| p

 

Seismic Waves
 


 

2  

2

Any continuing constant cyclic phenomenon may be represented graphically

by a sine or cosine wave. Each circle can be described by the amplitude and
the wavelength.
77m

The amplitude is the peak value to which each cycle rises or falls in
reference to a base line.
The wavelength is the distance from peak to peak of one full cycle.
Wavelength measured in time is period of oscillation (frequency = no. of
cycles per second).
Phase is the point in the cycle at which the sequence started
   
  22

 

! "

 2   

Information Theory I
Vomplex signals are composed of the sum of a number of elementary
wave forms, each at some constant amplitude and frequency, starting at
some defined phase angle.
Two frequencies a base frequency and a harmonic twice the base can
be added together to produce a signal different in appearance from either of
the components.
Vhanging the amplitude of either of the components will immediately affect the
appearance of the output.
See handouts for sketches

Information Theory II
Addition of more frequencies will produce still more complex signals. The sum of
frequencies representing two, four and eight periodic cycles over some interval will
itself be periodic, repeating the output waveform twice over the interval.
For frequencies of 2, 4, 8 Hz, periodicity is 0.5 sec.
( 2 times in one sec and once is 0.5 sec.)

K
 

    

 








 
   
 









In addition to variation in the amplitude and frequency, the phase of each component may
vary.


p  
# 2 !  2  



p  
# p2$ ! 
2  2  


Information Theory III

Any composite signal may be changed substantially in appearance by a relatively
minor change in the phase of the components
The change in phase does not change the periodicity of the signal. The peak may
shift in time but the relative time difference (periodicity) will not.
Any continuous signal can be approximated by simply summing a set of individual
frequency components at some specified amplitude and phase relationship.
See sketch
 !  ! 
2

 2 
22  
 



 


 2

 2!
  ! 2 2   2 

 22

"%
 
!
 2 


 
2   
"
 !
 
  
 "

Information Theory IV
A time domain and frequency domain description of the same signal are known as
the transform pair. Observations:
w"
"
"
)"

  
  
 "

&   22  
 '2
 ("
   2 
   w

!
 "
*2

2  


 

 2 
 
 "'+
 

!2

2  
("
" % 

! 



  2  
   , 2  
 !"
The ability to separate a signal into its component parts is a powerful tool for analysis and
operation.
The Fourier transform is completely linear. An operation in one domain has an equivalent in
the other
One and only one value of amplitude and phase defines each frequency Vomponent in the
transform of the seismic trace.

Information Theory V
&  

Each frequency component may be considered as a vector of length equal to the
amplitude and directed to the corresponding phase angle.
The sum of two vectors will produce the amplitude and phase of the output
frequency component.
This applies to any number of components.
Advantages of Fourier Transform
w" - 

     !
 2    

"
" .
2

 2

  
2! 
2

! 2 


   "
"/  

 2
! 



! 



 ! "

Information Theory VI
Increasing the frequency components (adding higher frequencies to the Fourier
synthesis) gives a compressed signal in the time domain if the zero phase
character is unchanged.
If all the frequencies in the inverse Fourier transformation are included, then the
resulting wavelet becomes a spike.
Therefore, a spike is characterized as the in-phase synthesis of all frequencies from
zero to the Nyquist.
For all frequencies, the amplitude spectrum is of a spike in unity, while its phase
spectrum is zero.
Pictures.

Information Theory VII

V 0 
 
!
A sinusoidal wave can be designated by a single point having coordinates of
amplitude and frequency on the amplitude spectrum.
A single spike in the time domain contains all frequencies.
True random noise measured over a sufficiently long time period will also contain
equal amounts of all frequencies.
What is the difference between the two?

Sampling Theory I
Once a continuous function is sampled all information between the samples is lost.
Therefore the signal must be sampled often enough to make sure the set of
samples truly represent the signal. The sampling interval is the rate in time at which
the signal is sampled. Typical values vary between 1 4ms
A fundamental rule:
Two cycles per second must be taken if any given frequency is to be defined
properly. The sampling rate must be at least twice the frequency to be sampled.
This sets a mathematical limit of the highest frequency to be sampled.
Highest frequency which can be defined correctly is Nyquist frequency
Frequencies higher than Nyquist frequency corresponding to a given sample rate
will appear on the frequency spectrum having frequency equal to diff between
signal frequency and the sampling frequency. Signal frequencies outside the limit
fold back into the frequency sprectrum .

Sampling Theory II
Filters are designed to remove any frequency above the Nyquist frequency .
If sampling rate is t the Nyquist freq. is 1/(2 t)
If t = 2ms Nq = 250Hz
What of 4ms, 8ms
The coarser the sampling interval, the smoother the signal (resulting from the loss
of higher frequencies).
If the adequate sampling interval is not used the higher frequencies in the seismic
trace will be lost.
Frequencies above the Nyquist frequency fold back into the spectrum (aliasing)
Formula for aliased frequency.

Phase Vonsiderations ' Zero Phase

Zero phase
Summation gives a time domain signal
called a wavelet. A wavelet is a
transient signal i.e. a signal with a finite
duration. It has a start time and a finish
time and its energy is confined within
the two time positions.
The wavelet is symmetrical around time
t = 0 and has a positive peak
amplitude at t = 0. Such a wavelet is
called zero phase.
The wavelet was synthesised using the
zero-phase sinusoids of equal peak
amplitude.

Inverse Fourier Transform

Phase Vonsiderations ' Time Shift

A zero phase wavelet is symmetrical
with respect to zero time and peaks at
zero time. The wavelet has shifted by '
0.2secs. Its shape has not changed.
A linear phase shift is a constant time
shift applied to the wavelet.

Phase Vonsiderations ' Time Shift

Phase Vonsiderations ' Phase Shift

If 90 degree is applied to each of the
sinusoids and the zero crossing aligned
at t = 0, then and anti symmetrical
wavelet is derived.
They wavelets all have the same
amplitude spectrum. The difference in
wavelet shape is due to difference in
phase spectra.

Phase Vonsiderations ' Phase Shift

Phase Vonsiderations ' Phase + Time Shift

A time shift combined with a phase shift
results in a time shifted antisymmetrical
wavelet.

