Laboratory for Reactor Physics and Systems Behaviour

Power Plants and Heat Pumps:

Nuclear Power Plants
Introduction,
Nuclear Physics Basics, Fission

R. Chawla

Nuclear Power Plants

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Laboratory for Reactor Physics and Systems Behaviour

Power Plants and Heat Pumps

Prof. Favrat 7 x 2 hrs (lectures), 14 x 1 hr (exercises)
Energy, economics and environment (general)
Thermal power plant cycles and equipment
Heat pumping technologies

Prof. Chawla 7 x 2 hrs (lectures, with exercises integrated therein)

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March 1, 8, 15, 29
April 12, 26
May 3

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Laboratory for Reactor Physics and Systems Behaviour

Nuclear Power Plants (NPPs)

Weeks 1 & 2: Introduction, nuclear physics basics, fission, nuclear reactors
Critical size, nuclear fuel cycles, NPPs (CROCUS visit?)

Week 3: Neutronics, reactor physics design

Week 4: Reactor heat transfer (thermalhydraulics), technological constraints
Week 5: Reactor (reactivity) control
Week 6: Principal types of nuclear power plants
Week 7: Environmental aspects, nuclear safety, advanced systems (NPP visit?)
Course Material:
Elements of Nuclear Engineering, J. Ligou, Chs. 1, 3, (4), 5, (6)
Effectively, English translation of Introduction au gnie nuclaire (PPUR, 1997)

Pdfs of book chapters, as also of ppt-slides (incl. solved exercises), available at:
https://documents.epfl.ch/groups/l/lr/lrs-unit/www/NPPs.2010/
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Laboratory for Reactor Physics and Systems Behaviour

Introduction
Nuclear (fission) energy
Commercially established since 1956
Calder Hall, gas-cooled Magnox NPP at Sellafield (UK), 50 MW (later 200 MW)

Today: ~16% of worlds electricity generation (18% hydro, 66% fossil)

Switzerland: ~40% (nearly all the rest: hydro)

General situation
Evergrowing, worldwide energy demand (population, standard of living,..)
Acknowledged hazards of continued dependence on fossil fuels (climate change,..)
New renewables important, but not sufficiently established for medium-term
Nuclear needs to contribute to growth
Fusion in long-term (when?)
Fission (increase possible, but further developments needed.. safety, wastes, etc.)

Various factors important

Economics, environmental aspects, socio-political considerations,..

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Laboratory for Reactor Physics and Systems Behaviour

Nuclear Physics Basics (Historical Overview)

Structure of the atom (Rutherfords model)
Mass concentrated in the nucleus (mH/me ~ 1837)
Nuclear charge: +Ze (Z: atomic number, e ~ 1.6.10-19 coulomb)
Quantum mechanical basis for atomic, nuclear structure
Classical dimensions: nucleus ~ 10-13 cm, atom ~ 10-8 cm

Energy units (1eV ~ 1.6.10-19 J)

Binding energy of outermost electrons ~ order of eV
Energy involved in chemical reactions ~ same order

Binding energy of nucleons (constituents of nucleus) ~ order of MeV !

Energy in nuclear reactions ~ x 106 times greater than in chemical..

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Laboratory for Reactor Physics and Systems Behaviour

Constituents of the Nucleus

Atomic mass A A gm contain NA atoms (Avogadros Number.. 6.023.1023)
1 a.m.u. (atomic mass unit) = 1/12 m (C12) = 1.66.10-24 gm
The nucleus has A nucleons
Z of these are protons (1H1 p) What is the rest, (A-Z) ?

Discovery of the neutron (Chadwick, 1932): 2He4 + 4Be9 6C12 + 0n1 , or Be9( ,n)C12

Neutral (uncharged) radiation

Interaction with hydrogenous materials results in emission of protons
Elastic scattering of the neutral particles mn ~ mp ~ 1 a.m.u. (n: 1.0087, p: 1.0073)

Nucleus: ZXA Z protons, (A-Z) neutrons

Isotopes: same Z, different A

e.g.

