Access For All: Guidance For Making The Core Curricula Accessible

Special needs curr.
cover
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Access for all

guidance on making the adult literacy
and numeracy core curricula accessible
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Access for All
guidance on making the adult literacy

and numeracy core curricula accessible
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Access for All
Acknowledgements
The Department for Education and Skills (DfES), the Learning and Skills
Development Agency (LSDA) and the Basic Skills Agency (BSA) would like to
thank the following for their contributions to the development of Access for All:
Sally Faraday, Learning and Skills Development Agency
Cynthia Klein, London Language and Literacy Unit
Theresa Latham, Basic Skills Agency
Liz Maudslay, Skill; National Bureau for Students with Disabilities, in conjunction
with the Post 16 Disability Consortium
Patricia Neville and Maggie Guiry, Teachers of the deaf
Angela Taylor, Basic Skills Agency.
The LSDA and the BSA would also like to thank all the organisations that
responded to the consultation on the document and, in particular, members of the
Post 16 Disability Consortium, who gave thorough and detailed feedback.
The national steering group

Adult Learning Inspectorate (ALI) Karen Adriaanse
Learning and Skills Council (LSC) Kit Roberts, Anita Hallam
Office for Standards in Education (Ofsted) Christine Steadman, HMI
Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) John Brown, Jill Stokoe
Produced by the Learning and Skills Development Agency on behalf of the DfES
Design: Studio 21
First published 2002
DfES 2002
Reproduction, storage, adaptation or transmission, in any form or by any means, of this publication is prohibited without
prior written permission of the publisher, unless within the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency.
Excerpts may be reproduced for the purpose of research, private study, criticism or review, or by educational institutions
solely for educational purposes, without permission, provided a full acknowledgement is given.
ISBN 1853387401
ii
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Contents
Contents
Published outcomes of the national programme
iv
Foreword by John Healey MP, Minister for Adult Skills
Introduction
The background to the national strategy for literacy, language and numeracy 1
2
The basis for Access for All
The national standards for adult literacy and numeracy
The purpose of the manual
2
3
How to use the manual

Policy and legislative background
Using the curriculum: principles

Who are the learners?
Working with disabled learners or learners with learning difficulties

Terminology
Principles for working with learners with learning difficulties and
9
9
disabilities
Technology and basic skills for learners with learning difficulties and
disabilities
Some effects of disabilities on the acquisition of basic skills
People who are deaf or partially hearing
People who are blind or partially sighted
People who have mental health problems
People with dyslexia and related specific learning difficulties
People with physical disabilities
People with learning difficulties
People with autistic spectrum disorders
5
7
9
11
13
14
20
24
26
33
39
42
Learning styles and learning difficulties and disabilities
44
Literacy
47
Speaking and listening

Reading
48
86
Writing
148
Numeracy
212
Number
Measures, shape and space
222
Handling data
302
Resources
318
262
iii
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Access for All
Published outcomes of the national programme

This is one of a set of publications, all outcomes of a major national programme
relating to literacy, language and numeracy for adults with learning difficulties or
disabilities. The programme, funded by the DfES, ran from September 2000 to
March 2001 and was managed by a consortium, jointly led by LSDA and NIACE.*
The programme outcomes include the following:
Publications
Adult Pre-entry Curriculum Framework for Literacy and Numeracy
Basic Skills for Adults with Learning Difficulties and/or Disabilities: A Resource
Pack to Support Staff Development
Living Our Lives ten readers written by learners for learners
Access for All guidance on making the adult literacy and numeracy core
curricula accessible
The Self-Advocacy Action Pack

Yesterday I Never Stopped Writing guidance on developing community-based
basic skills provision for adults with learning difficulties or disabilities
CD-ROMs
Skills Explorer practical literacy activities for BSL users at entry level
Skills Explorer practical literacy and numeracy activities for learners at entry
level
Web site
www.ctad.co.uk/basil/ for teachers, trainers and learners
*The consortium partners were the Basic Skills Agency, Skill, the National Bureau for Students
with Disabilities, London Language and Literacy Unit, Birmingham Rathbone, the Mental Health
Foundation including the Foundation for People with Learning Disabilities, Cambridge Training and
Development, and the University for Industry.
iv
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Foreword
Foreword
Skills for Life, the national strategy for improving adult
literacy and numeracy skills, is one of the Governments
highest priorities. As part of the drive to raise standards,
we are improving the quality of literacy, language and
numeracy provision so that all adult learners can be
guaranteed good teaching and support, no matter what
their starting points are or where their learning takes
place.
From Exclusion to Inclusion, the report of the Disability
Rights Task Force (December 1999), estimates that at
least 8.5 million people currently meet the Disability Discrimination Act definition.
It also says that disabled people are twice as likely as non-disabled people to be
unemployed and to have no formal qualifications. People who have disabilities and
learning difficulties play an important role in all aspects of life. If Britain is to fulfil
its aim of being a fully inclusive society, everyone should be able to fulfil his or her
potential and gain the skills to participate and contribute.
One of the most important recommendations of Freedom to Learn, the report
commissioned by the Government to investigate the basic skills needs of people
with learning difficulties and disabilities, was that the Adult Basic Skills Strategy
Unit should commission guidance for teachers. Access for All will help teachers
make the adult literacy and numeracy core curricula fully accessible to all learners.
The manual is closely mapped to the curriculum documents and is designed to be
used alongside them to enable people with a wide range of disabilities to develop
their communication, literacy and numeracy skills. Its publication, in the wake of
the Governments Special Educational Needs and Disability Act (2001), is timely.
I am sure that Access for All will prove an essential tool, not just for the teachers
to whom it is primarily addressed, but also for programme managers, publishers
and a wide range of other organisations involved in disability issues and basic
skills learning.
John Healey,
Minister for Adult Skills
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Introduction
Introduction
The background to the national strategy for literacy, language
and numeracy
The national strategy to tackle the literacy, language and numeracy needs of
adults was launched by the Government in March 2001. Following the publication
of A Fresh Start Improving Literacy and Numeracy (DfEE, 1999), the Government
committed itself, its education services and a cross-section of national bodies to
a major reduction in the number of adults who struggle with literacy, language
and numeracy, basic reading, writing, spelling and maths. The report
recommended the creation of a separate review group to consider the specific
needs of learners with learning difficulties and disabilities. A working group was
set up and its report, Freedom to Learn, was published in May 2000.
This national strategy has introduced:
an Adult Basic Skills Strategy Unit in the Department for Education and
Skills, to co-ordinate strategic developments;
national standards for adult literacy and numeracy to ensure

consistency (QCA, 2000);
core curricula for literacy, numeracy and ESOL, to clarify the skills,
knowledge and understanding that learners need in order to reach the
national standards;
intensive curriculum training for staff who are teaching literacy,

numeracy or English for speakers of other languages (ESOL);
a literacy and numeracy curriculum framework for learners with

learning difficulties;
national literacy and numeracy tests at Level 1 and Level 2, to measure

achievement against the standards at Level 1 and Level 2;
a range of new qualifications at Entry level, to measure achievement

against the standards at Entry level;
new Further Education National Training Organisation (FENTO)

standards for literacy and numeracy teachers, to provide the basis for
new teacher qualifications.
The Adult Basic Skills Strategy Unit has also commissioned training for staff who
are teaching literacy and numeracy to learners with learning difficulties or
disabilities, a range of diagnostic assessment tools, a suite of learning materials
and a new volunteer strategy for literacy, numeracy and ESOL volunteers.
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The Adult Basic Skills Core