By keeping the amplitude spectrum

unchanged, the wavelet shape can be
changed by modifying the phase
spectrum.

Phase Vonsiderations ' Modifications to Phase

Bandwidth and Vertical Resolution

All frequencies are needed; not just high frequencies alone.

Seismic Processing Domains

p

V.

p,

.




Shot Domain
V

M






V.

,




 

Resorting from Shot Domain to VMP Domain

V

V
VVVV
p1

V.
V

)

V.


V.

,




 

Stack Domain
M


M


&!! 2.3







p,


VVVV

V.



V.

,




 

| p

 


 


M

NMO Basics - I
A shot record is the collection of seismic traces generated when one source shoots
into many receivers. Dots below the reflector show subsurface reflection points
(halfway between the source and a receiver midpoint). These are shown as black
dots above the acquisition surface As the offset increases, so does the travel time
from source to receiver. This characteristic delay of reflection times with increasing
offset is called normal moveout.

NMO Basics ' What is NMO?

A seismic processing step whereby reflection events are flattened in a common midpoint
gather in preparation for stacking. As the shots roll along, there will be many source-receiver
pairs with the same VMP location. The reason for gathering multifold data is that we get
redundant information which can be used to reduce noise and create a more reliable image.
Our goal is to eventually process all these traces as a family and add them together (VMP
stack) to make one trace that lives at this VMP location.
NMO is aimed at removing the
hyperbolic curvature in reflection
Events i.e.removing the effect of
offset. The reflection should
come in at the same time for all
offsets (since we have removed
any travel time delay due to
offset). In short, reflection events
should be flat after NMO

NMO Basics ' What is NMO?

NMO Basics - II
Reflections can be seen in real
data along with other kinds of
events. There are receivers on both
sides of the shot shown. The right
side has been marked-up to
identify different kinds of events
direct arrivals (p-wave, s-wave, air
wave, surface wave), head waves
and (a few) reflections. The left
side is uninterpreted. The reflection
events have a hyperbolic shape
characteristic of normal moveout.

NMO Basics - III

The time difference between traveltime at a give offset and at zero offset is called
normal move out (NMO)
The velocity required to correct for NMO is called NMO velocity.
NMO Vorrection
Using the correct NMO velocity in very important.
If a higher velocity is used, then the hyperbola is not completely flattened. This is
undercorrection. If a lower velocity is used, overcorrection results.
Usually NMO correction is applied to the input VMP gather using a number of trial
Vonstant velocity values (panels). The velocity that best flattens the reflection
hyperbola is the velocity that best corrects fro NMO before stacking the traces in
the gather

NMO Basics ' What is NMO?

t(x) = traveltime along raypath

x = offset
v = velocity of medium above
t(0) = travel time along vertical path

NMO Vorrection
Appropriate velocity
2264m/s

Overcorrection
Too low velocity
2000m/s

Undercorrection
Too high velocity
2500m/s

NMO in a horizontally stratified earth

The layers have interval velocities (v1, v2, ..vN) where N is the number of layers.

t2(x) = Vo + V1x2 +V2x4 + V x6 + ..

Vo = t2(0), V1 = 1/v2rms

and V2, V

Are complicated functions that depend on layer thicknesses and interval velocities.
The rms velocity down to the reflector on which depth point D is situated is
defined as
V


 V










  V
(

( V 


(



 

= vertical 2 way travel time through the th layer and

By making the small spread approximation (offset small compared to depth), the series in the equation
can be truncated as follows

t2(x) = t2(0) + x2/v2rms

The velocity required for NMO correction for horizontally stratified medium is equal to the rms velocity,

provided the small spread approximation is made

NMO in a horizontally stratified earth

NMO for several layers with arbitrary dips

t2(x) = t2(0) + x2/v2NMO + higher order terms

Final equation:
t2st(x) = t2st(0) + x2/v2st

NMO Stretching

As a result of NMO correction a frequency distortion occurs, particularly for shallow

events at large offsets. This is called NMO Stretching.
The waveform with dominant period T is stretched so that its period T after NMO
Vorrection is greater than T.
Stretching is a frequency distortion in which events are shifted to lower frequencies.

Stretching is quantified as

f/f =

tNMO/t(0)

The stretching is normally confined to large offset and shallow times.

Muting is applied to correct for the stretching.

NMO Stretching I

NMO Stretching II

Velocity Analysis
The sonic log is a direct measurement of velocity while the seismic method is an
indirect method.
Based on these two types of velocity information, you can derive a large number of
velocities:

Interval (velocity in an interval b/w twp reflectors)

Apparent
Average
Root mean square (rms)
Instantaneous
Phase
Group
NMO
Stacking
Migration

  
   
  

,"

 
 2


  
 


Velocity Analysis
Interval velocity is the average velocity in a interval between two reflectors.
Factors affecting interval velocity:

Pore shape
Pore pressure
Pore fluid saturation
Vonfining pressure
Temperature

Velocity increases with confining pressure i.e. with depth (the most important)
Possibility of velocity inversion due to pore pressure.

Velocity Analysis
4

Vp
Vp

  

Vs
D

  

Vs
2

Rounded pores

Pores as microcracks

0.6

0.2

1
0.8

V



 

2.4

1.6

V



 

Velocity increases rapidly with confining pressure at small confining pressures, then gradually levels off
P wave velocity is greater that S wave velocity regardless on confining pressure
The saturated rock sample (S) has a higher P-wave velocity that the dry (D) sample ' why?
At higher confining pressures the saturated and dry samples have the same P-wave velocity
P-wave velocity in the saturated sample does not change as rapidly as the dry sample
Fluids do not support S-waves

Velocity Analysis
t2-x2 method - from the equation:

t2st(x) = t2st(0) + x2/v2st

A practical way of determining the stacking velocity from the VMP gather can be
determined. the equation describes a line on the t2(x) versus x2 plane.
The slope is 1/v2st and intercept at x = 0 is t(0)
V  4 
Measure slope along a slanted path that is tangential to both the top and bottom
reflections (Slope 1).
Vonnect the two tangential points and measure the slope of this line (Slope2).
The interval velocity is the square root of the product of the two slopes values.