1
1H

(99.985%), 1H2 (0.015%)

..
234 (0.006%),
92U

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235
92U

(0.72%),

238
92U

(99.27%)
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Laboratory for Reactor Physics and Systems Behaviour

Chart of the Nuclides

Stability of nucleus depends on N/Z
For light stable atoms, N~Z
For Z>20, N>Z: strongly attractive force
between nucleons compensates repulsive
coulombian force between protons

Unstable nuclei, radioactive (natural, artificial)

ZXA Z-2YA-4 + 2He4 (-decay) .. heavy
ZXA Z+1YA + e- + o (--decay) .. n-rich
ZXA* ZXA +
(-decay) .. excited
------Also +, EC

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Laboratory for Reactor Physics and Systems Behaviour

Radioactivity Calculations-1
Spontaneous disintegration (decay) of a nucleus radioisotope, radionuclide
Often encountered in nuclear engineering
Nuclear fuel, activation of materials, fission products, wastes

Fundamental law:

( : decay constant)

Units of (radio)activity:
Historical.. 1 curie (Ci) = 3.7 x 1010 dis/s (activity of 1 gm of Ra226)
Actual.. 1 becquerel (Bq) = 1 dis/s
For example: 1 mCi = 10-3 Ci = 3.7 x 107 Bq = 37 MBq
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Laboratory for Reactor Physics and Systems Behaviour

Radioactivity Calculations-2
By integration of

Half-Life

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: time for N(t) or A(t) to become half initial value

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Laboratory for Reactor Physics and Systems Behaviour

Nuclear Reactions-1
Radioactivity, particular example of a nuclear reaction
Single reactant (cf. chemical dissociation)

In general, X1 + X2 X3 + X4

Number of nucleons remains constant

Electric charge remains the same

One sees this in the example of 2He4 + 4Be9 6C12 + 0n1

Reaction used for laboratory sources of neutrons, e.g. Ra-Be, Pu-Be,

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Laboratory for Reactor Physics and Systems Behaviour

Nuclear Reactions-2
Energy balance of reaction depends on binding energy of the nucleons
on mass defects (m) of the individual nuclei
Mass of nucleus (bound nucleons) < Sum of masses of isolated nucleons
Mass defect: m (X) = Z.mp + (A-Z).mn - mX
Binding energy: Eb = m.c2

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(Einstein)

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Laboratory for Reactor Physics and Systems Behaviour

Atomic Mass, Mass Defect, Binding Energy

Eb/A, measure of force between nucleons
fission

Sharp increase at low A value, broad

maximum at ~ A=50
Reactions which result in a shift towards
the broad maximum
Eb , m increase (products more stable)
Energy released (reaction: exoenergetic)

Two possibilities:

fusion

Fusion of light nuclei, e.g.

2
2
3
1
1 H + 1H 1 H + 1H
Binding energy / nucleon

Fission of a heavy nucleus, e.g.

235
92U

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+ 0n1 2 F.P. + (2 to 3) 0n1

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Laboratory for Reactor Physics and Systems Behaviour

Reaction Energy-1
For fission (from the figure):

fission

Eb/A 7.5 MeV/nucleon for 92U235

8.4 MeV/nucleon for the FPs
Increase in Eb/A 0.9 MeV/nucleon
Release energy 0.9 x 235 210 MeV
In general, for a reaction X1 + X2 X3 + X4
Energy of reaction : Q = (Eb)3 + (Eb)4 - (Eb)1 - (Eb)2
= (m.c2)3 + (m.c2)4 - (m.c2)1 - (m.c2)2
= (m1 + m2 - m3 - m4).c2
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Laboratory for Reactor Physics and Systems Behaviour

Reaction Energy-2
Energy / mass equivalence : 1 amu 1.66.10-24 g x (3.1010 cm/s)2
= 1.492.10-3 erg = 931 MeV
Q = (m1 + m2 - m3 - m4).c2 = 931. (m1 + m2 - m3- m4) MeV
Example : 1H2 + 1H2 1H3 + 1H1

... (d,d) fusion reaction..

Q = 931. (2.0141 + 2.0141 3.0166 1.0073) MeV

4.0 MeV

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Laboratory for Reactor Physics and Systems Behaviour

Ex. 1
What is the mass of U235 fissioned per day in a nuclear reactor operating at a power of
1000 MWth?
(Take energy liberated per fission, Ef 210 MeV)

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Laboratory for Reactor Physics and Systems Behaviour

Ex. 1... Solution

Energy liberated per day = (1000.106 J/s) . (24 . 3600 s) = 8.64.1013 J
Energy per fission of a U235 nucleus = 210 MeV = 210.106 . 1.6.10-19 J = 3.36. 0-11 J
No. of nuclei fissioned per day = (8.64.1013) (3.36.10-11) = 2.57.1024
Mass of U235 fissioned per day = (2.57.1024) . (235 g NA)
= (6.04.1026) (6.023.1023) 1 kg

NB: The quantity of oil needed would be 2000 t !