Access
for Allfor Special Needs
Curriculum
The basis for Access for All

This guidance manual is based on the national standards for adult literacy
developed by the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) in 2000 and on
the national core curricula for adult literacy and numeracy published by the Basic
Skills Agency (BSA) in 2001. Developing the guidance has been a challenging
process. Over the next three years an evaluation process will gather feedback
from teachers as they use Access for All. These comments will contribute to a
review of the standards, curriculum documents and Access for All which will take
place in 2003/2004.
The national standards for adult literacy and numeracy

The national standards describe adult literacy and numeracy in line with the
definition expressed in A Fresh Start: improving literacy and numeracy:
the ability to read, write and speak in English and to use mathematics at a
level necessary to function at work and in society in general.
The standards provide a map of the skills and capabilities that adults need in
order to function and progress at work and in society. A separate set of standards
has been produced for each of the basic skills of literacy and numeracy.
The national standards have two parts: the standards themselves, which are the
can do statements, and the level descriptors, which describe in more detail what
adults have to do to achieve the standards.
Literacy covers the ability to:
speak, listen and respond

read and comprehend
write to communicate.
Numeracy covers the ability to:
understand and use mathematical information

calculate and manipulate mathematical information
interpret results and communicate mathematical information.
The national standards for adult literacy and numeracy are specified at three
levels: Entry level, Level 1 and Level 2. Levels 1 and 2 are closely aligned to the
key skills of communication and application of number. (This alignment is
signposted at the top of the left-hand page of the documents at these levels.)
Entry level is further divided into three stages: Entry 1, Entry 2 and Entry 3. Entry
level is set out in this way to provide detailed descriptions of the early stages of
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Introduction
learning in each skill. This sub-division also signals an alignment of the Entry
stages with levels 1, 2 and 3 of the National Curriculum.
The three levels of the national standards for adult literacy and numeracy
correspond to the equivalent levels of the national qualifications framework.
The purpose of the manual

The purpose of this manual is to support literacy and numeracy teachers in
making the curriculum accessible to the whole range of learners, including those
with disabilities and/or learning difficulties. Many of the teaching and learning
approaches described here will be suitable for learners with learning difficulties
and/or disabilities who have a first language other than English.
How to use the manual

This manual has three components:
an introduction
a series of sections on speaking and listening, reading, writing and

numeracy that reflect the content of the basic skills curriculum
elements, indicating where disabled learners may have specific
difficulties and suggesting strategies for addressing these
guidance notes within the sections that provide detail on more general
issues affecting disabled learners and their access to basic skills.
In using this manual, it is important to bear in mind that:
the introduction gives crucial information about the implications of

various learning difficulties and disabilities for the acquisition of basic
skills (pp 1443). It is important to read this information before moving
on to the curriculum sections.
the sections will only make sense if read alongside the relevant adult
core curriculum (page references to the curricula are given on every
page of these sections).
not every descriptor (curriculum element) is mentioned in the sections

only those that the authors feel will cause particular difficulties for
learners with learning difficulties and disabilities and may require an
alternative teaching approach or strategy.
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Curriculum
Format
This document is organised across double pages as follows:
Standards
Curriculum
sub-section
Curriculum
reference
Areas of difficulty
which may be
experienced by
particular learners
Page reference
to the
corresponding
page in the core
curriculum
Teaching
approaches
and
alternative
strategies
Guidance
Adult Literacy Core Curriculum pp58-59

Entry 1
Descriptor
(curriculum
element)
number
Cross
referencing
The curriculum content standards, curriculum sub-section and descriptors (the

term given to the skills, knowledge and understanding underneath each standard)
is presented in exactly the same way as in the core curricula, although not all
descriptors have been included (see previous page). The descriptors are presented
in the second column on the left-hand page. The third column on the left-hand
page (Areas of difficulty which may be experienced by particular learners) lists
the learners for whom that particular descriptor (or knowledge and understanding)
may prove difficult, and explains why.
For each area of difficulty, suggested teaching approaches and alternative
strategies are given on the right-hand page. There is therefore a close alignment
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Introduction
between the approaches suggested and the particular category of learner for
whom an element of the curriculum will prove difficult. This correspondence
between the left- and the right-hand pages is shown in the illustration by the
dotted lines and dotted arrows.
Sometimes the difficulties posed by a descriptor, and the recommended
approaches and strategies, closely resemble difficulties and approaches already
mentioned in the document. Where this occurs, readers are referred to the page
or descriptor in question; when it has seemed appropriate to do so, however, both
the description of the difficulties and the approaches have been repeated.
Further guidance on approaches, difficulties or specific characteristics of
particular learners is given in each section, either at the beginning of the section
or in a tint box on the right-hand side of each right-hand page.
To make it easier to read this document alongside the core curricula, each doublepage spread carries a page reference to the corresponding pages in the Adult
Literacy Core Curriculum or the Adult Numeracy Core Curriculum.
Policy and legislative background

At a policy level there has been increasing recognition of the need to include those
learners who, because of their disability or learning difficulty, have often been
excluded from education. The Learning and Skills Act 2000 contains a clause which
states that the Learning and Skills Council has a duty to have due regard to promote
equality of opportunity between disabled and non-disabled learners. In addition to
this, the SEN (Special Educational Needs) and Disability Act 2001 brings education
under the Disability Discrimination Act. It states that providers of post-16 education
have a duty not to treat disabled learners less favourably for a reason related to
their disability and to provide reasonable adjustments when a disabled learner is
likely to be at a substantial disadvantage in relation to a learner who is not disabled.
In 1996 the Further Education Funding Council (FEFC) produced an influential report,
Inclusive Learning, written by a committee chaired by Professor Tomlinson. In
essence, this report shows how learners with disabilities and/or learning difficulties
do not solely or necessarily require specialist additional support in order to gain
access to the curriculum. Instead, the whole process of teaching and learning needs
to be broadened so that the full range of learners can be included within it:
There is a world of difference between, on the one hand, offering courses of
education and training and then giving some students who have learning
difficulties some additional human or physical aids to gain access to those
courses, and, on the other hand, redesigning the very process of learning,
assessment and organisation so as to fit the objectives and learning styles of
the students (FEFC, 1996, p4).
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Access
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This manual aims to give teachers who teach basic skills some practical
information and strategies that will help them to implement some of the vision
spelt out in Inclusive Learning. It will also ensure that they fulfil the requirements
of the Learning and Skills Act and the SEN and Disability Rights in Education
legislation.
It is crucial that practitioners working with this group of learners keep themselves
fully updated on current policy and legislation.
Using the curriculum: principles

A fundamental overarching consideration of inclusive learning is that all learners
are entitled to a learning environment that matches their individual requirements.
For this to occur, there has to be a match between how the learner learns and
how he or she is taught.
The curricula define the range of underpinning skills essential at different levels,
for the effective development and use of literacy and numeracy skills from
Entry 1 to Level 2. The task of the teacher is to combine this information with the
learning contexts of learners, so as to produce learning programmes that
maximise the opportunities for acquisition of these skills for each individual
learner. This document is intended to support the teacher in this task.
There are some essential principles that help to make curriculum delivery
responsive to the needs of a wide range of individual learners, in order to
maximise learning, achievement and learner satisfaction. These principles have a
long and respected history in education.
Key principles for curriculum delivery
assess what the learner can do and build on previous knowledge
develop the learners skills through what motivates and interests

him or her
keep expectations high while giving learners opportunities to

experience success in their own terms
base learning approaches and assessment methodologies on

individual learning styles and help learners understand their own
learning styles.
negotiate and follow the learners priorities

teach skills explicitly, always working with the learners own words,
language, materials and personal context, and taking learning
beyond the learning environment
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Introduction
look for alternative approaches and/or methods of support where

learners have a persistent difficulty
be clear about the purpose of any activity and how it relates to the
skills being developed and the needs of the individual learner
make everything explicit and check understanding frequently
remember that most learners will have a spiky profile which

crosses levels.
review and monitor learning at each stage with the learner

remember that all people have different individual strengths and
weaknesses: build on strengths
Who are the learners?