Velocity Analysis II

Velocity Analysis III

Real data example

Velocity Analysis
V   
 p 
Display NMO corrected gathers from different velocities in panels.
The most reliable velocity gives the best stack.
Stacking velocities are estimated from data stacked with the range of constant
velocities on the basis of stacked event amplitude and continuity.

 ! 
Move from the offset vs. two way time domain to the stacking velocity vs. two
way zero offset time domain.

Velocity Analysis IV

Velocity Analysis I

Velocity Analysis
Factors Affecting Velocity Estimates:

Spread Length
Stacking fold
S/N ratio
Muting
Time Gate Length
Velocity Sampling
Vhoice of Voherency Measure
Time departures from hyperbolic movement
Bandwidth of Data

Velocity Analysis
Spread Length:
Adequate resolution in the velocity spectrum can only be obtained with a sufficiently large
spread that spans both near and far offsets. Lack of large offset means lack of significant
moveout required for velocity discrimination.
Stacking fold:
The lower the stacking fold the lower the resolution of velocity analysis
S/N ratio:
Noise on seismic data has a direct effect on the quality of a velocity spectrum. The
accuracy of the velocity spectrum is limited when the S/N ratio is poor.
Muting:
Muting reduced fold for shallow data and has an adverse effect on the velocity spectrum
Time Gate Length
If the gate is chosen too small, computational costs increase. If too coarse the spectrum
suffers from lack of temporal resolution. The gate length is chosen between one-half and
one times the dominant period of the signal, typically 20 to 40ms.

Influence of Maximum Offset

Influence of Random Noise

Velocity Analysis
Velocity Sampling
Velocity range should correspond to those velocities to those of primary reflections present
on the VMP gather. Velocity increment must not be too coarse.
Vhoice of Voherency Measure
Vompare different gathers.
True departures from hyperbolic moveout
Special correction is required.
Bandwidth of Data
Vhoose a wide corridor to cover velocity variations vertically and laterally in the survey
area.

NMO for a dipping layer

For horizontal layers, VDP = VMP. For a dipping layer the two are not the same.

t2(x) = t2(0) + x2cos2 X /v2rms

The NMO velocity now is given by the medium velocity divided by the cosine of the dip
angle.

vNMO = v/cos X
Proper stacking of a dipping event requires a velocity that is greater than the velocity of the
medium above the reflector.

Why stacking?

To improve S/N ratio

Obtain zero offset / normal incidence trace
Data reduction
Attenuate multiples
Obtain velocity information



V.

,




 

Multiples

Attenuation of multiples by stacking

Seismic Processing Objectives

Data identing and editing

Noise reduction
Vorrection for elevation, source depth, shallow
anomalies
Vompensation of loss of amplitude
Vompensation for loss of bandwidth
Multiple removal
Imaging
Wavelet processing

Wavenumber

Temporal frequency is no. of cycles per sec.

The fourier dual is spatial frequency which is no. of cycles per unit
distance or wavenumber.
In a dipping event, count the number of peaks within a unit distance
say 1km. along the horizontal direction.
Nyquist wavenumber is [1/(2* trace interval)] = 20 cycles/km since
trace spacing is 25m.
Vompute wavenumber in section on next page.
Vompute total time dip across section ' (2 traces/section) x (15ms/traces) =
45 ms/section
Vonvert this to cycles by dividing by the temporal period:
( 45ms/section)/[(1000ms/s)/(12 cycles/sec)] = (4.14 cycles/sec)
Spatial extent is 575m therefore, wavenumber is:
(4.14cycles/sec)/(0.575km/section) = 7.2 cycles/km.

Wavenumber - the f/k plane

6 gathers containing 6 Hz monofrequency events with dips ranging from 0 to 15ms/trace.

Trace spacing is 25m.
Bottom row: Their respective amplitude spectra. Dots represent mapping of events on the
gathers. +ve dips are defined as downdip from left to right so all events map to the +ve
quandrant. Zero dip is equivalent to zero wavenumber.

Wavenumber - the f/k plane

The f-k plane corresponds to the x-t plane in the
time domain.
Vompute inverse of stepout dt/dx I.e dx/dt.
575m/0. 45s = 1.67km/s
f/k = (12 cycles/s)/(7.2 cycles/km) 1.67 km/s
The higher the dips the higher the wavenumbers
Spatial aliasing.The higher the frequency the
smaller the dip at which aliasing occurs.

6Hz

24Hz

48Hz

Wavenumber - the f/k plane

60Hz

Same as earlier pictures except using 60 Hz and 72Hz.

72Hz

Wavenumber - the f/k plane

Six gathers, each formed by summing gathers of the like dips in earlier pictures (i.e. similar
dips but different frequencies). Trace spacing is 25m. Amplitude spectra shown in bottom row.

Wavenumber - the f/k plane

Single event,
no frequency is
spatially
aliased

Single event,
frequencies
beyond 21Hz
are spatially
aliased

Wavenumber - the f/k plane

6 events, no
frequencies
are spatially
aliased

6 events,
frequencies
beyond 21Hz
are spatially
aliased

Wavenumber - the f/k plane

A single isolated event sampled at three
different trace spacings. No spatial aliasing
occurs with the 12.5m spacing.
How do you avoid spatial aliasing?
Apply time shifts so that steeper events
appear to have lower dips.
Low pass filter to retain required low
frequencies
Use smaller trace spacings.

Wavenumber - the f/k plane

Wavenumber - f/k plane

Wavenumber ' dip filtering

Wavenumber ' dip filtering

Wavenumber ' dip filtering

Wavenumber ' dip filtering

Wavenumber ' dip filtering

Wavenumber ' dip filtering

A signal with three frequency components A, B, and V, sampled at three different

rates, 2, 4, and 8 ms. Frequency aliasing occurs at coarser sampling interevals.

Wavenumber ' dip filtering

This is a high resolution land shot record. Some
initial corrections have bben applied to the data
(including statics), and the panel on the right
shows the part of the data highlighted in (very
light) red.
.