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Laboratory for Reactor Physics and Systems Behaviour

Flux of Particles, Interaction Rate

Fission, fusion are exoenergetic
What is their probability of occurrence?

Monoenergetic particle beam & a target

Density of particles in beam = n (cm-3)
Intensity (flux, cm-2 s-1), I = n v
(v : velocity, cm s-1)

Total interaction rate with nuclei in target

R I N V = I N V

(V : volume of target, cm3)

: cross-section, probability of interaction

Depends on type, particle energy

Pro target nucleus, r = I ( : microscopic c-s)

Pro cm3 of target, R = NI = I

( : macroscopic cross-section)

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Laboratory for Reactor Physics and Systems Behaviour

Cross-sections: Dimensions, Units

: dimensions of an area (cm2)
r (per nucleus, s-1) = (cm2) . I (cm-2 s-1)
Effective area offered by the nucleus for the interaction-type involved
Unit : 1 barn (b) = 10-24 cm2

Values vary from hundreds of barns to a few millibarns (mb)

For (N), dimensions: cm-1

R (cm-3 s-1) = (cm-1) . I (cm-2 s-1)

: effectively the probability of interaction as particle traverses 1 cm of target

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Laboratory for Reactor Physics and Systems Behaviour

Types of Interactions
Scattering
The particle is deviated
The target nucleus:
Does not change (elastic scattering))
Is excited (inelastic scattering)

Absorption
The particle is absorbed by the nucleus, the products are new, e.g.
Radiative capture: ZXA + 0n1 ZXA+1 +
Fission, a special case:
235 + n1 2 F.P. + (2 to 3) n1
92U
0
0
Other types (less important):
(n,2n), (n,3n), (n,),
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Laboratory for Reactor Physics and Systems Behaviour

Cross-section Notations
Scattering: s
Absorption: a

a = f + c (fission, capture)

Total cross-section: t

t = s + a = s + f + c

Macroscopic cross-sections : t = Nt , a = Na , f = Nf , etc.

For a mixture of nuclei:

t =

[N ( ) ]
j

, etc.

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Laboratory for Reactor Physics and Systems Behaviour

Ex. 2
A beam of 1 MeV neutrons, with an intensity of 5108 ncm-2s1 strikes a
carbon target ( 100% C12, density 1.6 g/ cm3). The surface area of the target
is 0.5 cm2 and its thickness is 0.05 cm. The beam has a cross-sectional area of
0.1 cm2. For 1 MeV neutrons, the total cross-section of C12 is 2.6 b.
(a) Calculate t for the target
(a) What is the macroscopic interaction rate of the neutrons with the target?
(b) What is the number of interactions per second in the target?
(b) What is the probability that a neutron will suffer a collision while traversing the
target?

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Laboratory for Reactor Physics and Systems Behaviour

Ex. 2 Solution
(a) t = t N = (2.610-24 ) [1.6 (6.0231023) / 12]
= 2.610-24 [8.031022] = 0.209 cm-1
(b) Rt = t = 0.2095108 = 1.04108 cm-3s-1
(c) No. of interactions = RtVolume
=1.04108 [0.10.05] = 5.2105 s-1
(d) Probability of interaction = (5.2105 s-1) / (No. of neutrons incident per s)
= (5.2105) / [(5108)0.1] = 1.0410-2 (only 1%)

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Laboratory for Reactor Physics and Systems Behaviour

, Functions of Energie, e.g.

(U235) as neutron energy
No resistance from electrostatic field
of the nucleus

Neutrons slowed down in a reactor

(use of a moderator)
Lowest energy possible: ns in thermal
equilibrium with moderator atoms:
Eth 0.0235 eV at 20C
f 600 b!
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Laboratory for Reactor Physics and Systems Behaviour

Fission, Fusion Differences

For fusion reactions
e.g.

(d,t): 1H2 + 1H3 2He4 + 0n1

(d,d): 1H2 + 1H2 1H3 + 1H1

= 0 for E < Es (Es : threshold 10 keV)

The particles need to overcome the coulombian barrier (have energy > Eth)

Scattering, a big help in fission (slowing down), great disadvantage in fusion

Solution: have a thermal equilibrium with Eth > Es ( 10 keV 108 K !)
The ionised medium needs to be heated tremendously (plasma)

Thermonuclear fusion still a great technological challenge!

