_o2_n2 = D_O2_N2_at_reference*(temperature/reference_temperature)^1.5;
% The concentration of oxygen at channel inlet
C_O2_in = 1000*X_O2*P/(R*temperature);
for i=100:500
d(i) = i/100000;
% Hydraullic diameter equal to 2LW/(L+W)
D_k(i) = d(i);
% Calculate Reynold's number
RE(i) = air_velocity*D_k(i)/meu;
% Binary diffusivity coefficient
h_m(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k(i);
% Channel outlet O2 concentration and limiting current density for different
channel lengths
C_O2_out1(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length1/(d(i)*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density1(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out1(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out1(i))/10000;

end
% Plot limiting current density v channel depth
plot(d(100:500), limitng_current_density1(100:500), d(100:500),
limitng_current_density2(100:500), d(100:500), limitng_current_density3(100:500),
d(100:500), limitng_current_density4(100:500), d(100:500),
limitng_current_density8(100:500), ':', d(100:500),
limitng_current_density15(100:500), '--', d(100:500),
limitng_current_density21(100:500), '--')
APPNDIX C: MATLAB CODE [RCT CS LCD v CD (W = ?mm)]

% Rectangular x-section, limiting current density v channel depth for diff lengths
% Replace highlighted ? with relevant channel width (in mm) before running the
code
T=25;
degrees C
air_velocity = 2;
% Fuel Cell operating temperature in

% Temperature in K
meu = 15.89e-6;
D_O2_N2_at_reference = 1.84e-5;
Sh=4.86;
(uniform surface concentration)
X_O2 = 0.21;
Oxygen
R=8.314;
P=101.325;
w=?e-3;
n=4;
F=96487;

% Diffusion coefficient
% Sherwood number
% Mole fraction of
% Pressure (kPa)
% Channel width (m)
reactant consumed

for i=100:500
d(i) = i/100000;
D_k(i) = 2*w*d(i)/(w+d(i));
% The concentration of oxygen at channel outlet

end
APPNDIX D: MATLAB CODE [RCT CS LCD v CD (L = ?m)]

%Rectangular x-section, limiting current density v channel depth for diff widths
% Replace highlighted ? with relevant channel length (in m) before running the
code
T=25;
% Fuel Cell operating
temperature in degrees C
air_velocity = 2;
% Temperature in K
meu = 15.89e-6;
Sh=4.86;
% Sherwood number
X_O2 = 0.21;
% Mole fraction of
Oxygen
R=8.314;
P=101.325;
% Pressure (kPa)
n=4;
F=96487;
channel_length=?;

reactant consumed
% Channel Length (m)
% Define different channel widths

w1=1e-3;
w2=1.5e-3;
w3=2e-3;
w4=2.5e-3;
w5=3e-3;
w6=3.5e-3;
w7=4e-3;
w8=4.5e-3;
w9=5e-3
for i=100:500
d(i) = i/100000;
D_k1(i) = 2*w1*d(i)/(w1+d(i));
RE1(i) = air_velocity*D_k1(i)/meu;
h_m1(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k1(i);
C_O2_out1(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m1(i)*channel_length/(d(i)*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density1(i) = n*F*h_m1(i)*(C_O2_in C_O2_out1(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out1(i))/10000;
D_k2(i) = 2*w2*d(i)/(w2+d(i));
h_m2(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k2(i);
D_k3(i) = 2*w3*d(i)/(w3+d(i));
h_m3(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k3(i);
D_k4(i) = 2*w4*d(i)/(w4+d(i));
h_m4(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k4(i);
D_k5(i) = 2*w5*d(i)/(w5+d(i));
h_m5(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k5(i);
D_k6(i) = 2*w6*d(i)/(w6+d(i));
h_m6(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k6(i);
D_k7(i) = 2*w7*d(i)/(w7+d(i));
h_m7(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k7(i);
D_k8(i) = 2*w8*d(i)/(w8+d(i));
h_m8(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k8(i);
D_k9(i) = 2*w9*d(i)/(w9+d(i));
h_m9(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k9(i);
end
APPNDIX E: MATLAB CODE [RCT CS LCD v CW (D = ?mm)]

%Rectangular x-section, limiting current density v channel width for diff lengths
% Replace highlighted ? with relevant channel depth (in mm) before running the
code
T=25;
C
air_velocity = 2;
% Temperature in K
meu = 15.89e-6;
Sh=4.86;
% Sherwood number
X_O2 = 0.21;
% Mole fraction of
Oxygen
R=8.314;
P=101.325;
% Pressure (kPa)
d=?e-3;
% Channel depth (m)
n=4;
reactant consumed
F=96487;
for i=100:500
w(i) = i/100000;
D_k(i) = 2*w(i)*d/(w(i)+d);
C_O2_out1(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length1/(d*air_velocity));

end
% Plot limiting current density v channel width
plot(w(100:500), limitng_current_density1(100:500), w(100:500),

limitng_current_density2(100:500), w(100:500), limitng_current_density3(100:500),
w(100:500), limitng_current_density4(100:500), w(100:500),
limitng_current_density8(100:500), ':', w(100:500),
limitng_current_density15(100:500), '--', w(100:500),
APPNDIX F: MATLAB CODE [RCT CS LCD v CW (L = ?m)]

%Rectangular x-section, limiting current density v channel width for diff depths
% Replace highlighted ? with relevant channel length (in m) before running the
code
T=25;
C
air_velocity = 2;
meu = 15.89e-6;
D_O2_N2_at_reference = 1.84e-5;
Sh=4.86;
X_O2 = 0.21;
Oxygen
R=8.314;
P=101.325;
n=4;
F=96487;
channel_length=?;

% Temperature in K
% Diffusion coefficient
% Sherwood number
% Mole fraction of
% Pressure (kPa)
reactant consumed
% Channel Length (m)
% Define different channel depths

d1=1e-3;
d2=1.5e-3;
d3=2e-3;
d4=2.5e-3;
d5=3e-3;
d6=3.5e-3;
d7=4e-3;
d8=4.5e-3;
d9=5e-3

for i=100:500
w(i) = i/100000;
D_k1(i) = 2*w(i)*d1/(w(i)+d1);
h_m1(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k1(i);
C_O2_out1(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m1(i)*channel_length/(d1*air_velocity));
D_k2(i) = 2*w(i)*d2/(w(i)+d2);
h_m2(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k2(i);
D_k3(i) = 2*w(i)*d3/(w(i)+d3);
h_m3(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k3(i);
D_k4(i) = 2*w(i)*d4/(w(i)+d4);
h_m4(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k4(i);
D_k5(i) = 2*w(i)*d5/(w(i)+d5);
h_m5(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k5(i);
D_k6(i) = 2*w(i)*d6/(w(i)+d6);
h_m6(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k6(i);
D_k7(i) = 2*w(i)*d7/(w(i)+d7);
h_m7(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k7(i);
D_k8(i) = 2*w(i)*d8/(w(i)+d8);
h_m8(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k8(i);
D_k9(i) = 2*w(i)*d9/(w(i)+d9);
h_m9(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k9(i);
end
% Plot limiting current density v channel width
plot(w(100:500), limitng_current_density1(100:500), w(100:500),
APPNDIX G: MATLAB CODE [RCT CS LCD v CL (d = ?m)]