The offsets in the above section increment by 25

m, giving a spatial range of (500/25) 20 cycles per
kilometre. Here then is the FK analysis of the
above shot, temporal frequencies from bottom to
top, and spatial frequencies across the top. The
amplitude scale is in dB, from white through blue
to yellow and red.
You can see the (temporal) band limited nature of
this data (from about 10 to 90 Hz), some strong
dips (probably the first breaks) and even some
spatial aliasing (the yellow line ending at the "W"
of "Wavenumber

Wavenumber ' dip filtering

The same FK analysis after a heavy "dip" or "fan"
filter.
We have removed all events with dips in excess of
2.6 ms per trace (a horizontal velocity of
25/0.0026 = 9615 m/s)

Here's what the above filter looks like in three

dimensions - a wedge shaped filter (these filters
are sometimes called "pie-slices") with sharp
edges.
In practice we would normally smooth the edges a
little to avoid sharp changes in the frequency
domain - these introduce long anomalies in the
time domain.

Wavenumber ' dip filtering

The inverse transform of the filtered FK spectrum.
We have removed all of the high dips (especially
the ground roll), but the data now has a slightly
"wormy" appearance (it lacks spatial detail)
indicating that we've probably overdone the spatial
filtering.

One common way of reducing the effects of a

heavy FK filter is to " " some of the
original (unfiltered) data with the output.
We are generally allowed to make this mix-back

 

 , which allows us to modify
the filter response for different parts of the record.
We determine this, as usual, by testing

Generalised Processing Sequence


Geometry definition
editing amplitude corrections

33
 5! 

Static corrections
F-K filtering

%!



55 
 


Sorting to
VMP domain
Deconvolution

%!

 
 


DMO

%!


  


Velocity analysis, dynamic (NMO)

corrections, stacking

%!



55 
 


Migration

%!


  


Filter
Display

5! 

Seismic Processing Step-by-Step:

Identing



V.

,




 

Shot Domain Processing

(signal processing)



V.

De-absorption
Statics
Deconvolution
Ground Roll Removal
Source & Survey Matching
Zero-Phasing

,




 

Static Vorrection: Shot ' Receiver Statics

6 !
p
0 
 


p


/



V.

,




 

First Break Statics


 2  

 

7 
 2  

 

p 




V.

0 
 


,




 

 


Successful Statics
p,

! 


p,
2
2



V.

,




 

| p

 




Signal Theory

A pure signal having some well defined shape or characteristic is transmitted from a
source and is later received, contaminated by noise, at some distant recording
point.
The problem That of retrieval
The fundamental concept of seismic exploration is to send into the earth a short
signal which is then reflected back from a boundary between two units.
The impulse response of a system is the output signal when a spike is the input
signal.

The System Model I

The simple basic model of the system includes a single spike or impulse input
which is modified by the system to a different form at the output.
The effect of the system on the input might be described as a stretching in time and
a change of shape.
The input is a spike which all values as zero except at one
An integration of all frequencies is a spike at zero phase

The System Model II

The signal from the output is not at all like the input but extends over several
samples and is not symmetrical.
Signals that are not symmetrical are not at zero phase. Some phase shifting must
have occurred in the transmission of the signal through the system.
The output of the system is a waveform different from the input.
The transmission medium, earth acts as a filter to remove all but a very limited band
of frequencies from the broad band input.
The combined effect of the loss of several of the input frequency components and
the phase shifting of the remainder produces a wavelet which is quite different from
the sharp source spike. The result is defined as the unit impulse response.

The System Model III

The seismic signal travels from the source to the geophone through the
transmission medium, the earth, which acts as a filter to remove all but a very
limited band of frequencies from the broad band input.
The amplitude and phase response define the changes that have taken place to the
input which would have amplitude at 100% for all frequencies at the zero phase.
The time domain response to a unit impulse is the wavelet.

Time Domain Operations

Vonsider:
1. A reflectivity sequence (1, 0, ,)
2. Impulsive source with explosion at t = 0 with amplitude 1
The response of the reflectivity sequence to the impulse is the impulse response of the
system.
Time of onset

Reflectivity
Sequence

Source

Response

1, 0,

1, 0 ,

One unit time later, the impulsive source generates an implosion with amplitude -
Time of onset

Reflectivity
Sequence
1, 0,

Source

Response

-, 0 , -

Time Domain Operations- Superposition

Since a general source function is considered to be sequence of explosive and implosive
impulses, the individual impulse responses are added to obtain the combined response. This
process is called linear superposition.
Time of onset

0
1
Superposition
i.e

Reflectivity
Sequence
1, 0,
1, 0,

(1, 0, )*(1, -) = (1, -, , -)

* Is called convolution

Source

Response

1
1

1
-
-

0
-
-

-
-

Time Domain Operations - Vonvolution

Vonvolution of a source wavelet (1, -) with the reflectivity sequence (1, 0, )
Reflectivity
Sequence

Output
Response

1 0
1
- 1
- 1
- 1

1
-

Vonvolution of a source wavelet (1, 0, ) with the reflectivity sequence (1, -)

Reflectivity
Output
Sequence
Response

1 -
0 1
0 1
0 1
0

1
-

Output

Vonvolution

1
1

Time Domain Operations ' Vrosscorrelation

Measurement of similarity or time alignment of two traces is sometimes required in
processing. Vorrelation is used to make such measurements. Vonsider two wavelets:
1. (2, 1, -1 , 0, 0)

2.

(0, 0, 2, 1, -1)

Identical but wavelet 2 is shifted by two samples wrt. wavelet 1. The time lag at which they
are most similar can be determined. Varry out what was done for convolution on wavelet 1
without reversing wavelet 2.

0 0 2 1
0 0 2
0 0
0

2
-1
1
2
0
0

1 -1 0 0
-1
1
2
0
0

-1
1
2
0
0

-1
1
2
0
0

Most identical at time lag 2 (6)

-1
1
2
0
0

-1
1 -1
2 1 -1
0 2 1 -1

Output
-2
1
6
1
-2
0
0
0
0

Lag
-4
-2
-1
0
1
2
4

Time Domain Operations ' Vrosscorrelation

Interchange the two arrays:
0
0
0
-1
1
2

1. (2, 1, -1 , 0, 0)

2.