Adults who have not been successful in learning to read and write may often
have a difficulty in learning or a disability affecting their acquisition of basic
skills. In most cases, they are not just starting to read and write; they have
been taught but have not been successful in learning. They will have learnt
some things that may be helpful but other things that may need to be
unlearned.
Unlike young children, adults have already developed physiologically as well as
psychologically; this includes the neurological pathways for processing perceptual
(e.g. visual and auditory) information. Those with processing difficulties or sensory
or motor impairments will be using many, sometimes all, of these pathways, but
not with complete success; others will have a range of cognitive difficulties
affecting their learning. However, adults with cognitive learning difficulties are not
developmentally like children; they will also have developed compensating
strategies for weaknesses in perceiving or processing written language.
Consequently, approaches that work with young children are unlikely to be
successful with adults.
Because of this uneven development, adult learners will often have a spiky
profile of skills that crosses several levels and will be determined by their
sensory, motor, perceptual and cognitive strengths and weaknesses. It is
important to address the individual strengths and weaknesses of learners in
planning learning and in determining teaching approaches. There are common
profiles for learners with certain difficulties, but there is also great variation
among individuals, and it is this individual learning style that needs to inform
teaching and learning.
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Two examples of spiky profiles

A deaf learner whose first language is British Sign Language (BSL) may be at
Level 1 in reading comprehension. Because of the differences between BSL
and standard English and because of the learners lack of exposure to aural
English, he or she may be only at Entry 2 in sentence focus (in the use of
grammar), and Entry 2 in word focus (vocabulary) as a result of his or her
inability to use phonics.
A dyslexic learner with visualmotor processing problems may have reading
skills at Level 2 but writing skills at Entry 2/3 as a result of handwriting and
spelling difficulties.
Adults have a range of specific needs and purposes for developing or improving
their basic skills, and often have specific contexts in which they need to use
them. For learners with learning difficulties or disabilities, it is important to focus
on these contexts for two reasons:
If basic skills are difficult to acquire, they demand greater effort, so

motivation and relevance will be especially important.
Many learners with learning difficulties or disabilities, such as those

who are dyslexic, learn better in context and may be able to read at a
higher level in an area of personal interest.
Like other learners, those with learning difficulties or disabilities may also have
other factors that affect their learning: for example, they may speak English as an
additional language. Equally, they may have a range of other disabilities beyond
their learning difficulty.
Motivation is particularly important for adults who experience a number of
barriers to learning. The effects of a learning difficulty or disability may be a
significant barrier, but often the real barriers are the result of others responses to
the person or his or her difficulty or disability: a prior experience of failure, low
self-esteem, and teachers negative perceptions and low expectations. For all
these reasons, it is vital to give such learners a successful experience of learning.
In order to do this, it is important to avoid repeating strategies and approaches
that failed previously, and instead to find approaches that suit learners learning
styles and reduce the emotional barriers to learning.
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Introduction
Working with disabled learners or learners with

learning difficulties
Teachers who have had no previous experience of working with people with a
disability or learning difficulty can feel insecure about how to respond to a disabled
learner. They may feel that they cannot teach this learner without some special
expertise. In general, however, best practice in teaching basic skills will help
all learners.
Terminology
People often have concerns about the appropriate terminology to use when
speaking to and about disabled people. This is understandable, considering that
terminology is continually changing.
The table overleaf is a guide to commonly preferred words and phrases to use
with post-school learners, although some learners have other preferences. Where
appropriate, check with the learner.
Principles for working with learners with learning difficulties

and disabilities
In recent years, many disabled people have tried to instigate a change in how
disability is perceived. Put very simply, this change constitutes a shift from seeing
disability as an individuals intrinsic problem that is bound to cause difficulties, to
seeing that it is often society which disables an individual by not being adaptable
to the full range of physical and learning diversity.
For example, a deaf learner who lipreads is not at such a disadvantage in a
well-lit room where the teacher faces the front and articulates clearly, and
where learning activities with peers are designed to maximise the use of visual
cues. If these factors are not in place, however, the learners impairment becomes
a disability.
When working with learners with a disability or learning difficulty, it is very
important not just to focus on the specific disability but to follow certain generic
principles. These are:
treat people as individuals, not conditions
dont assume you know what the implications of a disability are; ask
the learners themselves, and listen to what they say they are the
experts on the effects of their learning difficulty or disability
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Avoid
Use
10
People/learners with...
(e.g. diabetes)
Never use the adjective as a noun

e.g. the disabled, a diabetic
Adjective e.g. dyslexic person or

disabled person
Avoid persons
Learners/students with learning

difficulties and/or disabilities (as a
general term)
Never SLDD or SEN or special

educational needs
Disabled person (if the person

prefers it and/or for variety)
Never cripple(d), invalid, handicap

(except in relation to golf, racing, etc.)
Person with a learning difficulty (in

any education or training
environment) or learning disability
(in health or social services context)
Never SEN, ESN, mentally

handicapped, person with a mental
age of, retarded
Wheelchair user
Never wheelchair bound
Person with partial sight, or blind

person, or partially sighted person
Never visually handicapped person
Deaf, deafened, hard of hearing or

partially hearing, person with
partial hearing
Never deaf and dumb or deaf mute
Person without speech
Never dumb
Hearing aid
Deaf aid
Person with mental health

difficulties or a mental health
service user
Never psychiatrically disturbed

person, mental patient, sufferer
Person with additional support

needs in a learning context
Special needs student/person/

trainee or person with special needs
Child with special educational

needs (only in a school context)
SEN pupil
Person with autistic spectrum

disorders
Autistic people
Toilet/facilities that are accessible
Never disabled toilets, etc. (unless

they are not working)
Personal assistants/enablers
Carers
Non-/not disabled
Avoid normal, which implies that

disability is abnormal
Never people suffering from/afflicted

with, etc. (implying victim role)
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Introduction
understand the social dimension of disability and realise that the

implications of an impairment are the effects it is allowed to have in
current circumstances, and that these circumstances can change
be aware of your own attitudes it is often staff attitudes (for example,

patronising behavior or pity or embarrassment) rather than an
individuals disability that can create barriers
develop a learning environment that encourages all participants to