%Rectangular x-section, limiting current density v channel length for diff widths
% Replace highlighted ? with relevant channel depth (in mm) before running the
code
T=25;
degrees C
air_velocity = 2;
% Temperature in K
meu = 15.89e-6;
Sh=4.86;
% Sherwood number
X_O2 = 0.21;
% Mole fraction of
Oxygen
R=8.314;
P=101.325;
% Pressure (kPa)
d=?e-3;
% Channel width (m)
n=4;
reactant consumed
F=96487;
% Define different channel width
w1=1e-3;
w2=1.5e-3;
w3=2e-3;
w4=2.5e-3;
w5=3e-3;
w6=3.5e-3;
w7=4e-3;
w8=4.5e-3;
w9=5e-3;
for i=1000:3000
D_k1 = 2*w1*d/(w1+d);
RE1 = air_velocity*D_k1/meu;
h_m1 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k1;
C_O2_out1(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m1*channel_length(i)/(d*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density1(i) = n*F*h_m1*(C_O2_in C_O2_out1(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out1(i))/10000;
D_k2 = 2*w2*d/(w2+d);
h_m2 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k2;
D_k3 = 2*w3*d/(w3+d);
h_m3 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k3;
D_k4 = 2*w4*d/(w4+d);
h_m4 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k4;
D_k5 = 2*w5*d/(w5+d);
h_m5 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k5;
D_k6 = 2*w6*d/(w6+d);
h_m6 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k6;
D_k7 = 2*w7*d/(w7+d);
h_m7 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k7;
D_k8 = 2*w8*d/(w8+d);
h_m8 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k8;

D_k9 = 2*w9*d/(w9+d);
h_m9 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k9;
end
% Plot limiting current density v channel length
plot(channel_length(1000:3000), limitng_current_density1(1000:3000),
channel_length(1000:3000), limitng_current_density2(1000:3000),
channel_length(1000:3000), limitng_current_density8(1000:3000), ':',
channel_length(1000:3000), limitng_current_density9(1000:3000), ':')
APPNDIX H: MATLAB CODE [RCT CS LCD v CL (w = ?m)]

%Rectangular x-section, limiting current density v channel length for diff depths
% Replace highlighted ? with relevant channel width (in mm) before running the
code
T=25;
degrees C
air_velocity = 2;
% Temperature in K
meu = 15.89e-6;
Sh=4.86;
% Sherwood number
X_O2 = 0.21;
% Mole fraction of
Oxygen
R=8.314;
P=101.325;
% Pressure (kPa)
w=?e-3;
% Channel width (m)
n=4;
% Number of electrons transferred per mol of reactant
consumed
F=96487;
% Define different channel depth
d1=1e-3;
d2=1.5e-3;
d3=2e-3;
d4=2.5e-3;
d5=3e-3;
d6=3.5e-3;
d7=4e-3;
d8=4.5e-3;
d9=5e-3;
for i=1000:3000
D_k1 = 2*w*d1/(w+d1);
h_m1 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k1;

C_O2_out1(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m1*channel_length(i)/(d1*air_velocity));
D_k2 = 2*w*d2/(w+d2);
h_m2 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k2;
D_k3 = 2*w*d3/(w+d3);
h_m3 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k3;
D_k4 = 2*w*d4/(w+d4);
h_m4 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k4;
D_k5 = 2*w*d5/(w+d5);
h_m5 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k5;
D_k6 = 2*w*d6/(w+d6);
h_m6 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k6;
D_k7 = 2*w*d7/(w+d7);
h_m7 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k7;
D_k8 = 2*w*d8/(w+d8);
h_m8 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k8;
D_k9 = 2*w*d9/(w+d9);
h_m9 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k9;

end
% Plot limiting current density v channel length
plot(channel_length(1000:3000), limitng_current_density1(1000:3000),
channel_length(1000:3000), limitng_current_density8(1000:3000), ':',
channel_length(1000:3000), limitng_current_density9(1000:3000), ':')
Heat Transfer in Fluidized

Beds-An Overview
1/13/2011
Special Topic in ME6204 Convective Heat

Transfer:
Heat Transfer in Fluidized Beds-An Overview
Professor A. S. Mujumdar
ME Department, NUS, 2011
Contents
Introduction
Particle Characterization
Flow past spheres, non-spheres
Heat transfer from spheres under large Re range
Fluid Beds Concept and modifications
Geldarts Classification
Heat Transfer
Bed to Immersed Surface Heat Transfer Correlations
Sample Calculations
FB Drying Plug flow vs Well-mixed
Fluid be combustion (Simple Model)
Example of Fluid Bed Calculation
Closing Remarks
1/11/2011
Introduction
fluidized bed describes a finely granulated layer of solid material (referred to as the
mass) that is loosened by fluid flowing through to such an extent that the particles
of solid material are free to move to a certain degree
It is called fluidized because the solid material takes on properties similar to those
of a fluid (liquid)
Fluidized beds are used widely in engineering for applications such as combustion,
reactors, drying, gasification of coal/biomass, thermal treatments of metal and
powder coating, granulation, heat transfer etc
Gas-solid fluidized systems are characterized by temperature uniformity and high
heat transfer coefficients, due to the intense mixture of the solid material by the
presence of gas bubbles
Liquid- solid fluidized beds have also been used for wide applications
Heat transfer in fluid beds can be from Fluid Particle, Particle Fluid, Wall Fluid
and to immersed surfaces, if any- care needed in calculation method used!
1/11/2011
Particle Size
6Vp 13
dv =
Volume Diameter (dV)

Surface Diameter (dS)
Surface-Volume Diameter (dSV)
Sieve Diameter
S p 1 2
d S =
6V p d 3v
dSv =
=
S p d 2s
18U t
d st =
p s g
Stokes Diameter (dst)

Free Falling Diameter
Drag Diameter
Projected Area Diameter
Feret Diameter
Martin Diameter .etc
Commonly used for applications in packed and fluid bed

VP Volume of the particle; SP Surface area of the particle;
Ut terminal settling velocity of the particle
contd
Shape
Equivalent particle diameter, dp = dsv = 6/as
Sphere
dp = diameter of sphere
Cylinder with length (ly) equal to

diameter (dy)
dp = dy , the diameter of cylinder
Cylinder dy ly
6dy
dp =
4 + 2 dy ly
Ring with outside diameter of do, and

inside diameter of di
Mixed sizes
Irregular shapes with = 0.5 to 0.7
dp = 1.5do di
dp =
1
i xi dpi
dp = dv ; dv dA
Table: Suggested equivalent particle diameters for catalysts in catalytic reactor application
1/11/2011
contd
Particle Shape
Sphericity ()
Surface area of volume equivalent sphere
=
Surface area of particle
Circularity ()
Circumference of a circle having same

cross sectional area as the particle
=
Actual Perim eter of the cross section
Operational Sphericity and Circularity