(0, 0, 2, 1, -1)

0 2 1 -1

Output
Lag
2 1 -1 0
0
-4
2 1 -1
0
0
2 1
0 0
0
-2
2
-1 0 0
0
-1
1 -1 0 0
-2
0
2 1 -1 0 0
1
1
2 1 -1 0 0
6
2
1
2 1 -1 0 0
2 1 -1 0 0
2
4
Most identical at time lag 2 (6). If wavelet 2 were shifted forward 2 samples the 2 wavelets
will be maximally similar.
Unlike convolution, crosscorellation is not commutative: I.e the output depends on which
array is fixed and which is moving.

Vross Vorrelation
1
x

2
x

Output

10
11
14
11
8
1

2
1

6
4
2

6
9
6
2
1

2
1

0
0

Time Domain Operations ' Autocorrelation

Vrosscorrelation of a time series with itself is called autocorrelation

2 1 -1 0
2 1 -1
2 1
2

2
0
0
-1
1
2

1 -1 0
0
0
-1
1
2

0
0
-1
1
2

0
0
-1
1
2

0
0
-1
1
2

0
0 0
-1 0 0
1 -1 0 0

Output
0
0
-2
1
6
1
-2
0
0

Lag
-4
-2
-1
0
1
2

Maximum correlation occurs at zero lag. The output is also symmetrical.

Frequency Domain Operations

1. Vonvolution is multiplication
2. Phases are additive in convolution and subtractive in correlation.
Spike

A zero phase band limited wavelet can used to filter a seismic trace. The output contains only
those frequencies present in the wavelet. This is called zero phase frequency filtering.
Multiply the amplitude spectrum of the seismic trace by that of the filter operator (convolution
in the time domain).

Frequency Domain Operations

Vonstruct a zero phase wavelet with an amplitude spectrum that meets one of these:
Band pass (to eliminate groundroll and high frequency ambient noise)
Band reject
High pass (low cut)
Low pass (hight cut

Ground Roll (Surface Wave) Removal



V.

,




 

 


Filtering
Vrosscorrelation of a pure sine or cosine wave with a signal will
extract that same frequency component from the signal. Information
regarding any other components of the signal will be lost from the
output.
This is used to advantage in band pass filtering
In autocorrelation the signal is correlated with itself i.e. square each
component of the amplitude spectrum and subtract the phase
spectrum from itself which will yield a zero phase output.

Time Variant Filtering

Deconvolution
Stacking can remove noise but there is still the problem of the
filtering caused by the earth.
The process by which the attenuated elements are restored is called
deconvolution. The impulse response of the earth contains primary
reflections (reflectivity series), multiples and noise.
It is the process designed to reverse the effects of the passage of
the input signal through the earth. It improves the temporal
resolution of the seismic data by compressing the basic seismic
wavelet.
Autocorrelate the signal to get a spike

The Vonvolutional Model

Sonic and density logs provide measurements of the acoustic impedances
and impedance contrasts at various rock boundaries. This is used in
deriving the forward model with some assumptions.
1.
2.

The earth is made up of horizontal layers of constant velocity

The source generates a compressional plane wave that impinges on layer
boundaries at normal incidence. Under such circumstances, no shear waves are
generated.

Assumption 1 fails in structurally complex areas and assumption 2 implies

zero offset.
Based on 1 and 2 we have:

Y Y

Y | Y

Generation of Synthetic Seismograms

The Reflectivity Series

a - sonic log, b - reflection coefficient series, c ' b in twt domain

d ' impulse response, e ' synthetic seismogram

The Vonvolutional Model (2)

The characteristic wave created by an impulsive source such as dynamite or
airgun is called the signature of the source. All signatures can be described
as band limited wavelets of finite duration.
As the wavelet travels through the earth, two things happen.
1. Overall amplitude decays ' wavefront divergence
2. Frequencies are absorbed
At any time the wavelet is not the same as it was at the onset. This time
dependent change in waveform is called non-stationarity A compensation
for non-stationarity is carried out before deconvolution (spherical spreading
function).
Assumption The source waveform does not change as it travels in the
subsurface; i.e. it is stationary.

Waveform Nonstationarity

As the wavelet travels into the earth, the amplitude level drops (geometric
spreading) ans a loss of high frequencies occurs

The Vonvolutional Model ( )

For reflection coefficients that are closely spaced (sparse spike series), the response
to the basic wavelet is a superposition of the individual impulse responses. This is a
linear process called superposition. It is achieved computationally by convolving the
basic wavelet with the reflectivity series.
To identify closely spaced reflecting boundaries from the composite response, the
source waveform must be removed to obtain the sparse spike series. The reverse
process is called deconvolution. Deconvolution tries to recover the reflectivity series.
The building block of convolution is:
x(t) = w(t) * e(t) + n(t)
x(t) = recorded seismogram
w(t) = basic seismic wavelet
e(t) = earths impulse response
n(t) = random ambient noise
* = convolution

The Principle of Superposition

The Vonvolutional Model

Noise ' a pure random series with infinite

length has a flat amplitude spectrum and an
autocorrelogram that is zero at all lags except
the zero lag.

The Vonvolutional Model (4)

Deconvolution tries to restore the reflectivity series from the seismogram.
All that is known in the equation is x(t) the recorded seismogram.
The earths impulse response e(t) must be estimated elsewhere apart from the
borehole location with good sonic logs.
The source waveform w(t) is unknown.
There is no a priori knowledge of the ambient noise n(t).
To solve for the unknown e(t), we have to make further assumptions
Assumption 4. The noise component n(t) is zero
Assumption 5. The source wavelet is known
With this we have only one unknown - e(t) in the equation. But in reality neither of
these two assumptions is valid. Therefore, we examine the convolutional model
further in the frequency domain to relax assumption 4.

The Vonvolutional Model (5)

Frequency Domain
If the source signature is known, then the solution to the convolutional model is
deterministic. If not known, then the solution is statistical.
Vonvolution in time domain is equivalent to multiplication in the frequency domain.
There is similarity in the overall shape of the amplitude spectrum of the wavelet and
the seismogram.
A smoothed version will be indistinguishable from the amplitude spectrum of the
seismogram.
Assumption 6 The seismogram has the characteristics of the seismic wavelet in that
their autocorrelations and amplitude spectra are the same.
This is the key to implementing the predictive deconvolution.

