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History of Pre-stressing
The art of pre-stressing concrete evolved over many decades and from many
sources, but we can point to a few select instances in history that brought about this
technology.
In the United States, engineer John Roebling established a factory in 1841 for making
rope out of iron wire, which he initially sold to replace the hempen rope used for hoisting cars
over the portage railway in central Pennsylvania. Later, Roebling used wire ropes as
suspension cables for bridges, and he developed the technique for spinning the cables in
place.
During the 19th century, low-cost production of iron and steel, when added to the
invention of portland cement in 1824, led to the development of reinforced concrete. In
1867, Joseph Monier, a French gardener, patented a method of strengthening thin concrete
flowerpots by embedding iron wire mesh into the concrete. Monier later applied his ideas to
patents for buildings and bridges.
Swiss engineer Robert Maillarts use of reinforced concrete, beginning in 1901,
effected a revolution in structural art. Maillart, all of whose main bridges are located in
Switzerland , was the first designer to break completely with the masonry tradition by putting
concrete into forms technically appropriate to its properties yet visually surprising. His
radical use of reinforced concrete revolutionized masonry arch bridge design.
The idea of pre-stressing concrete was first applied by Eugene Freyssinet, a French
structural and civil engineer, in 1928 as a method for overcoming concretes natural
weakness in tension. Pre-stressed concrete can now be used to produce beams, floors or
bridges with a longer span than is practical with ordinary reinforced concrete.
PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE
Pre stressed concrete, like reinforced concrete, is a composite material which uses to
advantage the compressive strength of concrete, whilst circumventing its weakness in
tension. Pre stressed concrete is made from structural concrete, usually of high strength, and
high strength steel tendons which may or may not be grouped together. Prior to external
loading the tendons are tensioned in one of two ways. With pretensioning the tendon are
tensioned prior to the casting of the concrete and using post tensioning techniques
the tendons are tensioned after the concrete has hardened. Some ordinary reinforcing
steel is also often included both as subsidiary longitudinal reinforcement and
as transverse stirrups to resist shear.
to carry a given bending moment, and pre-stressed concrete may be used for longer span
than reinforced concrete.
The pre-stressing force also reduces the magnitude of the principal tensile stress in
the web so that thin-webbed I - sections may be used without the risk of diagonal tension
failures and with further savings in self-weight.
The pre-stressing force has to be produced by a high tensile steel, and it is necessary
to use high quality concrete to resist the higher compressive stresses that are developed. As
the name itself suggests pre-stressing is the technique of stressing a structural member prior
to loading to resist excessive tensile stresses.
THE
ADVANTAGES
OF
PRE-STRESSED
CONCRETE
AS
A CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL IN MULTI STORIED FRAME CAN BE LISTED
AS FOLLOWS:
The intermediate distance between the columns can be in increased by using prestressed concrete as compared to reinforced cement concrete.
PRINCIPLE OF PRESTRESSING
The function of pre-stressing is to place the concrete structure under compression in
those regions where load causes tensile stress. Tension caused by the load will first have to
cancel the compression induced by the pre-stressing before it can crack the concrete. Figure
(a) shows a plainly reinforced concrete simple-span beam and fixed cantilever beam cracked
under applied load. Figure (b) shows the same unloaded beams with pre-stressing forces
applied by stressing high strength tendons. By placing the pre-stressing low in the simple-
span beam and high in the cantilever beam, compression is induced in the tension zones;
creating upward camber.
Figure (c) shows the two pre-stressed beams after loads have been applied. The
loads cause both the simple-span beam and cantilever beam to deflect down, creating tensile
stresses in the bottom of the simple-span beam and top of the cantilever beam. The
structural Designer balances the effects of load and pre-stressing in such a way that tension
from the loading is compensated by compression induced by the pre-stressing. Tension is
eliminated under the combination of the two and tension cracks are prevented.
Also, construction materials(concrete and steel) are used more efficiently; optimizing
materials, construction effort and cost.