Heywood Shape Factor
Particle Density
Vp
k= 3
da
d a =4A p
da Projected area diameter; AP Projected area; Vp Volume of particle
Methods for Direct Characterization

Sieve Analysis
In U.S. Taylor sieve size and U.S. Sieve size
In Europe British standard and German DIN sieve size
Mesh Number number of parallel wires per inch
Imaging Techniques: Direct measurements using enlarged photographic or electronic images
of microscope
Optical microscope (1m to 150 m)
Scanning electron microscope (SEM, 5m to 0.01 m)
Transmission electron microscope (TEM , 5m to 0.01 m)
Gravity and Centrifugal Sedimentation
Characterization by Elutriation
Cascade Impaction Technique
Resistivity and Optical Zone Sensing Techniques
Coulter Counter
1/11/2011
Particle size ranges for various methods

Particle sizing method
Applicable particle
size (mm)
Measured Dimension
Sieving
Dry
Wet
>10
2 500
Sieve diameter
Microscopic examination
Optical
Electronic
1.0 100
0.01 500
Length, Projected Area

Statistical diameter
Zone Sensing
Resistivity
Optical
0.6 1200
1.0 800
Volume
Elutriation
Laminar Flow
Cyclone
3 75
8 50
Stokes diameter
Gravity Sedimentation
Pipette and hydrometer
Photoextinction
X-ray
1 100
0.5 100
0.1 130
Stokes diameter
Mechanical Properties of Particles

Hardgrove Grindability Index (HGI)
Higher the HGI higher the grindability of material
Attrition Index
Important in fluidization, can affect entrainment and elutriation
Solids impaction on plate

Abrasiveness Index
factor used to determine the effective rate of wear of the
aforementioned consumables
Erosiveness Index
1/11/2011
Dimensionless numbers
Dimensionless numbers of interest
Significance
For FB Heat Transfer
Flow passed over a single particle

Drag force resisting very slow steady relative motion between a
rigid particle (sphere) of diameter dP and a fluid of infinite extent of
viscosity is composed of two components
Total drag force resisting motion
Where ur is the relative velocity

This is known as the stokes law and is valid mainly for
This also hold true up to
with some error

ReP = Ur dP f /
1/11/2011
Flow passed over a single particle

Particle Drag Coefficient
Ratio of force on the particle and the fluid dynamic
pressure caused by the fluid times the projected
area of the particle
F
C D =
12 f U 2r A P
Ur
AP
1
F = CD f Ur2 AP
2
Drag Coefficient CD is a function of particles Reynolds number

Three different regimes based on the magnitude of ReP
For the Stokes Regime
0.3 < (Re)P
The Intermediate Regime
Dallavalle (1948)
CD = ReP
0.3 < (Re)P < 500
Schiller & Naumann 1933

The Newtons Law Regime
CD = 0.44
(Re)P > 500
Drag coefficient for different shapes
Drag Coefficient against Reynolds Number (Re)
1/11/2011
Particle falling under gravity through a fluid

The general force acting on particle are gravity, buoyancy, drag
Gravity
Buoyancy -
Drag =
Acceleration Flow
For spherical particle (for acceleration = 0)

Fb
Now
So equation becomes
Ut is called as terminal settling velocity of the particle

On solving for CD
Particle falling under gravity through a fluid

For Stokes law Regime
Hence
In stokes law regime the terminal settling velocity is proportional to the squere of the
particle diameter
In the Newtons Law Regime
CD = 0.44
In the Newtons law regime the terminal settling velocity is proportional to the square
root of particle diameter and independent of viscocity
1/11/2011
Multiple particle system

The motion of each particle is affected by the presence of others
Simple analysis for the fluid particle interaction is not valid but can be adopted to
model the multiple particle system
For suspension of particles the stokes law is assumed to apply but an effective
suspension viscosity and effective average suspension density is assumed
Effective suspension viscosity e = / f()
Average suspension density = ave = f + (1-) P
where is the voidage or volume fraction occupied by fluid
For suspension of particles the drag coefficient in stokes law regime becomes
where
And Ur is the relative velocity of particle

Under terminal velocity condition for a particle falling under gravity in a suspension the
force balance
Substituting e and ave
Urel,t is known as the particle settling velocity in presence of other particles or Hindered
Settling Velocity
1/11/2011

f() was shown theoretically by Einstein to be
For uniform sphere forming a suspension of solid column fraction less than 0.1
Or (1-) < 0.1,
Richardson and Zaki have given the values of f()
for stokes regime to be
For Newtons Regime
Characterization of Multiple Particle System

Different definitions of average particle diameter
Arithmetic Mean
Surface Mean
Volume Mean
Volume Surface Mean
Weight Mean
Length Mean
2

=

3 3

=

3

2

= =
4

3

Where =
3

10
1/11/2011
Fluid Beds - Basics
Fluidized beds: Particle

suspended in an upward gas
stream
11
1/11/2011
Pressure drop in fixed beds

Pressure drop through packed bed / fixed bed of uniform
sized solids is correlated by Ergun equation
It has two factors, viscous force and the kinetic energy force
At low Reynolds number only viscous losses predominate
At high Reynolds number only kinetic energy losses need to be considered
Pressure drop & Minimum Fluidization Velocity
At the onset of fluidization, the gravity force on the particles in the bed must be
balanced by the drag, buoyancy, and pressure forces.
12
1/11/2011
The umf, the superficial velocity at minimum fluidizing condition is found by using
expression for p/L
In a simplified form
For small particles (ReP < 20)
Or

for larger particles the simplified form is
or
Wen and Yu have found for variety of systems

and
for small particles the simplified form is
For larger particles (ReP > 20)

For whole range of Reynolds number
13
1/11/2011
A: Aeratable (Umb > Umf) Material has significant deaeration time (FCC Catalyst)
B: Bubbles Above (Umb = Umf) 500 micron sand
C: Cohesive (Flour, Fly Ash)
D: Spoutable (wheat, 2000 micron polyethylene pellets)
contd
Group
Characteristics and Properties
Good fluidization quality, aeratable, easily fluidized, smooth at low

velocity and bubbling at higher velocity and slug at high velocity, bed
expands, Good solids mixing
Small mean particle size, low density, typically 30< dp <100m and
<1400 kgm-3.
Good fluidization quality, sand-like particles, vigorous bubbling, slug

at high velocity, small bed expansion, good solids mixing in bubbling
Typically 40m<dp<500m, 1400kgm-3<<4000kgm-3
Bad fluidization quality, cohesive due to strong interparticle force,

severe slugging and agglomeration, may generates electrostatic
charges, poor solids mixing.
Fine and ultra-fine particles
Poor fluidization quality, spoutable, difficult to fluidize in deep bed
depth, large bubbles, severe channeling, relatively poor solids mixing
Large and/or dense particles, typically dp >500m, >1400kgm-3
14
1/11/2011
contd
contd
15
1/11/2011
Fluidization Regimes
Velocity Increasing
Fluidization Regimes: Description