Frequency Domain

The Vonvolutional Model ' Inverse Filtering (6)

If a filter operator a(t) were defined such that convolution of a(t) with the known
seismogram x(t) yields an estimate of the earths impulse response e(t), then
Substitution e(t) in

e(t) = a(t) * x(t)

x(t) = w(t) * e(t):
x(t) = w(t) * a(t) * x(t)

Eliminating x(t) from both sides of the equation:

(t) = w(t) * a(t)
where (t) = Kronecher delta function

(t) 

.a

w

   

By solving equation a above, for the filter operator a(t) we obtain:

a(t) = (t) * w(t)

4'(
  2 

  '(

 

, 

The Vonvolutional Model ' Inverse Filtering (6)

Therefore the filter operator needed to compute the earths impulse response from
the recorded seismogram turns out to be the mathematical inverse of the seismic
wavelet.
Equation .a implies that the inverse filter converts the basic wavelet to a spike at
t = 0. Likewise, the inverse converts the seismogram to a series of spikes that
defines the earths impulse response.
Therefore, inverse filtering is a method of deconvolution provided the source
waveform is known (deterministic deconvolution).

The z transform
How do we compute the inverse of the seismic wavelet?
The z transform is used to mathematically compute the inverse of the seismic
wavelet - w(t).
If the basic wavelet is a two point time series given by (1, - ), the z transform is
defined by the following polynomial
W(z) = 1 ( )z

The z transform
The power of variable z is the number of unit time delays associated with each sample in
the series.
The first term has zero delay, so z is raised to zero power. The second term has unit delay,
so z is raised to first power.
Hence the z transform of a time series is a polynomial in z, whose coefficients are the
values of the time samples.
The inverse of the wavelet w(t) is obtained by polynomial division of the z transform.

W(z) = 1/ [1 ( )z ] = 1 + ( )z + ()z2 + .......

The inverse time series is the coefficient of W(z)

i.e.

[1, ( ), (), ]. This is the

filter operator a(t). Note it has an infinite number of coefficients, although they
decay rapidly. As more terms are included in the inverse filter, the output is closer to being
a spike.
Vonvolve with more terms in the inverse filter

The z transform
Vonsider the two point operator [1, ()]
Vonvolution of this operator with the wavelet yields [1, 0, (-)]. The ideal result is a
zero delay spike (1,0,0). Although not ideal the actual result is spikier than the input
wavelet, [1, (-)].
Vonvolution of the truncated inverse
filter [1, ()] with the input wavelet
[1, (-)]
1

-
1

Output
1
0
-

Vonvolution of the truncated inverse

filter [1, (), ] with the input
wavelet [1, (-)]
1

-
1
1

Output
1
0
0
-1/8

The three point filter is spikier. As more terms are included in the the inverse filter, the output is
closer c;loser to being a spike at zero lag.

The z transform
The inverse of the input wavelet [1, (- )] has coefficients that rapidly decay to zero.
What of the inverse of the input wavelet [(-), 1)]? Here the polynomial division gives
the divergent series (-2, -4, -8 ..). Truncate this and convolve with the two point
operator. The result is far from the desired output.
Vonvolution of the truncated inverse
filter [(-2, -4)] with the input wavelet
[(-),1]
-
-4

-2
-4

1
-2
-4

-2

Output
1
0
-4

Vonvolution of a filter (a, b) with the

input wavelet [(1, -)]

1
b

a
b

-
a
b

Actual
Output
a
b - a/2
- b/2

Desired
Output
1
0
0

The inverse filter coefficients increase in time rather than decay! What happens if 8 is
kept as one of the coefficients?

The Vonvolutional Model (7)

Least Square Inverse Filtering
The least square filter yields less error when converting the input
wavelet to a spike.

Minimum Phase



Error in converting [1, (- )] to a spike is less than that of [(- ) ,1].

The first wavelet is closer to being a zero delay wavelet (1,0,0) than the second wavelet. The
second wavelet is closer to being a delayed spike (0,1,0).
The error is reduced if the desired output closely resembles the energy distribution in the input
series. Wavelet 1 has more energy at the onset, wavelet 2 more energy at the end.
Minimum Phase
A wavelet is minimum phase if its energy is maximally concentrated at its onset
A wavelet is maximum phase if its energy is maximally concentrated at its end
In all in-between situations the wavelet is mixed phase
A wavelet is defined as a transient waveform with a finite duration i.e. it is realizable.
A minimum phase wavelet is one-sided in that it is zero before t = 0. A wavelet that is zero for
t < 0 is called causal. A minimum phase is causal and realizable.

Minimum Phase
Three wavelets with the
same amplitude spectrurn,
but with a different phase
spectra. As a result, their
shapes differ. The wavelet at
the top has more energy
concentrated at the onset,
middle has its energy
concentrated at the centre
and the wavelet at the
bottom has its energy
concentrated at the end.

Minimum Phase
Vonsider the following four -point wavelets
A: (4, 0, -1)
B: (2, , -2)
V: (-2, , 2)
D: (-1, 0, 4)
Vompute the cummulative energy of each
wavelet at any one time (add the square of
the amplitudes).
0
1
2
A
16
16
17
B
4
1
17
V
4
1
17
D
1
1
17
A builds up energy rapidly, has the least energy delay while D builds up energy slowly and
has the largest energy delay. A minimum phase wavelet has the least energy delay.

Minimum Phase

Amplitude spectrum for wavelets A,B,V,D (all

have same amplitude spectrum)

A has the minimum phase change that is why it is

referred to as minimum phase. Wavelet D has the
maximum phase change across the frequencies and
is referred to as maximum phase. V and B mixed
phase.