respond to the range of learning needs, aspirations and difficulties in
the group in positive, frank, supportive and creative ways
learn to have moments when you sit back and observe what works for
a particular learner and what does not and make sure this includes
observing his or her strengths as well as the things he or she finds
difficult; there may be emotional issues that create a barrier to learning
and which you will need to address before learning can take place
do not be afraid of trying things out that might not work; it is sometimes
necessary to explore different ways of working in order to find out
which is the most effective; this is all right as long as you and the
learner work through the issues and decide on the strategy together
ensure that the range of resources is appropriate and adequate to

meet the needs of all learners.
Technology and basic skills for learners with learning

difficulties and disabilities
Technological advances have made an enormous difference to access to learning
for learners with learning difficulties and disabilities. This is particularly true for
learners who have physical or sensory impairments and also for those who are
dyslexic or have learning difficulties. However, effective use of technology hinges
on detailed and effective assessment, followed up by reviews at appropriate
stages. It also requires human support through enablers, technicians and scribes.
The management of these staff is an essential part of planning learning
programmes. Learners will also need training in using technology.
The access needs of many learners may be met by using the standard facilities on
software programs. For example, just changing the background colour of the
page, or the colour, size and style of font may make text more readable. It may
also be of great benefit to those learners who have a visual impairment, who lack
a dominant eye or who have some forms of dyslexia. Using the spell checker or
thesaurus may help those with weak spelling. The AutoCorrect facility can be
used so that learners can in effect type in a form of shorthand. The learner types
the first few letters, and the program predicts the rest. This means that learners
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Curriculum
can write without becoming exhausted if they have a physical impairment or

degenerative condition that is tiring. An additional advantage of this facility for
learners with learning difficulties or other literacy problems is that it may help
them to develop literacy skills beyond spelling.
It is important to ensure that all web sites and intranets reach as high a level of
accessibility as possible (see Resources). The World Wide Web Consortium
(W3C) has a Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI) which, in co-ordination with
organisations around the world, pursues accessibility of the Web (visit their web
site at http://www.w3.org/WAI). There are a number of ways to check the level
of accessibility of a web site. One, developed by the Centre for Applied Special
Technology (CAST), is 'Bobby,' a tool for web-page authors that will help to
identify changes needed to improve the accessibility of web pages (go to
http://www.cast.org/bobby/).
Assistive and enabling technology provides a means of access to literacy, and to
learning in general. Examples of assistive technology include telecommunications
and amplification for learners who are deaf and partially hearing, computer-based
programs to read and produce written text or text in alternative formats such as
Braille, and switches or other adaptations for those who have difficulty with
manipulation and fine motor control. Assistive technology often requires the use of
specialist equipment or programs or adaptations to standard hardware and
software. Learners will usually have undergone a specialist assessment for
assistive technology.
Technology can be used to produce diagrams, charts and illustrations in tactile
forms for learners who cannot access the visual form or who would benefit from
multi-sensory approaches.
Technology has much to offer learners. Alternative and Augmentative
Communication (AAC) with speech-output programs can be used to synthesise
speech. This is particularly helpful to any learner who has difficulty in speaking,
whether this is caused by physical or sensory impairment or a learning difficulty.
Optical character recognition software programs such as Kurzweil 3000 and 1000
can, when used with a scanner, scan or read text to produce voice output or
alternative formats such as Braille. This can benefit any learner who has difficulty
in gaining access to written text, including those who have learning difficulties
and those who are dyslexic, blind or partially sighted.
Technology as a tool for learning can be very powerful in helping learners to improve
their basic skills. The use of technology-based tools, such as PowerPoint, electronic
whiteboards, still images produced with a digital camera and digital media
(streamed audio, video and animation), can greatly assist learners in visualising
spatial concepts such as the properties of shapes or the build-up of fractional parts.
Some learners, particularly younger learners, may be competent in using technology
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Introduction
and take delight in the status this gives to an area of work that they had previously
found tedious and time consuming. Writing on a computer can help to take away
fear of failure and encourage people to become more adventurous in the words they
use, because they know that mistakes can be easily rectified. The use of multimedia
can support multisensory approaches and produce exciting and imaginative learning
materials. For learners who have difficulty in reaching learning venues or who
experience difficulties in interacting, technology-based learning can be crucial.
Remember that for some learners there may be difficulties in using technology.
For example, older learners may never have used a computer before, and some
may find it intimidating or difficult to remember how to use icons or sequence
procedures to open programs. Learners with epilepsy need regular breaks from a
computer screen. Technology is not a panacea for all learners.
Further details about the ways in which technology can be used to support
learners are included in the following sections on particular learning difficulties
and disabilities.
Some effects of disabilities on the acquisition of basic skills

When describing and attempting to identify appropriate responses to learning
difficulties and disabilities, it is very easy inadvertently to encourage
stereotyping. It is important to remember this when reading the following
sections. It is impossible to make generalisations about particular disabilities as
they affect individuals in different ways.
Some conditions are permanent and stable; others fluctuate, with people having
good and bad days. Two people with the same disability can experience different
effects. Furthermore, the effects of one disability can be similar to the effects of
another (for example, deaf learners and learners who have autistic spectrum
disorders may both experience difficulties in using abstract language). In many
ways, it is more useful to look at a spectrum of learning need with different
individuals placed at different points on it. However, because there are so many
myths about the implications of different disabilities, the following pages provide
a brief overview of some of the main factors that might have an effect on the
ability to learn basic skills.
The learners described in the following sections (pp1443) correspond to the
groups of learners identified in Freedom to Learn (DfEE, 2000).
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PePeople who are deaf or partially hearing

Learners may be described as deaf, deafened or partially hearing. Some learners
may have been born deaf, others may become deaf gradually or suddenly as a
child or adult. Most have some residual hearing. Only a very small proportion
have no hearing at all.
There is an important difference between people who are pre-lingually deaf, that
is deaf before learning to speak, and those who become deaf later in life. Many
deaf or partially hearing people have speech that can be difficult to understand.
This in no way equates with their individual proficiency in language or their
intelligence.
Impact on learning
Pre-lingually deaf people usually find it harder than others to acquire spoken and
written language, as this is generally learned through hearing the spoken word.
As adults, their spoken language skills and their understanding of abstract
concepts may be less well developed than those of other people, and sign
language may be their first or preferred language. In numeracy, deaf people can
have difficulty with the language of maths.
Many deaf people find the experience of working in a hearing setting isolating
because of the difficulties that communication poses. Some people may prefer to
learn where there is a significant community of sign language users, and a
teacher who signs. This gives a signing learner direct access to the teacher and
other learners rather than asking them to work through an interpreter or
communication support worker.
Ways of communicating
People may use speech, lipreading, sign, a hearing aid or a mixture of these in
day-to-day communication. Different people will use different methods depending
on personal preference, the degree of deafness and the individuals age at the
onset of deafness. For example, people who are partially hearing, or who have
become deaf later in life may rely more heavily on lipreading, while those who
are pre-lingually deaf or profoundly deaf are more likely to prefer sign language.
Sign language
Many deaf people, although not all, use sign language to communicate. BSL is a
language in its own right with its own grammar, syntax and vocabulary. There are
other sign languages with which learners may be familiar or which they may use,
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for example American Sign Language. Standard English will need to be taught
specifically, in a similar way to that in which English is taught to ESOL or English
as an additional language (EAL) learners. Deaf people whose first acquired
language was standard English may use Sign Supported English (SSE), a form of
visual English using BSL vocabulary. If a learner uses sign language as his or her
main method of communication, a trained sign-language interpreter or
communication-support worker can interpret the speech of teachers and other
people. Learners who use sign language will need to be taught both vocabulary
and grammar that are unfamiliar to them, as might their sign language
interpreters. Learners may produce pieces of writing that may appear
ungrammatical but which are likely to be following the BSL grammatical
structure. Such work is not indicative of a learning difficulty (see also British Sign
Language (BSL) in Writing section p155).
For further details see guidance on Working with support staff in Speaking and
listening section, page 57.
Lipreading
Lipreading is an art, not a science, and relies heavily on:
a knowledge of the language
an understanding of the context
good lighting
good acoustics and a quiet environment
an awareness of lipreading ambiguities
clear speech delivered at a natural, if slightly slower pace.
Lipreading is not a straightforward activity: it is difficult or impossible to read