Velocity range
Regime
Fluidization Features and Appearance
0 U Umf
Fixed Bed
Particles are quiescent; gas flows through interstices
Umf U Umb
Particulate
Regime
Bed expands smoothly and homogeneously with small-scale particle

motion; bed surface is well defined
Umb U Ums
Bubbling Regime
Gas bubbles form above distributor, coalesce and grow; gas bubbles
promote solids mixing during rise to surface and breakthrough
Ums U UC
Slug flow Regime
Bubble size approaches bed cross section; bed surface rises and falls
with regular frequency with corresponding pressure fluctuation
UC U Uk
Transition to
turbulent
Fluidization
Pressure fluctuation decrease gradually until turbulent fluidization

regime is reached
Uk U Utr
Turbulent Regime
Small gas voids and particle clusters and streamers dart to and fro;
bed surface is diffused and difficult to distinguish
U Utr
Fast Fluidization
Particles are transported out of the bed and need to be replaced and
recycled; normally has a dense phase region at bottom coexisting
with a dilute phase region on top; no bed surface
U Utr
Pneumatic
Conveying
Usually a once-through operation; all particles fed are transported

out in dilute phase with concentration varying along the column
height; no bed surface
16
1/11/2011
Fluidization Regimes: Description

Transition between regimes
Equations have been published for transition lines
between various regimes. This map can be used to
identify the type of flow regime that will exist for a
given particle under specific flow conditions.
Smooth or particulate fluidization
Bubbling or aggregative fluidization
Slugging criteria
Design of distributor in fluidized beds

Uniform gas sparging is govern by the effective design of gas distribution
system and is very important to have uniform heat transfer
Parameter affecting performance of Gas distribution system comprise of;
Gas Sparger geometry
Gas chamber geometry
Pressure drop across the gas distribution system
A good distributor should;
Obtain a spatially uniform gas distribution, without stagnant zones
Prevent solids loss by leakage
Minimize solid erosion
Avoid choking of the distributor
Have a definite and non-changing (with time) pressure drop for the gas
17
1/11/2011

Pressure Drop across the Distributor
The pressure drop across the distributor Pd is used as the criterion for
design, and Pd, values varying from 0.01 to 1.0 times the pressure drop
across the bed Pb have been suggested.
Siegel (1986):
Pd/Pb = 0.14 - 0.22 [Galileo number (1 - 10,000)]
Kunii & Levenspiel (1991):
Pd/Pb = 0.1 0.3
Siegel, M. H., Merchuk, J.C., Schugerl, K., 1986. Air-Lift Reactor Analysis: Interrelationships between Riser,
Downcomer and Gas-Liquid Separator Behavior, including Gas Recirculation Effects. AIChE Journal 32(10),
1585-1595
Kunni, D., Levenspiel, O., 1991. Fluidization Engineering, 2nd Ed., Butterworth-Heinemann, Boston.

Nozzle Position (Litz, 1972)
Side entry:
H = 0.2D + 0.5D noz
H = 18D noz
, when
D noz > D 100
Dnoz < D 100
, when
Bottom entry:
H = 3(D D noz )
H = 100D noz
Where,
, when
, when
D noz > D 36
D noz < D 36
D - diameter of gas distribution chamber

Dnoz - diameter of the nozzle
H - distance between the nozzle centerline and the
distributor plate
Litz, W. J., 1972. Design of gas distributors. Chemical Engineering 13, 162-166.
18
1/11/2011
Different types of fluid beds / modifications
Example
A packed bed is composed of cubes 0.02 m on a side. The bulk density
of the packed bed, with air, is 980 kg/m3. The density of the solid cubes is
1500 kg/m3.
Calculate the void fraction () of the bed.
Calculate the effective diameter (Dp) where Dp is the diameter of a sphere
having the equivalent volume.
Determine the sphericity of the cubes.
Estimate the minimum fluidization velocity using water at 38 C and a tower
diameter of 0.15 m.
Void Fraction
We know : Vbed = V fluid + Vsolids
and Wbed = W fluid + Wsolids
bedVbed = fluidV fluid + solidsVsolids

solidsVsolids >> fluid V fluid
19
1/11/2011
Example
contd..
bedVbed solidsVsolids
Effective diameter
3
a =
kg
980 3
m
= 1
kg
1500 3
m
bed
solids
and
Vbed
Vbed
= 0.35
3
p
(0.02)3 = D 3p
6
bedVbed
solids
D p = 0.025m
Sphericity
6
(6 )1 3 a = 1 3 = 0.81
s =

6
6
a
Mimimum Fluidization Velocity
f )g =
2
150(1 mf )
f umf
+ 1.75
3
s D p mf
s D p umf f
kg
kg
m
kg
994
1500
9.80 2 = 4959 2 2
m3
m3
s
m s
Example
contd..
3
s mf
=
1
mf = 0.445
14
2
1.75 f umf
3
s D p mf
kg
2
umf
kg
2
m3
= 9.748 105 2 2 umf
0.81 0.025 (0.445)3
m s
1.75 994
150 (1 mf ) umf
2
3
s D p mf
= 1597
kg
u mf
150 (1 0.445) (0.693 cp ) 0.001
m
s
=
2
2
3
(0.81) (0.025 m ) (0.445)
kg
umf
m2s 2
0 = 9.748 105
umf = 0.071
kg
kg
kg
2
u mf
+ 1597 2 2 u mf 4959 2 2
m s
m s
m2 s 2
m
s
20
1/11/2011
Heat Transfer in fixed and Fluidized beds

Main advantage of fluidized beds is the extremely large area of solid surface
exposed to the fluidizing media
High solid surface area greatly facilitates solid-to-gas heat transfer
Because of the solids mixing generated within the bulk of a bubbling gas
fluidized bed, temperature gradients are reduced to negligible proportions
High rates of heat transfer are obtainable between the fluidizing solids and
the immersed transfer surface
Particle-to-gas heat transfer
Bed-to-surface heat transfer
Use of immersed surfaces
21
1/11/2011
Heat Transfer in Fixed Beds

Heat transfer in fixed bed consists of following mechanisms
(1) conduction heat transfer between particles,
(2) convective heat transfer between particles and fluid,
(3) interaction of both (1) and (2),
(4) Radiative heat transfer between particles and the flowing gas
(5) Heat transfer between bed wall and bed particles
(1) Particle to fluid heat transfer

Heat transfer to single particle can be expressed as
Heat transfer coefficient can be evaluated as
(2) Heat transfer through wall (one dimensional model)

For homogeneous model, temperature of fluid and of bed are assumed identical
for
and
Heat Transfer in Fixed Beds

(3) Heat transfer through wall (two dimensional model)
For homogeneous model,
temperature of fluid and of bed are assumed identical
for
and
(4) Effective radial thermal conductivity
for
and
22
1/11/2011
Heat Transfer in Fluid beds