Minimum Phase
The autocorrelations of the wavelets give the same output. The zero lag of the autocorrelation
is equal to the total energy contained in each wavelet (i.e. 17 units). The process by which the
seismic wavelet is compressed to a zero-lag spike is called spiking deconvolution.
Performance depends on filter length and whether the input wavelet is minimum phase. The
spiking deconvolution operator is the inverse of the wavelet. If the wavelet were minimum
phase, then we get a stable inverse which is also minimum phase.
The term stable means that the filter coefficients make a convergent series i.e. the coefficients
decrease decrease in time (and vanish at time t = ) therefore filter has finite energy. This is
the case for wavelet [1, (- )] with an inverse [1, ( ), ( ),
]. The inverse is a stable
spiking deconvolution filter.
If the filter were maximum phase, then it does not have a stable inverse. This is the case for
the wavelet [(- ) ,1], whose inverse is given by the divergent series [-2, -4, -8, ..]. A mixed
phase does not have a stable inverse.
Assumption 7: The seismic wavelet is minimum phase. Therefore it has a minimum phase
inverse.

Weiner filters
Filters are designed to make the output approximate a spike as much as
possible.
The least squares error between the actual and desired outputs is minimum
Spiking deconvolution is when the output is a zero lag spike. It is also identical
to least squares inverse filter.
Predictive deconvolution is when the output can be predicted given a particular
type of input. The idea is to predict the value of the input at some particular time.

Deconvolution - Example
   
0

1.0

2.0

/   

Deconvolution '
here to remove waterbottom reflections
P

+
  




V.

-RP

(-)2R2P

+
  


,




 

Field Statics Vorrections

| p

 



Pre Stack Migration

Migration is a tool used in seismic processing to get an accurate picture of underground layers. It
involves the geometric repositioning of return signals to show an event (layer boundary or other
structure) where it is being hit by the seismic wave rather than where it is picked up. Migration was
first used in the 1920's, and today, it is has evolved into many variations. Two of the more important
migration methods are: pre-stack and post-stack migration.
Pre-stack migration is essentially when seismic data is adjusted before the stacking sequence occurs.
The popular form of pre-stack migration is depth migration (PDM). PDM requires the user to know
more about velocites of the layers. Once the user inputs these into the data with velocity analysis
methods, there will be some error in the image. This error is caused by dipping reflectors or
diffractions. The PDM will adjust the picture according to the velocities given. Pre-stack migration is
often applied only when the layers being observed have complicated velocity profiles, or when the
structures are just too complex to see with post-stack migration. Pre-stack is an important tool in
modeling salt diapirs because of their complexity and this has immediate benefits if the resolution can
pick up any hydrocarbons trapped by the diapir. Overall, pre-stack migration, depth and time, is a
valuable tool in better imaging seismic data, but it is limited by the amount of time and money required
to conduct a pre-stack migration. Most of the pre-stack migration will be run when post-stacking has
failed to resolve the layers or structures. However, with advances in computers, pre-stack migration
will eventually become more economical.

Post Stack Migration

,


 
 ! 2


 

  


 2 


, "
 ! 
2   
   2

    ! ! 5,


 "&
! 5,


 !
,


 
   
     !  
 !

 2 
 
22
 "

  

 ! 
 


 
 
 2


2
  2 
  
22
  ! 

 
 "
   



  
  2
   

 

!!


    2 !

 
22  2

 52 !

 " ,


!
  ,

!
  



 2
22   "
 



 
,


 2


   5! 
22   
 

, "
&
 
2

!,


 !  ! 5,


 


  

    ! 5,", 

 

  
  
!
     
 
22  
! 

 2    

  
 "

Migration

Post Stack Migration

Pre Stack Migration

Migration
Migration moves dipping reflectors into their true subsurface positions and collapses
diffraction, thereby delineating detailed subsurface features such as fault planes. In this
respect migration can be viewed as a form of spatial deconvolution that increases spatial
resolution.
Note that migration does not displace horizontal events, rather, it moves dipping events in
the updip direction and collapses diffractions, thus enabling delineation of faults.
The goal of migration is to make the stacked section appear similar to geologic cross
section across the seismic line. The migration that produces a migrated time section is
called time migration.
When the lateral velocity gradients are significant, time migration does not produce the true
subsurface picture. Instead depth migration is used, the output of which is a depth section.

Migration

a - VMP stack, b ' Migration, c ' sketch of of prominent diffraction D and dipping event
before (B) migration and after (A) migration.

Migration

Migration

Time Migration

Depth Migration - B

Migration Types
Stack

The section the interpreter always wants

Time Migration

Diffractions or structural dip

Depth Migration

Structural dip with large lateral velocity variation

Prestack Partial Migration (PSPM)

Lots of conflicting dips with different stacking velocities

or large lateral velocity gradients

Depth Migration Before Stack

Strong/large lateral velocity gradients that cannot be

treated properly by stacking

-D Time Migration After Stack

Needed when the stack contains dipping events that

are out of the profile plane (crossdips)

-D Depth Migration After Stack

Needed when the problem of strong lateral velocity

gradients involves -D structural complexity

-D Time Migration Before Stack

When PSPM fails and stack contains crossdips

-D Depth Migration Before Stack

Everyones dream if computer time were available and

-D subsurface velocity model were well known

Vhoice of Migration Techniques

| ) ! 2




!5,
 

!5, !

 
 




! 5,


! 5, !



V.

,




 

Time migration versus depth migration

Time migration
Vannot handle large lateral velocity contrasts
Vannot handle large ray-bending effects
No need for a model

Depth migration
Van handle lateral velocity contrasts and raybending
Needs a velocity model

Both time and depth migration can work on post- and pre-stack data.

Time migration vs. Pre-Stack Depth Migration



V.

,




 

Migration Principles
Reflection on the time section VD must be migrated to its true position VD.
Observations:
1.
2.
.

The dip angle of the reflector in the geologic section is greater than in the time
section: thus migration steepens reflections.
The length of the reflector, as seen in the geologic section, is shorter than in the time
section; thus migration shortens reflections.
Migration moves reflectors in the updip direction.

Exercise
From the exercise:
1. Note that the dips after migration are greater than before migration.
2. The deeper the event, the more migration takes place e.g at 4s the horizontal
displacement is more that 6km and the vertical displacement is 1.6seconds.
. The horizontal displacement increases with the time of event
4. Displacement is a function of velocity squared (if there is a 20% error in velocity used,
event is misplaced by an error of 44%.
5. Vertical displacement also increases with time.