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Laboratory for Reactor Physics and Systems Behaviour

Fission: History - 1
Following the discovery of the neutron
Fermi studied the activation of the elements (neutron capture)
A
1
A+1 (--decay)
ZX + 0n ZX

A+1 +
Z+1Y

artificial radioactivity

each time, one observed a transmutation

occurred more easily if the neutron was first slowed down

With U (Z = 92), one expected to create transuranics (Z = 93, 94,)

Instead, one (initially) found nuclei of intermediate mass (e.g. Ba, Z = 56)
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Laboratory for Reactor Physics and Systems Behaviour

Fission: History - 2
Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann provided the explanation (1939)
The U235 nucleus can be split into 2 fragments (discovery of fission)
235 + n1
92U
0

2 FPs + . 0n1 + 207 MeV

The emission of , i.e. 2.5, neutrons

gave the possibility of a chain reaction
Neutron
excess related to shape of
the Z-vs.-N curve of the nuclide chart

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Laboratory for Reactor Physics and Systems Behaviour

Fission Products - 1
Asymmetric splitting, more probable

Considering FPs from 100 fissions

Yield y(A), with Sum [y(Ai)] = 200
y(A) vs. A: double-hump curve
Most probable, FPs with Ai 94, 140
e.g. 92U235 + 0n1 38Sr94 + 54Xe140+ 2 0n1

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Laboratory for Reactor Physics and Systems Behaviour

Fission Products - 2
The FPs are unstable (excess of ns)
--radioactivity (increases Z/N), e.g.
140 (16s)
140 (66s)
140 (12.8d)
140 (40h)
140 (stable)
54Xe
55Cs
56Ba
57La
58Ce

Radioactivity of FPs problematic

Radiation protection (irradiated fuel)
Residual heat after reactor shutdown

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Laboratory for Reactor Physics and Systems Behaviour

Fission Neutrons-1
neutrons created per fission (number varies between 0 and 5, per event)
Average value 2.4 to 2.9

Energy of the fission neutrons varies Spectrum (E)

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Laboratory for Reactor Physics and Systems Behaviour

Fission Neutrons-2
E for max 0.75 MeV

Eaverage:

Slowing down factor in a thermal reactor > 107!

( 2 MeV to 0.0253 eV)

Moderators needed (light nuclei: H2O, graphite,)

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Laboratory for Reactor Physics and Systems Behaviour

Chain Reaction
If each absorption were useful
Reaction strongly divergent
In practice, certain neutrons are lost
Captures, Leakage
For a self-sustaining reaction (static neutron flux)
Productions = Losses = Absorptions + Leakage
(criticality condition)

For a supercritical system, the neutron flux increases exponentially

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Laboratory for Reactor Physics and Systems Behaviour

Control of the Chain Reaction Delayed Neutrons

Small fraction of the neutrons, not prompt (~ 0.6% for U235)
Produced by disintegration of FPs, e.g.

created
with delay

Many different precursors

~ 6 groups (of precursors, i.e. of delayed neutrons), Ti : 0.2 56 s
Population of delayed neutrons, rather limited (~ 0.6%), bit indispensable for control
of the chain reaction
Response of a reactor which becomes slightly supercritical, much slower
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Laboratory for Reactor Physics and Systems Behaviour

Fission Energy
Most, absorbed in the fuel
~ 180 to 190 MeV (FPs, -s, part of s ), in
form of heat (recovered by coolant)

Following reactor shutdown

Component FP-radioactivity remains
~ 7% immediately after shutdown
Slow decrease
~ 1% after 1 day
(Very important factor for nuclear safety)

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Components

Energy
(MeV)

FPs

168

ns

FP-radioactivity (-, )

15

Neutrinos (non-interacting)

12

TOTAL

~ 207

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Laboratory for Reactor Physics and Systems Behaviour

Summary, Week 1
Nucleus: protons + neutrons (atomic number Z, atomic mass A)
Radioactivity, specific type of nuclear reaction (spontaneous disintegration)
Energy in a nuclear reaction: linked to binding energies (mass defects) of reactants
- Fission, fusion: movement towards the large maximum of the BE-curve

Different types of reactions: absorption (fission, capture,), scattering

Reaction rate = Flux x Cross-section (microscopic, macroscopic)
Fission discovered relatively soon after discovery of neutron
On average, (2 to 3) ns emitted per fission chain reaction rendered possible
Small fraction of neutrons delayed: crucial for reactor control
Most of fission energy deposited in fuel (as heat)

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