Heat transfer in a bubbling fluidized bed
Gas to particle heat transfer coefficients are typically small, of the order of 5 - 20 W/m2K
However, because of the very large heat transfer surface area provided by a mass of small
particles, the heat transfer between gas and particles is rarely limiting in fluid bed heat
transfer
One of the most commonly used correlations for gas-particle heat transfer coefficient is that
of Kunii and Levenspiel (only for low particle Reynolds numbers)
for
Gas to particle heat transfer is relevant where a hot fluidized bed is fluidized by cold gas
While following are the correlation suggested based on experimental data*
for
for
*Chen,
J.C., Heat Transfer in handbook of fluidization and fluid systems, 2003
Analysis of Gas-particle heat transfer
The energy balance across the element gives
Integrating with boundary conditions Tg = Tg0 at L = 0
23
1/11/2011
The distance Ln, in which the gas-to-particle temperature falls by a factor
Is given by,
The distance over which the temperature distance is reduced to half its initial value,
L0.5 is then

A bed of 450m particles is operating at 150C. The temperature and superficial velocity
of the incoming gas are 550C and 0.4 m/s, respectively. Approximately how far will
the incoming gas have penetrated into the bed before it is cooled to 350C
Gas physical properties can be estimated at average temperature over the specified
range. In this particular case the average temperature is 450C. Hence the physical
properties of air
Gas velocity at 450C for an inlet velocity of 0.4m/s at 550C will be 0.35m/s
24
1/11/2011

Bed to surface heat transfer
In a bubbling fluidized bed the coefficient of heat transfer between bed and immersed
surfaces (vertical bed walls or tubes) can be considered to be made up of three additive
components
The particle convective component hcp, which is dependent upon heat transfer
through particle exchange between the bulk of the bed and the region adjacent to
the transfer surface (heat transfer due to the motion of packets of solids carrying heat
to and from the surface)
The interphase gas convective component hgc, by which heat transfer between
particle and surface is augmented by interphase gas convective heat transfer
The radiant component of heat transfer hr
Thus,
Approximate range
of significance
40m
1mm
> 800 m and at

higher static
pressure
Higher temperatures
(> 900 K) and
difference

Particle convective heat transfer
On a volumetric basis the solids in the fluidized bed have about one thousand times the
heat capacity of the gas and so, since the solids are continuously circulating within the
bed, they transport the heat around the bed. For heat transfer between the bed and a
surface the limiting factor is the gas conductivity, since all the heat must be transferred
through a gas film between the particles and the surface
Heat transfer from bed particles to an immersed surface
25
1/11/2011

The particle-to-surface contact area is too small to allow significant heat transfer.
Factors affecting the gas film thickness or the gas conductivity will therefore influence
the heat transfer under particle convective conditions.
Decreasing particle size, for example, decreases the mean gas film thickness and so
improves hpc. However, reducing particle size into the Group C range will reduce
particle mobility and so reduce particle convective heat transfer. Increasing gas
temperature increases gas conductivity and so improves hpc.
Particle convective heat transfer is dominant in Group A and B powders. Increasing
gas velocity beyond minimum fluidization improves particle circulation and so
increases particle convective heat transfer.
The heat transfer coefficient increases with fluidizing velocity up to a broad maximum
hmax and then declines as the heat transfer surface becomes blanketed by bubbles.

Range of fluidized bed-to-surface heat transfer coefficients
26
1/11/2011

Effect of fluidizing gas velocity on bed surface heat transfer coefficient

The maximum in hpc occurs relatively closer to Umf for Group B and D powders
since these powders give rise to bubbles at Umf and the size of these bubbles
increase with increasing gas velocity
Group A powders exhibit a non-bubbling fluidization between Umf and Umb and
achieve a maximum stable bubble size.
Zabrodsky (1966) has given correlation for hmax for group B particles
Khan (1978) has given correlation for hmax for group A particles
27
1/11/2011

Gas convective heat transfer
Gas convective heat transfer is not important in Group A and B powders where the flow of
interstitial gas is laminar but becomes significant in Group D powders, which fluidize at
higher velocities and give rise to transitional or turbulent flow of interstitial gas
In gas convective heat transfer the gas specific heat capacity is important as the gas
transports the heat around.
Gas specific heat capacity increases with increasing pressure and in conditions where gas
convective heat transfer is dominant, increasing operating pressure gives rise to an improved
heat transfer coefficient hgc.
Baskakov and Suprun (1972) has given correlation for hgc
where Um is the superficial velocity corresponding to the maximum overall bed heat transfer
coefficient

Gas convective heat transfer to immersed surfaces
Several approaches have been used to estimate hc
The most common approach assigns thermal resistance to a gaseous boundary layer at the
heat transfer surface, the enhancement of heat transfer is then attributed to the scouring
action of the solid particles on the gas film, decreasing the effective film thickness
Lavas correlation (1952) for vertical surfaces, for larger particles, is
Wender and Coopers correlation (1958) for vertical tubes,
for
Where
Where r is the radial position of the heat transfer tube and Rb is the radius of the bed
28
1/11/2011

Gas convective heat transfer to immersed surfaces
Vreedenbergs correlation (1958) for horizontal tubes,
Changed
Equation
for
and
for
Where

Radiative heat transfer
For temperatures beyond 600oC radiative heat transfer plays an increasing role
and must be accounted for in calculations
For rule of thumb estimate, the radiative heat transfer component can be
estimated using absolute temperatures and an adaptation of the stefen Boltzman equation in the form
where r is the reduced emissivity to take into account the different emissivity properties of
surface s and bed b and is given by
An alternative correlation given by Panov et al. (1978) for approximate estimate is
29
1/11/2011
Application of Fluidized Beds

Industrial Processes
Physical
Dominating
Mechanism
Applications
Chemical
Heat and/or
mass transfer
between
gas/particles
Heat and/or mass

transfer between
particle/particle
or particle/surface
Heat transfer
between
bed/surface
Gas/gas reactions
in which solid acts
as catalyst or a
heat sink
Gas/solid reactions
in which solids are
transformed
Solids Drying
Absorption of
solvents
Cooling of
fertilizer prills
Food Freezing
Plastic coating of
surfaces
Coating of
pharmaceutical tablets
Granulation
Mixing of solids
Dust Filtration
Heat treatment of
textile fibres,
wires, rubber,
glass, metal
components
Constant
temperature baths
Oil cracking,
reforming
manufacturing of
Acrylonitrile
Phthalic Anhydride
Polyethylene
Chlorinated
hydrocarbons
Coal combustion
Coal gasification
Roasting of nickel and
zinc sulphides
Incineration of liquid
and solid waste
Catalyst Regeneration
Decomposition of
limestone
More about applications in Mass Transport PPT
30
Mass Transfer in Fluidized