Migration Principles
True subsurface location depth

Vonsider the dipping reflector VD of the geologic

(depth) section. We want to obtain zero offset
section along the profile Ox.
The first normal incidence arrival from the dipping
reflector is recorded at location A. The reflection
arrival at location A is indicated by point V.

Zero offset seismic time section

Migration Principles



 

    (

 
     (  


  
   (

 

Where:

 

 

Migration Principles

Subsurface Model
The steeper the
dip the more the
event moves
during migration.

Zero offset time

section

Migration Principles
We see that the dipping event migrates out of the recorded section. The data on a recorded
section are not necessarily confined to the subsurface below the seismic line. The converse
is also true. The structure below on a seismic line may not be recorded on the seismic
section.
In areas of structural dip, the line length must be chosen considering the displacements of
dipping layers. The areal surface coverage must be larger than the subsurface coverage of
interest.
Recording time must be long enough
What of curved reflecting surfaces? (See Diagrams)
Synclines broaden and anticlines compress
Higher velocities mean more migration and hence smaller anticlines
Why does a syncline look like a bowtie.

Migration Principles ' Vurved Surfaces

Migration Principles ' Vurved Surfaces

Before Migration

After Migration

Migration Principles ' Vurved Surfaces

Migration unties bowties and turn them to synclines

Kirchhoff Migration

The gap in the barrier acts as Huygens secondary source, causing the circular
wavefronts that approach the beachline.
Waves recorded along the beach generated by Huygens secondary source (the
gap in the barrier has a hyperbolic traveltime trajectory.

Kirchhoff Migration

A point that represents Huygens

secondary source in the depth section,
maps onto a diffraction hyperbola on
the zero offset time section (b). The
vertical axis in this section is two-way
time.

Superposition of the zero offset

response (b) of a discrete number of
Huygens secondary source in the
depth section (a).

Kirchhoff Migration

Superposition of the zero offset

response (b) of a continuum of
Huygens secondary source in the
depth section (a).

Principles of migration based on semicircle

superposition. (a) Zero-offset section
(trace interval, 25m; constant velocity,
2500m/s), (b) migration, A point in time
section (a) maps onto a semicircle in depth
section (b).

Kirchhoff Migration
The first method of migration is
based on the superposition of
semicircles, while the second
method is based on the
summation of amplitudes along
hyperbolic paths (diffraction
summation method).

Principles of migration based on diffraction

summation. (a) Zero-offset section (trace interval,
25m; constant velocity, 2500m/s), (b) migration,
The amplitude at B along the flank is mapped
onto apex A by the hyperbolic traveltime
equation.

The summation is a
straightforward summation of
amplitudes along the hyperbolic
trajectory whose curvature is
governed by the velocity
function.

Kirchhoff Migration
The migration scheme based on the semicircle superposition
consists of mapping the amplitude at a sample in input (x,t) space of
the unmigrated time section onto a semicircle in output (x,z) space.
The migrated section is formed as a result of the superposition of the
many semicircles.
The migration scheme based on the diffraction summation consists
of searching the input data in the (x,t) space for energy that would
have resulted if a diffracting source (Huygens secondary source)
were located at a particular point in the output (x,z) space. This
search is carried out bu asumming the amplitudes in the (x,t) space
along the diffraction curve that corresponds to Huygens secondary
source at each point in the (x,z) space. The result of the summation
is then mapped onto the corresponding point in the (x,z) space.

Kirchhoff Migration
Velocity function:
Vompute t(x). Amplitude at location B is placed on the output section
at location A corresponding to the output time t(0).
Vonsider three factors associated with the amplitude and phase
behaviour of the waveform along the diffraction hyperbola.
Amplitude at A is stronger than B (B is at an oblique angle ' obliquity
factor).
Spherical divergence. B versus V. (wavefront at V is weaker).
Restoration of resulting waveform from superposition must be
restored in both phase and amplitude.
These

factors must be considered.

Kirchhoff Migration
The diffraction summation method of migration which incorporates
these three factors, is called the Kirchhoff migration. To perform this,
multiply the input data by the obliquity and spherical spreading
factors. Then apply the filter with the above specifications and sum
along the hyperbolic path that is defined by the velocity function
equation. Place the result on the migrated section a time t(0)
corresponding to the apex of the hyperbola.
The rms velocity is used.

Synthetic Migration Example





.


 '

(1 An inversion operation involving
rearrangement of seismic information elements so that
reflections and diffractions are plotted at their true
locations.


V.

,




 

Real-Life Example of
Step-wise Migration

Migration Domain


p







V.

,




 

NMO, DMO & Migration

r
 



 





 
   
  
 

NMO, DMO & Migration

2.3 2 
     22  '

 
!(
/.3     522  
 
.


 2  
  2 
 "
'2 / 
,
w$89(



V.

,




 

Vomparison PoSTM vs. PreSTM

p,
 .





V.

 p,
 .



,




 

Migration with 95,100 & 105% velocities

Post stack time migration

$: 





w: 



V.

,




 

w: 



Ray Tracing: various salt models (identical overburden)

The hard anhydrite layers cause ray-tracing problems and refractions.
V


  



 !

  



 !



  



 !

 
 



 !

/  
!;   
/
!

PreSDM Model

2p7&

V&*<

Depth [m]

Velocity [m/s]

2p7&

*%7

&*72&

0%&p

p&*

D view of an interface from a PreSDM model.

Successful Reprocessing

7=


!

0 ! 

Effect of Fold of Voverage

)2


V.

)82
,




 

$92

Fold of Voverage



V.

,




 

Seismic Data Volumes

As acquired: 00 - 700 MB per square km

Marine survey, 6 streamers @ 180 = 1080 channels;
000 samples per channel @ 24 bit = 9 KB / channel / shot
10 MB per shot, 66 shots per sq. km

After processing a factor 50 - 100 data reduction:

~ 8 MB per square km
Typical survey sizes: 200 - 1000 square km

Annual acquisition volume 15000 sq km (~7500 Gb)