METHODS AND
STRESSING
SYSTEM
OF
PRE-
Pre-cast Pre-tensioned: Pre-tensioning is a method of pre-stressing in which the steel tendons are tensioned
before the casting of the member. In this method the tendons are tensioned using hydraulic
jacks, which bear on strong abutments between which the moulds are placed. After the
concrete attains full strength the tendons are released and the stress is transferred to the
concrete by bond action.
Stage
Tendons are stressed to about 70% of their ultimate strength.
Stage
Concrete is cast into the beam mould and allowed to cure to the required initial strength.
Stage
4
When the concrete has cured the stressing force is released and the tendons anchor
themselves in the concrete.
Pre-cast Post-tensioned: Post-tensioning is a method of pre-stressing in which the steel tendons are tensioned after the
casting of the member. In this method ducts or sheaths are placed in the required profile in the mould
and the tendons are passed through the ducts. After the concrete had attained sufficient strength the
tendons are tensioned using hydraulic jacks which bear on the member itself. The stress is transferred
to the concrete by bearing action of tendons which are anchored using suitable anchorages. Finally the
ducts are grouted and the anchor plates concealed by cement mortar.
Procedure of precast post-tensioned concreting
Stage 1
Cable ducts and reinforcement are positioned in the beam mould. The ducts are usually
raised towards the neutral axis at the ends to reduce the eccentricity of the stressing force.
Stage 2
Concrete is cast into the beam mould and allowed to cure to the required initial strength.
Stage 3
Tendons are threaded through the cable ducts and tensioned to about 70% of their ultimate
strength.
Stage 4
Wedges are inserted into the end anchorages and the tensioning force on the tendons is
released. Grout is then pumped into the ducts to protect the tendons.
One-stop shopping sources much of a building's shell in one efficient, precast contract.
Fabrication of precast elements during permitting and/or site preparation saves time
resulting in fast efficient construction regardless of weather conditions.
Designing precast systems is easier.
Precast components can be erected in winter conditions, maintaining tight schedules.
With total precast systems, speedy erection allows the contractor to enclose the
building quickly, giving interior trades faster access.
Precast components are naturally fire protected, because they will not burn. Precast's
inherent fire resistance eliminates the messy and time-consuming fireproofing required
for a steel structure and subsequent repairs caused by other trades.
LOSS OF PRESTRESS
When the tensioning force is released and the tendons are anchored to the concrete
a series of effects result in a loss of stress in the tendons. The effects are :
Total losses in pre-stress can amount to about 30% of the initial tensioning stress.
Freyssinet system is the most widely adopted system in the construction of prestressed concrete structures. Pre-stressed Concrete is an architectural and structural
material possessing great strength. The unique characteristics of pre-stressed concrete allow
predetermined, engineering stresses to be placed in members to counteract stresses that
occur when the unit is subjected to service loads. This is accomplished by combining the best
properties of two quality materials: high strength concrete for compression and high tensile
strength steel strands for tension.
Conserves Energy
Pre-stressed concrete components can improve the thermal storage potential of a
building. It effectively conserves energy required for heating and cooling.
Maintenance Free
Precast concrete does not require painting and is free from corrosion. Its durability
extends building life.
Resists Fire
Durability and fire resistance mean low insurance premiums and greater personnel
safety. Those who investigate life cycle costing will appreciate the precast concrete's
excellent fire resistance characteristics.
Rapid Construction
Precast concrete construction gets the job done sooner. The manufacturing of
prestressed members and site preparation can proceed simultaneously. Early occupancy
provides obvious benefits to the client.
Versatility of Design
Precast concrete buildings are not only functional but beautiful as well. Numerous
panel configuration design possibilities are available.
Sustainability
As with all concrete wall systems, precast offers high durability and strength as well
as thermal mass, which contributes to increased energy efficiency. Precast systems use
locally derived materials, and can incorporate recycled supplementary cementitious materials
like fly ash and slag cement, one of the key reasons why they are often used in sustainable
or green buildings.
Variety, Flexibility, Utility
One of the biggest benefits of precast systems is in their design: tight controls mean
more efficient mix designs, resulting in smaller structural members and longer spans.