Beds - An Overview
1/13/2011
SpecialtopicsinME6203MASSTRANSPORT
MassTransferinFluidizedBedsAnOverview
ProfessorA.S.Mujumdar
MEDepartment,NUS
Emailmpeasm@nus.edu.sg
GuestLecturer
SachinV.Jangam
Minerals,MetalsandMaterialTechnologyCentre
NUS,Singapore(2011)
Contents
IntroductionApplications Why M T is important, reactions etc
Approaches in mass transfer in Fluidized beds
Homogeneous bed Approachlimitations
Mass transfer to single particles, fixed beds and fluidized
beds Empirical correlations
Bubbling bed approach
Kunii Levenspiel Model
An example calculation
Modeling a fluid bed dryer
Key references (given at the end)
1/13/2011
Introduction
Main applications of fluidized beds Fluidized catalytic cracking; Combustion and
Gasification;Drying;Granulation;
The performance of fluidized beds in all the above processes is affected by the
interfacemasstransfer
Manytimesthemasstransferinfluidizedbedsisapotentialratecontrollingstepin
fluidizedbedreactors
Dependingonthetypegassolidinteractions,theratecontrollingmechanismcanbe
1. Particlegasmasstransfer(Gasfilmdiffusion)control
2. Porediffusioncontrol
3. Surfacephenomenoncontrol
VariousIndustrialApplications
Fluidizedbedreactor
Fluidbeddryer
Fluidbedcatalyticcracker
1/13/2011
Masstransferinfluidizedbeds
There are two approaches that can be used for prediction of mass
transferratesinfluidizedbeds
Homogeneousbedapproachconsidersfluidizedbedbehaving
asafixedbedreactorandcorrelatethemasstransfercoefficient
influidizedbedinsimilarmannertothatinafixedbedbasedon
plugflowmodel
Bubbling bed approach Considers fluidized bed to consist of

twophases,abubbleandanemulsionphase,thegasinterchange
betweenthetwophasesconstitutestherateofmasstransfer
UsefulDimensionlessNumbers
SherwoodNumberratioofconvectivetodiffusivemasstransport
Convective mass transfer coefficient

k L
Sh
Sh
Diffusive mass transfer coefficient
SchmidtNumberratioofmomentumtomassdiffusivity
Momentum diffusivity
Sc
Sc
Mass Diffusivity
ReynoldsNumberComparisonofInertialforcetoviscousforce
ReynoldsNumberComparisonofgravitationalandviscousforce
1/13/2011
HomogeneousBedApproach
Transferbetweensinglesphereandsurroundinggas
Rate of mass transfer between welldispersed sphere and surrounding air can be
writtenas
Concentrationof
Ainthebulkgas
stream
Transferrateof
Afromparticle
togas
Masstransfer
coefficientof
singleparticle
Concentrationof
Aatparticlegas
interphase
The single particle mass transfer coefficient can be obtained from well established
correlation(Froessling,1938)
Eq(2)
whereparticleReynoldsnumberandSchmidtnumbercanbedefinedas
Themasstransfercoefficientisproportionaltodiffusioncoefficientofgasandinversly
proportionaltodiameterofparticle
Transferbetweensinglesphereandsurroundinggas
Fornonsphericalparticlethesievediameter(dp)willreplacethediameterof
theparticleandtheequationbecomes
whereparticleReynoldsnumberis
1/13/2011
Transferbetweenfixedbedparticlesandflowinggas
Rateofmasstransferbetweenfixedbedofparticlesandsurroundinggascanbewritten
inthesamefashionastheoneforsingleparticle
Combinedmass
transferrate
fromallthe
particles
Averagemass
transfer
coefficientof
particles
Totalexterior
surfaceofall
individual
particles
Concentrationof
Aatparticlegas
interphase
Concentrationof
Ainthebulkgas
stream
Transferbetweenfixedbedparticlesandflowinggas
Thecorrelationfortheaveragemasstransfercoefficientkg,bedwasgivenbyRanz(1952)
Volumeofbes
TotalparticleexteriorsurfacesSex,particles
Bedvoidage
segment
MethodofKunniLevenspiel
Particlesurfaceto
particlevolumeratio
Hencetheequationfortotalexteriorparticle
surfacesbecomes
Sphericityofbed
particles
1/13/2011
Transferbetweenfluidizedbedparticlesandfluidizinggas
Therateofparticletogasmasstransferinthedifferentialsegmentoffluidizedbedcan
bewrittenas
Averagemass
transfercoefficient
associatedwith
fluidizingparticles
Totalexterior
surfacesofthe
fluidizedparticlesin
thesegmentofbed
Kg,bedforfluidizedbedsisalwayshigherthanthatforfixedbeds
Averagemasstransfercoefficientforfluidizingparticles
Themasstransfercoefficientforfluidizedbedparticlescanbelowerorhigherthanthat
ofsingleparticles
GenerallyforlowReynoldsnumbersthemasstransfercoefficientforsingleparticlesis
higher than for fluidizing particles however, reverse is true for higher particle
Reynoldsnumbers(>80)
Resnick and White (1949) reported the average mass transfer coefficient for the
fluidizingparticles(forairsystemwithSc=2.35)
1/13/2011
Averagemasstransfercoefficientforfluidizingparticles
Particlegasmasstransfercoefficientforfluidizedbedparticles
UsingShequationfor
singleparticleEq(2)
particlegasmasstransfercoefficientfor
fluidizedbedparticles
UsingShequationfor
singleparticleEq(2)
Comparisonofmasstransfercoefficientfor
fluidizedbedandfixedbed
Itshouldbenotedthatthesamecorrelationscanbeusedforfluidizedbedsandfixedbeds
ShforsamegroupofparticlescontinuestoincreasewiththeparticleReynoldsnumbereven
duringthetransitionfromfixedbedtofluidizedbedoperations
1/13/2011
LimitationsofHomogeneousbedapproach
Theexperimentallymeasuredcoefficientvaluesforthebedparticlesunderfixedbedor
fluidized bed conditions can be lower or higher than the theoretically estimated
values
For fine particles the mass transfer coefficients were found to be well below the
estimatedvaluesfromcorrelations
Themeasuredmasstransfercoefficientbythisapproachshouldbetreatedasempirical
innature
UsingShequation
forsingleparticle
Eq(2)
Summary of particlegas mass

transfercoefficient
BubblingBedApproach
Takes in to account existence of a two phases: bubble phase and
emulsionphase
Bubblephaseconsideredassphericalbubblessurroundedbysphericalclouds
Bubble
Cloud
Therearethreedifferentmodelsavailablebasedonthisapproach
KunniandLevenspiel(bubbleemulsiontransfer)
PartridgeandRowe(cloudemulsiontransfer)
ChavarieandGrace(Empiricalcorrelationforbubbleemulsiontransfer)
1/13/2011
ModelofKunniandLevenspiel
ModelforvaporizationorsublimationofAfromallparticlesinbed
Assumptions:

Freshgasentersthebedonlyasbubbles

Equilibrium is established rapidly between CA at gasparticle interphase and
itssurroundings