some sounds and some grammatical structures. Only 25 per cent of words can be
lipread. Partially hearing and deafened learners in particular may benefit from
lipreading classes, which can enable learners to develop coping strategies as
well as lipreading skills in a relaxed and supportive environment. Lipreaders may
need to use a lipspeaker, in the same way as BSL signers use an interpreter/
communication support worker. For further detail see Lipreading and learners who
are deaf or partially hearing in Speaking and listening section, page 53.
Note takers
Some people will also use note takers in addition to, or instead of, communication
support. Some note takers are trained in preparing notes for BSL users.
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Hearing aids
Many deaf or partially hearing people use hearing aids even if they use other
means of communication. Hearing aids do not compensate for hearing loss in the
way that spectacles might remedy short sight. They operate by amplifying sounds,
but in doing so all sounds are equally amplified, including background noise, which
can be problematic. Although hearing aids are becoming more sophisticated, it is
important that teachers are aware of the effectiveness and limitations of the aid
used by a learner and design learning activities with this in mind.
Technology
Telecommunications
There are a number of ways in which telecommunication is particularly helpful for
learners who are deaf or partially hearing. A Minicom is a text phone that can be
coupled to a conventional phone or plugged directly into a phone socket, but it
can only communicate with other Minicom users if Typetalk, the national
telephone relay service, is used. More and more deaf people are using fax as a
means of communication. E-mail is now becoming more widespread and is used
extensively by deaf people. Mobile phones are popular for text messages and
some can send and receive faxes or access the internet. Conventional phones
may be used with telecoil and/or amplifier. Most modern phones can give a
clearer reception if the personal hearing aid is switched to the T setting, and
there are models that have a loudness control for the receiver. Some deaf people
rely on pagers to receive messages. Teachers may also need to learn, or at least
be aware of, the text dictionary and the language of abbreviations used in
telecommunications. The use of video conferencing via the internet is increasing
as bandwidth increases and the quality of images improves.
Amplification
A means of amplifying sound may help some deaf people. As with hearing aids,
this provision does not have the same effect as glasses on sight; it merely makes
sounds louder and does little to clarify the distortion. There are several means of
amplifying sounds, and the chosen method will depend on the deaf persons
preference. These include:
16
a Personal Hearing Aid, which is usually behind the ear and has a
T setting for use with loops and phones. It can also be linked to a
radio-aid. Although it is discreet, it picks up all background noise
indiscriminately and is almost useless over distances greater than
six feet from the speaker. New digital personal hearing aids are now
proving quite popular.
a Radio Hearing Aid, which requires the teacher to wear a transmitter

and microphone. The learner wears the receiver linked by either a
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personal loop or direct input to the personal hearing aid. It may also
be possible to link it to video and tape players, depending on the make
and model. It gives priority to the teachers voice/sound source, can
operate at a distance and is battery powered; it can therefore be used
on visits, but the batteries need regular recharging, and it is not very
discreet.
a conference microphone linked to a radio aid, which can be useful for

discussions or seminars. It needs to be on a padded surface so that it
does not pick up unnecessary vibrations. It is good if the group is sitting
in a circle for discussion, as it is multidirectional, but it can cause
confusion if more than one person speaks at a time. Like the Radio
Hearing Aid, it is not discreet.
several varieties of loop including: a fixed loop, which is a permanent

fixture hard wired into the room; a portable loop, which can be set up
in any suitable room; a personal loop, which is connected to a radio-aid
and worn around the neck. A loop cuts down on background noise,
giving an advantage to the speakers voice, but the teacher may be on
a lead if it is hard wired. Loops can pick up interference from other
loops, neon lights and computers in the building, and also cut out other
speakers voices. All types of loop require the teacher or speaker to
wear or use a microphone. The microphone may be connected to the
system through a hard wire or by radio. Teachers and learners need to
take care when moving around the room where there are trailing wires.
Loops need regular checking to ensure they are in working order, and
the users need to remember to switch them on.
Deaf people who have difficulty with the English language may well, in common
with other non-deaf learners, find spell checkers, computer-based dictionaries and
the thesaurus helpful to support them in written work. Certain operating systems,
like Windows, allow the user to configure the set-up so that the borders of the
windows pulsate (flash) to warn the user of an error, as an alternative to sound.
Approaches to consider when working with deaf or partially hearing
people
Face the person at all times when speaking. Speak clearly and
encourage other learners to do the same. Speak at a measured but
normal speed. Speaking slowly distorts lip patterns, which become
impossible to read.
Approach a deaf person who is working from the front or side to avoid
startling him or her.
Arrange lighting and seating so that everyones face is well lit. Avoid
standing in front of a window or light: this will place your face in shadow.
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18
People who depend on using their eyes to obtain information will not
be able to take notes at the same time, so prepare notes in advance.
Do not talk and demonstrate at the same time.

Group work can be difficult for deaf people. Get learners into the habit
of indicating when they are speaking. Alternatively, gesture towards
the person speaking.
In group work, repeat questions when giving answers.
Be aware that loud noises can be distressing when amplified through

a hearing aid.
Lipreading is very tiring: learners will need to have periodic rests from
lipreading.
Unknown vocabulary is hard to lipread. Write vocabulary down and

check that it is understood.
It is difficult to lipread if the context is not known. The better a talk is

structured the better it is followed. Handouts and overheads can be
very helpful in complementing spoken instructions and descriptions, but
provide these in advance, as learners cannot lipread at the same time.
Take care not to speak while writing on a board or chart. Learners

cannot lipread while the teachers back is turned.
Make use of as much visual information as possible such as pictures,

labels, diagrams and key words written up. Whiteboards can have a
positive effect because they grab the attention of learners who are
deaf and cast enough light for signing or lipreading to be seen clearly,
even from the back of the class.
Use short clear statements and vocabulary, avoiding or explaining

abstract concepts or jargon. If you find you have not been understood,
think of a different way of explaining the same idea.
Repeat the beginning of an utterance and not just the end, and do not
change the wording. Deaf and hearing impaired people may tune-in
late to the fact that they are being addressed and miss the beginning.
When working with interpreters make time for them, and always
address the deaf person and not the interpreter.
Interpreting is tiring: do not speak too quickly. Allow interpreters to

have breaks. There might be times when two interpreters are needed.
Any videos or audio tapes that are to be used in the session should
have written transcripts. Deaf learners will benefit if interpreters and
Try to keep background noise to a minimum.
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communication support workers have access to these before the

session and are given notes, handouts and scripts of videos in
advance.
Write down statements wherever possible, but check that these have
been understood.
For sign-language users, many of the techniques for teaching grammar

to ESOL/EAL learners may be appropriate, especially on language
functions or colloquialisms.
Make (and encourage learners to look for) direct and explicit

comparisons between the different grammars and forms.
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People who are blind or partially sighted