Construction waste is reduced because the exact amount of necessary components is
delivered to the site; any spare components can be recycled, and their materials used again
in another structure. Precast systems can adopt almost any aesthetic, incorporating a variety
of colours and textures, or emulating natural stone. By crafting systems that not only look
great, but also act as structural walls and support floor loads, designers can reduce material
redundancyand project costs.
Quality in Manufacturing
Because components are precast at manufacturing facilities, quality control measures
ensure that every piece is made to specifications. The components can be cast and
transported to the job site while designs are still being finalized, helping to speed construction
schedules. Evolutions in self-consolidating concrete also promise to offer new options and
challenges for designers using precast.
APPLICATIONS
Prestressed concrete is the predominating material for floors in high-rise
buildings and concrete chambers in nuclear reactors, as well as in columns and shear walls
in the buildings intended for a high degree of earthquake and blast protection.
Unbonded post-tensioning tendons are commonly used in parking garages as barrier
cable. Also, due to its ability to be stressed and then de-stressed, it can be used to
temporarily repair a damaged building by holding up a damaged wall or floor until permanent
repairs can be made.
They must also be designed and constructed to safely support all expected
loads, including impact loads. Factors that will determine the selection of an appropriate
working platform include:
The type and number of items of stressing equipment that may be in use,
The number of people required, or likely to be, on the work platform at any
one time, and the likely material storage on the platform.
In the case of cast in-situ concrete constructions, working platforms may be
built integrally with the formwork.
The area where preparations and stressing are intended to take place must
be fully barricaded with solid panels and signage prominently posted to keep
unauthorised personnel clear of this area.
All personnel involved in the tasks should wear the personal protective
equipment. This will generally include safety goggles, gloves, sturdy protective footwear
and safety helmets.
When assembling tendons, thoroughly inspect each individual wire or strand for
obvious flaws.
Pushing Strands into Ducts
All strands for each of the tendons should be pushed into place in
accordance with the drawings, making sure all personnel are kept clear of the direct line
of ducting to prevent injury from strands exiting from the other end of the duct.
Once the specified number of strands is in place, ensure that a "dead end"
is created for each strand by securing them at the end of the element.
In strand set-ups where ends will protrude above the face of the concrete
element and may create a hazard, they should be boxed or barricaded to prevent injury.
Concrete Pour
Concreting may be placed with either pumps or kibbles.
Where kibbles are used to place concrete, avoid dropping concrete in one
place as tendons could be displaced. Concrete should always be allowed to flow in a
controlled manner.
During concrete pouring:
Ensure that the ducts and strands are not damaged during the pour. All
damage should be promptly notified to the contractor's supervisor for repair. However,
concrete around the anchorages needs adequate vibration to ensure a safe and sound
seating for the anchorage.
Concrete test cylinders should be taken at agreed intervals for storing and
curing on site under conditions similar to those applying to the element being poured.
Stressing operations
Before stressing operations.
Prior to commencing stressing operations, the post-tensioning supervisor should verify that:
The grips in the jacks on the stressing equipment are clean and free from
dirt or grit and in good condition.
The stressing equipment, i.e. jacks and their gauges, has appropriate
service records and up-to-date calibration certificates. All jacks should have a durable
tag securely attached which clearly shows the following information:
The operator of the stressing equipment has documented evidence of appropriate training.
A "NO GO" area of at least 2 metres radius is in place around the anchorages at the dead
and live ends, with barricades behind the line of jacks and "Stressing in Progress. Keep
Clear" signage prominently displayed at all appropriate locations
Tendons should be stressed in order from the furthest to the closest reachable to ensure that
no person is standing in direct line of the jack or previously stressed strands.
Ensure that the specified initial and final stressing levels are not exceeded.
Gain the design engineer's approval prior to cutting off excess tendons.
Seal anchorage recesses following approval and prior to grouting the ducts.
Do not perform tasks requiring impact, such as hammering, drilling or coring in the vicinity
until the grouting of the ducts has been completed.
Grouting
Build-up of excessive pressure during grouting can result in "blow-outs" of the concrete,
which could injure personnel in the vicinity.
To prevent blowouts
Monitor the gauge of the equipment throughout grouting to ensure that excessive pressure
does not develop.
Retain barricades used during stressing operations and also barricade at a lower level if
formwork has already been removed.