These assumptions lead to the following equation in terms of bubbleemulsion mass

transfercoefficient(KGB)asfollows
Inthisapproachbothcloudandtheemulsionphasesareassumedperfectlymixed
RelationbetweenKGBandKg,bed
The equation reported in last slide for mass transfer by Kunni and Levenspiel can be
derivedusingthemasstransferrateequationforhomogeneousbedapproach
Withtheassumptionthatfreshgasentersthe
bed only as bubbles the above equation
becomes
Where CA,b is the concentration of A in

bubblephase
1/13/2011
RelationbetweenKGBandKg,bed
Thesolutionsofthepreviousequationsfinalyresultsinthefollowingrelationbetween
KGBandkg,bed
ThedefinitionofSherwoodsNumberbecomes
KGBforNonporousandNonadsorbingParticles
The particles dispersed in bubble phase will not contribute to any additional mass
transferandhence;hencetransferacrossthebubblecloudboundarythereforeisthe
onlysourceofmasstransfer
Hence
WhereKbcisthebubblecloudinterchangecoefficientderivedbyDavidsonandHarrison
as
KGBforhighlyadsorbingparticles
Forsingleparticle
SotheKGBequationbecomes
10
1/13/2011
KGBforhighlyadsorbingparticles
Forhighlyadsorbingparticles,bothparticlesdispersedinbubbleandthebubblecloud
gasinterchangecancontributetotheparticlegasmasstransferandtheexpression
forKGBbecomes
Forsingleparticle
SotheKGBequationbecomes
HencetheSherwoodnumberforbedbecomes
KGBforPorousorPartiallyAdsorbingParticles
Forporousorpartiallyadsorbingparticles,KunniandLevenspielderivedthefollowing
equation
Where,
And
mistheadsorptionequilibriumconstantdefinedas
CAsistheconcentrationoftracerAwithintheparticleinequilibriumwiththe
concentrationCiAoftracergasatthegasparticleinterphase.
11
1/13/2011
ModelofPartidgeandRowe
Thecloudsurroundingthebubbleisconsideredastheprimarymasstransferboundary
andthebubbleandtheclodphasesareconsideredasperfectlymixedsinglephase
asshowninthefollowingfigure
Themasstransferequationis
Volumeofgas
inthebubble
cloudphase
Cloud
emulsionmassCloudexterior
surface
transfer
coefficient
ModelofPartidgeandRowe
Partidge and Rowe have given a correlation for mass transfer coefficient in terms of
Sherwoodnumberasfollows
whereScistheSchmidtnumberasdefinedearlierwhileRecisdefinedas
Diameterof
Relativevelocity
spherewith
betweenrising
thesame
cloudand
emulsion
volumeasthe
cloud
12
1/13/2011
ModelofChavarieandGrace
Measurement of mass transfer rates for bubble containing ozone injected into an air
fluidizedtwodimensionalbedandproposedfollowingempiricalequation,
Tableshowsthemodelsforkgcgivenbyvariousresearchers
ModelofChavarieandGrace
Tableshowingsomemoremodelsforkgcgivenbyvariousresearchers
13
1/13/2011
Relationbetweenmassandheattransfercoefficient
Thecorrelationsforparticletogasmassandheattransfercoefficientarecloselyrelated
when the Sherwood number (Sh) is equivalent to Nusselt number (Nu) and the
Schmidtnumber(Sc)isequivalenttoPrandtlnumber(Pr)
Forexample,thecorrelationforNusseltnumberforparticlesinafixedbedisexpressed
as
ThecorrespondingcorrelationequationfortheSherwoodnumberhastheform
HencethecorrelationsobtainedforNu(heattransfer)canbeconvertedtoSherwood
numbertoobtainmasstransfercoefficient,providedShNuandScPr
SomeConcludingRemarksonMassTransferinFB
Fluidizedbedsareveryimportantforsolidfluidcontactforvariousimportant
industrialapplications
Heataswellasmasstransferisimportantfordesignconsiderations
Whenkineticprocessessuchasmasstransferarecarriedoutwithfluidized
bedstheparticlesdispersedinbubblephaseshouldbetakenintoaccount
Masstransfercoefficientmeasuredforthebedasawhole(kgbed)ismodel
dependent
Forlargeparticles(cloudlessbubblebed)theplugflowmodelcloselymatches
thebedconditionsinthebedandthemasstransfercoefficientforbedshould
beequaltosingleparticlemasstransfercoefficient
Forfineparticleskgbed<<kgsingle
14
1/13/2011
ApplicationofFluidizedBeds
IndustrialProcesses
Physical
Dominating
Mechanism
Heatand/or
masstransfer
between
gas/particles
Applications SolidsDrying
Absorptionof
solvents
Coolingof
fertilizerprills
FoodFreezing
Chemical
Heatand/ormass
transferbetween
particle/particle
orparticle/surface
Heattransfer
between
bed/surface
Gas/gasreactions
inwhichsolidacts
ascatalystora
heatsink
Gas/solidreactions
inwhichsolidsare
transformed
Plasticcoatingof
surfaces
Coatingof
pharmaceuticaltablets
Granulation
Mixingofsolids
DustFiltration
Heattreatmentof
textilefibres,
wires,rubber,
glass,metal
components
Constant
temperaturebaths
Oilcracking,
reforming
manufacturingof
Acrylonitrile
PhthalicAnhydride
Polyethylene
Chlorinated
hydrocarbons
Coalcombustion
Coalgasification
Roastingofnickeland
zincsulphides
Incinerationofliquid
andsolidwaste
CatalystRegeneration
Decompositionof
limestone
15
1/13/2011
Applications
Fluidizedbeddrying
Fluidizing with hot air is an attractive means for drying many moist powders and
granularproducts
The technique has been used industrially for drying crushed minerals, sand,
polymers, fertilizers, pharmaceuticals, crystalline materials and many other
products.
Themainreasonforitspopularityis
Efficient gassolids contacting leads to compact units and relatively low capital cost
combinedwithhighthermalefficiency
Veryhighheatandmasstransferandhencereduceddryingtimes
The absense of moving parts, low maintenance cost and possibility of using
continuousmode
The main limitation is the material to be dried should be fluidizable and should
havenarrowparticlesizedistribution
FluidBedDryer
16
1/13/2011
FluidizedBedDrying
Differentdesignsoffluidbeddryers
FluidizedBedDrying
Wellmixedfluidbeddryer
commonFBDusedinindustry.
bed temperature uniform, equal to the
productandexhaustgastemperatures.
particle residence time distribution is
wide
widerangeofproductmoisturecontent.
feed is continuously charged into FB of
relatively dry particles, this enhances
fluidizationquality.
a series of wellmixed continuous dryers
may be used with variable operating
parameters.
17
1/13/2011
FluidizedBedDrying
Plugflowfluidbeddryer
vertical baffles are inserted to

createanarrowparticleflowpath.
narrow particle residence time
distribution.
nearlyequalresidencetimeforall
particlesregardlessoftheirsize
uniformproductmoisturecontent.
lengthtowidth ratio from 5:1 to
30:1.
inlet region may be agitated or
apply backmixing, or use a flash
dryer to remove the surface
moisture.
ModelingFluidBedDryer
Diffusionmodel
Thismodelassumesthatthedryingofsingleparticleinthefluidizedbediscontrolled
bythediffusionofmoistureinsidetheparticle
Empiricalmodel
Inthisapproachthedryingprocessisdividedintodifferentperiodswheredrying
mechanismsineachdryingperiodaredifferent;
ThesolutionofFickslawofdiffusionexpressesthemoisturecontentintermsof
dryingtimebyexponentialfunction;
Experimental data obtained from fluid bed drying experiments can be correlated
usingexponentialfunction
Kineticmodel