Some learners will have been born blind or with partial sight. A far larger number
acquire visual impairment in later life. There are many myths around blindness.
Many people assume that there is a distinct line between seeing clearly and
seeing nothing at all. In fact, visual impairment covers a whole spectrum from
people who are only slightly affected to the very small proportion who are totally
blind and cannot distinguish light from dark. Only a small minority of partially
sighted people have no useful sight. All people experience deteriorating eyesight
with advancing age.
Impact on learning
The most obvious impact of blindness or partial sight on learning basic skills is
that learners will not be able to access standard written text or numbers. This
means that teachers will need to ensure that suitable alternative formats are
available. Remember, the larger the print size, the more time learners will need to
assimilate the content and meaning of the text. (See Reading and access to text
for blind and partially sighted learners in Reading section pp901).
Blind and partially sighted people are more dependent on their hearing for
information gathering. People who have been blind since birth may have missed
out on informal opportunities for learning to read, for example through the
experience of signs and labels in everyday life. They will also have a conceptual
framework for such concepts as distance, dimensions and scale that is not drawn
from visual images. The basis of direct experience on which people who have
been blind since birth must build their understanding cannot include images such
as Big Ben or perspective drawings. They may also have missed out on gathering
everyday practical information about the world around them, which sighted
people take for granted. They may therefore need to be introduced to new
situations in a practical experiential manner before moving on to form concepts.
There is a particular difficulty in making tables, pictures, diagrams, graphs and
maps accessible to partially sighted people. Work has been done in producing
raised images, particularly for those who are Braille users (the Royal National
Institute for the Blind (RNIB) produces information on this). It should be noted that
often tactile diagrams are a sighted persons solution to a blind persons problem,
and in many cases it is preferable to present information in an alternative format,
for example using a model or a verbal description. When learners are using speechbased software, it is easier if information is given in a non-tabulated form, as
speech recognition packages have difficulty identifying columns, boxes and other
graphical conventions. Web sites and intranets should follow the same conventions
and should be Bobby compliant. (See Resources.)
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Access to visual information

Most partially sighted adults will have a preferred system of accessing
information. The most common of these are:
large print either enlarged on paper or via a closed circuit television

providing screen magnification. Remember to establish the optimum
text size (in points) and select a clear sans serif font, such as Arial. If
print is larger than needed, learners will be dealing with unnecessarily
cumbersome amounts of paper. Wherever possible, text should be
reformatted onto A4 with page breaks at sensible points. Learners with
some forms of visual impairment such as tunnel vision will see better if
print is kept small. (See Reading and access to text for blind and partially
sighted learners in Reading section pp901.)
colour of print and paper such as black on white, black on yellow,

white on black
audio tape
Braille
Moon (a simplified tactile system based on letters of the alphabet,

along Braille principles)
personal computer so that information can be accessed via a screenreading program such as Jaws or textHELP, or a magnification
program such as Supernova
a combination of those listed above.
It is often assumed that all or many blind people use Braille. In fact, that is far
from the case. Approximately 3 per cent of people registered blind and partially
sighted use Braille. People who have been blind since birth may have learned
Braille. However, learning Braille is a lengthy process, and those who have lost
their sight later in life may feel that other options, such as Moon, are more
suitable. People with tunnel vision, astigmatism and even some users of bifocals
may have a problem holding in view enough text for fluent reading.
Technology
Technology has had a huge impact on the capacity of blind and partially sighted
people to access information. As technology advances, the options for blind and
partially sighted people continue to increase. Computers can be adapted to output
information through a voice synthesiser, in print of any size, or in Braille. Some
computers have a panel of raised dots, known as a soft Braille line, that provides
a Braille version of what is displayed on screen. Keyboards can be adapted or
given Braille keys. Optical character recognition software (OCRs) is most
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commonly used with a scanner (rather like a photocopier), on which you place
printed materials. The printed material is read into the computer, which, with the
appropriate hardware and software, delivers the output in a chosen format. A
scanner is used in conjunction with a personal computer, but a Kurzweil reading
machine carries out the whole process. Word search and other facilities that help
to navigate or highlight texts are also useful for those who cannot scan or speedread material.
Many people now use voice-recognition software, which allows them to dictate
to the computer. Another common piece of technology employed by many Braille
users is an electronic note-taking device, such as Braille n Speak.
Closed circuit cameras (CCTV) can be used in a variety of learning situations, and
smaller versions currently available are particularly useful. For instance, CCTV can
be set up by a teacher to display a clear close-up view of a demonstration on a
large screen. Smaller miniaturised cameras (Webcams) make this increasingly
straightforward to set up. Signing can also be provided using CCTV and
videoconferencing.
As technology advances, new products are coming on the market all the time.
RNIB provides factsheets on all types of access technology, and web-site
guidelines, and can help with assessment of equipment needs. They also have a
Brailling Service that can translate text and also grids and diagrams into Braille.
Approaches to consider
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It is particularly important to ask partially sighted people what

helps them most, because the support they require may be very
different.
Adjust lighting for individuals. Generally good lighting is helpful, but

for some learners too much light can be a hindrance, and glare from
shiny surfaces can be very distracting. Many learners who are
partially sighted are photophobic, that is they cannot tolerate bright
light.
When talking you need to make sure you stand in a well-lit place,
facing people, but not directly in front of a window, as your face will
then be in shadow.
Produce materials in advance if they need to be put into Braille,

modified print or onto tape.
Written materials are easier to decipher if they are clear and simple,
on non-glossy paper and with strong contrast in colour and tone. A
sans serif font such as Arial at 14 point size is a good starting point for
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clarity. Black print on yellow or white paper is usually clear, although

learners may have individual preferences. (See Reading and access to
text for blind and partially sighted learners in Reading section pp901.)
An uncluttered layout without too much on one page is helpful.
Avoid placing text over a background illustration or pattern.
Some people find it easier to use a tape recorder, as it may be the

most efficient way for them to review materials and ideas.
Arrangements should ensure the best possible sound reproduction.
Eliminate background noises as much as possible and speak clearly.
Ask speakers to introduce themselves by name in group discussions.