SinglephasemodelExplainedlater
TwophasemodelExplainedlater
18
1/13/2011
Singlephasemodel
Thefluidizedbedisregardedessentiallyasacontinuum
Heatandmassbalancesareappliedoverthefluidizedbed
Assumptionparticlesinthebedareperfectlymixed
Massbalance
Energybalance
Twophasemodel
Twophasemodeloffluidizedbeddryingtreatsthefluidizedbedtobecomposedofa
bubblephase(dilutephase)andanemulsionphase(densephase)
gasinexcessofminimumfluidizationvelocity,umf,flowsthroughthebedasbubbles
whereastheemulsionphasestaysstagnantattheminimumfluidizationconditions
Massbalance
19
1/13/2011
Twophasemodel
Massbalanceofliquidinthebubblephase
Massbalanceofliquidintheinterstitialgasinthedensephasegivesthefollowingng
equation
Massbalanceofliquidinthedensephaseparticles
Thecoupledmassandenergybalanceindensephasethatconsistsofparticlesand
interstitialgasphases
Fluidizedbedcombustionboilers
Fluidizedbedcombustionsystemsuseaheatedbedofsandlikematerialsuspended(fluidized)
withinarisingcolumnofairtoburnmanytypesandclassesoffuel.
Thistechniqueresultsinavastimprovementincombustionefficiencyofhighmoisturecontent
fuels,andisadaptabletoavarietyof"wastetypefuels.
Thescrubbingactionofthebedmaterialonthefuelparticleenhancesthecombustionprocess
bystrippingawaythecarbondioxideandcharlayersthatnormallyformaroundthefuel
particle.
Thisallowsoxygentoreachthecombustiblematerialmuchmorereadilyandincreasestherate
andefficiencyofthecombustionprocess
Particles(e.g.sand)aresuspendedinhighvelocityairstream:bubblingfluidizedbed
Combustionat840950C
Capacityrange0,5T/hrto100T/hr
Fuels:coal,washeryrejects,ricehusk,bagasseandagriculturalwastes
Benefits:compactness,fuelflexibility,highercombustionefficiency,reducedSOx&NOx
20
1/13/2011
AtmosphericFluidizedBedCombustion(AFBC)Boiler
MostcommonFBCboilerthatusespreheatedatmosphericairasfluidizationand
combustionair
PressurizedFluidizedBedCombustion(PFBC)Boiler
Compressorsuppliestheforceddraftandcombustorisapressurevessel
Usedforcogenerationorcombinedcyclepowergeneration
21
1/13/2011
CirculatingFluidizedBedCombustionunits
A Circulating Fluidized Bed Boiler commonly

abbreviated as CFB is a device for generating
steam by burning fossil fuels (coal) in a furnace
operated under a special hydrodynamics
conditions.
Bed material is heated upto the ignition

temperature of the coal with the help of natural
gasburner.Coalandlimestoneareinjectedatthe
bottomofthecombustor.
Total air required for combustion is split in to

primaryairandsecondaryair.
Circulatingsolidsaretransportedinthecombustor
at a velocity exceeding the terminal velocity of
averageparticles.
Recirculation of solids creating uniformity in the

temperature makes the combustor as an efficient
combustionsystem
Visitusat
http://serve.me.nus.edu.sg/arun/
http://www.mujumdar.net78.net/
22
1/13/2011
KeyReferences
Yang,W.C.;HandbookofFluidizationandFluidParticleSystems,MarcelDekker,USA,
2003
Kunni,D.;Levenspiel,O.FluidizationEngineering,1969
Mujumdar,A.S.HandbookofIndustrialDrying,3rdEd;CRCPress:BocaRaton,FL,
2006
Somequestionsforselfstudy
Fordryingofcertainproduct,theambientairof80%relativehumidityisheated
to70Cbeforeenteringthefluidbeddryerofuniformparticlesize.
Discussqualitatively,whatwillbetheeffectiftheairiscooleddownto5C
andreheatedbacktosametemperatureof70Cbeforeenteringthedryer.
Duringwhichdryingrateperiodwillthisbemoreuseful
Discusswhatwillbetheeffectonperformanceifthebedparticleshavewide
sizedistribution,Suggestimprovementstotacklethissituation.
Whatwillbetheeffectondryingifheatedinertsphericalparticlesofsame
sizeareaddedinabedofparticlestobedried?
Howcanoneenhancethedryingofanonsphericalparticlesinafluidized
bed?
Forcombustionofasingleparticle
Discusswhatwouldbethecombustionbehaviorofasinglecoalparticleof
samemasswithdifferentshapessuchasSphere,Cylinder(D=L),cube
Discussqualitativelythedifferenceincombustionofacoalparticleonewith
20%porosityandanotherwith60%porosity
23

Selected Topics in Heat and Mass Transfer

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Selected Topics in Heat and Mass Transfer

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Selected Topics in heat and Mass

Jundika Candra Kurnia

Presentation Title / Author names

Heat Transfer in Square duct

ME 6204: Convective Heat Transfer

Heat Transfer in Square Duct

Prof. Arun S. Mujumdar

Constitutive equation (air)

For water, properties are set

Pabs = Absolute pressure

Tmean = mixed mean temperature

Schematic representation of flow in a) square duct and b) development

Case 1: Constant heat flux at

Case 3: Constant heat flux at

Inlet: air velocity = 1.6 m/s; T

Case 2: Constant wall

Inlet: water velocity = 0.1 m/s;

Case 4: Constant wall

Velocity in the middle channel

Air (Cases 1 and 2)

Water (Cases 3 and 4)

Temperature in the middle of the channel

Temperature in the wall of the channel

Heat flux at the wall

Air (Cases 1 and 2)

Water (Cases 3 and 4)

Nusselt number asymptotic

Wall and Mean temperature

TURBULENT FLOW WITH

Case 1: Constant heat flux at

Case 3: Constant heat flux at

Inlet: air velocity = 30 m/s; T

Case 2: Constant wall

Inlet: water velocity = 2 m/s; T

Case 4: Constant wall

Velocity in the middle channel

Air (Cases 1 and 2)

Water (Cases 3 and 4)

Temperature in the middle of the channel

Temperature in the wall of the channel

Heat flux at the wall

Air (Cases 1 and 2)

Water (Cases 3 and 4)

Nusselt number asymptotic

Wall and Mean temperature

Case 1: Constant heat flux at

Case 3: Constant heat flux at

Inlet: air velocity = 80 m/s; T

Case 2: Constant wall

Inlet: water velocity = 6 m/s; T

Case 4: Constant wall

Velocity in the middle channel

Air (Cases 1 and 2)

Water (Cases 3 and 4)

Temperature in the middle of the channel

Temperature in the wall of the channel

Heat flux at the wall

Air (Cases 1 and 2)

Water (Cases 3 and 4)

Nusselt number asymptotic

Wall and Mean temperature

Summary of heat transfer calculation

Air (Turbulent Re 20000)