(See guidance on Discussion in Speaking and listening section pp512.)
Prepare handouts in advance so that people who are blind or partially

sighted have diagrams, etc. to hand.
Always read out what is written when using a whiteboard, overhead

transparency or PowerPoint presentation, and explain fully any
diagrams, illustrations, acronyms or videos you use.
Use black or blue pens and not red or orange on a whiteboard, and
remember that a screen can cause physical pain if it is too bright.
Blind and partially sighted people may need particular assessment or

examination arrangements such as a separate room, extra time,
readers or scribes for written tests. Awarding bodies produce
guidelines on assessment for people with learning difficulties and/or
disabilities.
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People who have mental health problems

There is widespread misunderstanding and prejudice about mental health,
despite the fact that about one in five of the population experience some form of
mental ill health at some stage in their lives. This prejudice in itself will have an
impact on learning basic skills. Depression, stress and anxiety are the most
common types of mental illness. Learners may lack confidence and have low selfesteem. Learners may have the same full range of intellectual abilities as the
population as a whole.
Impact on learning
Learners with mental ill health may experience greater anxieties about learning
basic skills than other learners. Some may take medication that affects their
concentration, memory and their ability to participate. Short-term memory may be
especially affected.
For many people their mental health may be variable, with good and bad days.
This may affect their attendance, punctuality and behaviour. Some learners may
be unable to engage in the learning process until relevant emotional issues are
resolved. Progress will be variable, and regression can be common.
Success can mean that some learners may be reluctant to move on.
Assessment, particularly when it is formal (such as written tests), can be stressful
and cause the person to perform below standard.
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Establish a good relationship and give plenty of encouragement. Deal

sensitively with personal information and focus on what is needed to
help the learner to learn.
Enable learners to have immediate successes in learning.
Some learners may experience changes in behaviour that may create

an uncomfortable situation in the learning environment. It is better to
allow learners to withdraw, if they wish to, rather than feel obliged to
manage the behaviour, which could lead to confrontation. This
behaviour is more likely to be caused by external circumstances rather
than the current learning situation.
Allow sufficient time for learners to settle down and demonstrate their
skills to the full.
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Plan flexible programmes of learning to respond to variations in

capacity to learn, attendance, etc.
For these learners, it will be particularly crucial to design learning

sessions that include a variety of activities.
When designing learning programmes and learning support,

consideration should be given to maximising access to catch-up
activities when sessions are missed. (This applies equally to all
learners with attendance difficulties.)
Provide practice, reassurance and possibly extra time for formal

assessments, and consider providing alternative assessment
approaches when appropriate.
Discussion of personal issues can occur in basic skills classes, and

teachers may begin inappropriately to take on the role of other
professionals such as counsellors. Teachers need to be clear about
the extent of their role and know when and how to refer on.
Encourage a supportive environment and activities that can

accommodate individuals when they find social interaction
problematic.
Technology
Learners with mental health problems may have poor muscular control, which is
sometimes related to drug therapy. Instead of a regular mouse, a roller ball with
single click function and lock can be a great help. High resolution PCs avoid
distressing flickering; anti-glare screens give added protection.
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People with dyslexia and related specific learning

difficulties (e.g. dyspraxia, dysgraphia, dyscalculia)
Dyslexia is most commonly described as a difficulty with processing written
language. It is independent of intelligence and affects at least 10 per cent of the
population, 4 per cent severely. It is often the case that dyslexic adults were not
identified at school and therefore may not know they are dyslexic. Many of these
undiagnosed dyslexic adults will be found in basic skills classes or needing basic
skills support for academic or vocational courses or for work.
Handwriting difficulties may be known as dysgraphia. There are also difficulties
such as dyspraxia (poor motor co-ordination or clumsiness) and dyscalculia
(difficulties with calculation/maths), which are part of the dyslexic syndrome, but
in some cases may function as a primary disability.
It is important to keep in mind that learners with sensory disabilities and learning
difficulties may also have dyslexic difficulties. Others may experience similar
difficulties to dyslexic people. Those who are partially hearing, for example, may
have similar problems to those with auditory processing difficulties, as they
attempt to rely on incomplete auditory information when reading and spelling.
Dyslexic learners are likely to have some or several of the following difficulties to
differing degrees:
26
discriminating or holding sounds, which results in problems decoding

when reading, confusing or omitting sounds when spelling, word
confusions or mispronunciations
recognising letters or familiar words when reading, or remembering

the visual image of a word, the sequence of letters in spelling or
numbers and signs in maths
a poor short-term or working memory, or difficulty storing and

retrieving linguistic information this can affect their ability to
remember language-based information such as instructions or copying
from the board
poor motor integration, resulting in difficulties controlling a pen when

writing, omitting or repeating letters when spelling
directional confusions
problems with sequencing and organisation
a poor sense of time
getting lost easily
difficulty achieving automaticity or fluency of skills.
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Impact on learning basic skills

The kinds, patterns and levels of difficulty will vary according to the type(s) of
difficulty and the degree of impact within individual learning contexts.
Dyslexia affects the acquisition of basic skills in many ways; indeed, it is often
partly defined as a difficulty in acquiring basic skills. Dyslexic learners may have
a history of persistent problems in learning to read, write and/or spell, and
sometimes with maths.
Dyslexic learners may commonly have experience of failure to learn by traditional
methods, and they will frequently have an experience of remedial classes that
may have reinforced their failure to learn. Because of this, it is especially
important to identify and understand their difficulties and use approaches that
suit their learning style and give them an experience of success.
Dyslexic learners may have a range of difficulties that will affect their learning in
different ways. For instance, those with auditory processing difficulties may
be able to develop a good sight vocabulary for reading but will be unable to learn
or use phonics effectively. They may be unable to work out new words through
phonics. They often rely heavily on context as a compensatory strategy. Spelling
will be especially difficult for learners with auditory processing problems, as they
are unable to discriminate, segment and manipulate sounds efficiently. They are
often unable to attempt a word unless they have a visual image of it.
Other dyslexic adults may primarily experience visual processing difficulties,
which may lead them to experience visual disturbances. For some, these take the
form of problems in perceiving print accurately. Print may appear to wobble, jump,
blur, float out of sequence or drop off the page, causing acute visual stress and
difficulties in forming stable images of words and letters. Most dyslexic adults will
have difficulties with word recognition when reading; this means that they
frequently do not recognise familiar, even very familiar, words. Because of this,
they will rely on sounding out words. These readers may find it especially hard to
read irregular words, such as quay, ache or debt, which cannot
be sounded out. They may have most difficulty at sentence and text level, because
they put so much attention into working out the words that they lose
comprehension and may not be able to make use of semantic and syntactic cues
to help them read. They may also easily lose their place or skip a line without
realising it.
A poor visual memory for words and letter sequences means that these learners
often spell phonetically and are unable to tell when a word looks right. They
may also have directional confusions that affect their ability to tell the time on an
analogue watch.
Visual processing difficulties often, but not always, go hand in hand with poor
eyehand co-ordination or general difficulties in integrating the motor, or
movement, function.
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Learners with motor integration problems may have difficulties following a line
of print or keeping track of the letters in a multisyllabic word. They may also have
problems pronouncing multisyllabic words. They will have difficulties, sometimes
severe, with handwriting and organisation. The lack of automaticity in forming
letters when handwriting can often result in great difficulties in expressing
themselves fluently. They have to concentrate so much on forming the letters that
they may forget what they intend to say, or find it so slow that they become
discouraged and write very little.
Many dyslexic learners will have some combination of auditory, visual and/or
motor processing difficulties. Learners working at Entry Level will often have
problems with all three, which intensifies their struggle to learn to read and write.
Difficulties in developing automaticity further increases problems, as spellings
learned, for example, are lost when concentrating on writing.
Some learners may have other related difficulties, such as severe language
problems (deep dyslexia/dysphasia) or more severe motor problems (dyspraxia)
or other cognitive difficulties. The more complex the range of difficulties, the
more difficult it will be for them to learn. Both teacher and learner must
acknowledge this so that both understand why learning requires so much extra
effort and why it is important to learn in a different way.
Screening and diagnostic assessment

Unlike most learners with other disabilities and learning difficulties, dyslexic
adults may not have had their dyslexia identified. In addition, they have usually
been labelled negatively at school, which often affects their self-esteem and
confidence in their ability to learn. Consequently, the identification and
understanding of their dyslexia is important for their learning.
Some common indicators of dyslexia include:
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a history of difficulties learning to read, even with extra help

continuing problems with reading, e.g. decoding new words,
misreading, missing out words or lines, finding the print blurs or
dances
persistent difficulties with spelling, spellings that are far from the
expected spelling, erratic spelling, being unable to remember spellings
when trying to learn them in the same way and at the same pace as
their peers
miscopying, lots of crossings out, messy or laborious handwriting

difficulties learning the alphabet, months of the year, times tables, other
rote learning
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problems remembering or mishearing instructions, messages,

numbers, facts
difficulties telling the time on a clock face, knowing how long things
take
problems planning and organising, putting things in sequence, missing

out steps.
There are screening tests for adults that can help in identifying dyslexia, for
example DAST and LADS.
Once a learner is identified as having several indicators of dyslexia, it is
important to arrange a full diagnostic assessment. The purposes of this
assessment, and what will come out of it, need to be made clear to the learner,
who needs to be a full and willing participant in the process. A diagnostic
assessment may be done by an educational or occupational psychologist or by a
specialist trained teacher. However, it is very important that the person
conducting the assessment is experienced in working with adults. It is
recommended that all basic skills provision is delivered by a specialist trained
teacher or with access to a specialist capable of diagnosing dyslexia and advising
on teaching strategies.
Methods for diagnosing dyslexia in adults vary and the appropriateness and
validity of many tests is contentious. It is most important to ensure that the
diagnosis is constructive in helping the learners to make sense of past failure and
understand both their difficulties and strengths more clearly. The diagnosis will
then provide the basis for a successful learning experience and appropriate
support in achieving stated goals.
The dyslexic learning style

Dyslexic people can often perform a range of complex tasks, such as solving
complicated problems in electronics or design, yet cannot do the seemingly
simple: learn to read and spell, order and organise writing, copy from the board,
remember instructions, tell the time or find their way around. One way to look at
this pattern of strengths and weaknesses is as a cognitive or learning style.
Many dyslexic people themselves experience their dyslexia as a difference in
how they think or learn.
Because of their language processing and short-term memory difficulties, dyslexic
learners rely heavily on meaning and understanding, which means:
a highly personalised approach to learning

a need to have the learning process and conventions made explicit
a need to understand how and why in order to learn.
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Many, but not necessarily all, of the following learning styles fit most dyslexic
learners: They:
think holistically (all at once) rather than step by step

need to see the whole picture first before they can learn the steps or
details
are poor at remembering sequences but good at remembering patterns
are good at seeing how lots of things are connected, how things work
are poor at memorising but remember well when they really

understand something
learn by experience, not from being told
are often concrete, tactile learners
are not good at learning or applying rules or generalisations they
learn from the particular to the general
need to make personal connections to remember things
learn better with the help of colour, humour, stories, images
learn to read and write by having a personal interest in the subject

matter
can, in maths, often get concepts but have trouble with calculation
processes and the language of maths.
Technology and dyslexia

Computers can minimise spelling and handwriting problems for dyslexic learners,
allowing them to express themselves more freely in writing and thus significantly
improve the quality of their writing. They can also help enormously with planning
and organising difficulties, reducing the frustration of writing.
For many learners, a keyboard makes a sufficient enough difference, as learners
do not have to form the letters. Specialist keyboards and mice are also available,
as are larger, coloured key-tops that can be stuck onto the keys of any keyboard.
Make sure that background colour, colour and type of font, and spacing between
letters are adjustable to suit individual needs. Arial, Comic Sans MS and Tahoma
fonts are commonly preferred.
Others, however, will need voice-recognition (speech) and reading software.
These are especially useful for learners with severe reading and/or writing
difficulties and for learners frustrated from long experience of failure.
As well as giving the experience and pleasure of reading to those who have never
had it, reading software can be effectively combined with voice recognition
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technology, enabling a technological version of scribing/language experience which

gives the learner more autonomy. Learners need to train the software, but this can
be done through introducing their own words and reading their own writing. Voicerecognition technology can also help in developing writing skills, such as written
expression, sentence structure, punctuation and proof-reading. Learners may need
to try to see whether they need discrete or continuous speech software.
Other useful hardware includes spell checkers, dictionaries and thesauruses,
many of which have a speech facility.
Cassette recorders can be a great help with comprehension for those with poor
word recognition (see guidance on Comprehension strategies in Reading section
p119). They can also be used to record important information, to record ideas
when planning writing, or as a learning resource (e.g. for learning tables).
A Reading pen is especially useful for those with auditory processing
problems. It scans and pronounces individual words and sentences and defines
words.
There is software available that adds speech output and has word-prediction and
spell-check facilities. Word prediction helps develop language, as it is based on
units of meaning. Other software can be used for mind mapping, drafting and
making notes. The non-linear nature of mind maps is particularly helpful to those
with a holistic, non-sequential learning style.
Approaches to consider when working with dyslexic learners
Avoid repeating approaches that have not worked in the past. Use
approaches that match learners learning style. Do not keep trying
phonics or look and say if these methods have previosly failed.
Teach basic skills in a context. Use learners own written work and
materials from a vocational area the learner is studying or working in,
or subject content that is of particular interest to the learner
(e.g. car repair, recipes, stories, environment or family history).
Help learners understand their learning styles, their strengths and

weaknesses, and how their dyslexia affects their learning.
Find teaching methods, approaches and materials that suit their

learning styles, such as using highlighters and scissors and paste to
manipulate written materials.
Encourage learners to find their own strategies so that they become

independent in their learning. For example, talk to learners about how
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they get around certain difficulties, or offer them memorising

techniques. Look at mnemonics (a visual approach to learning),
auditory strategies and learning by doing.
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Recognise that processing difficulties will not be overcome by

practice, so avoid persisting with ineffective approaches such as
trying to get the learner to hear the sounds.
When addressing weaknesses, such as poor comprehension in

someone with poor (visual) word recognition, scaffold the skill to be
learned and look for compensating strategies such as the use of tapes.
(See guidance on Comprehension strategies in Reading section p119 and
Scaffolding approach in Speaking and listening section p77.)
See technology not only as a tool for supporting the development of

basic skills, but also as a potential way in to developing the skill, or an
alternative means of access. Some people may never master the skills
for spelling, and it is important that they should have access to literacy
that is independent of spelling.
Encourage learners to make visual representations of information,

such as mind maps they will then be able to recall this more easily.
When preparing handouts, pay attention to how easy they are to read
and consider using more accessible, sans serif, fonts.
Use colour and imagery to highlight key points or important details.
Offer a range of lined coloured paper for learners to write on (this may
have to be photocopied or specially ordered). If learners have a colour
that is best for them, ensure all handouts are printed on it for them.
Emphasise over-learning to help get learning into long-term memory.
Teach spelling through an individualised spelling programme (see

guidance on Using an individualised spelling programme in Writing
section pp165 & 167.)
Use multisensory approaches to develop strengths and support

weaknesses.
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People with physical disabilities

Learners with physical disabilities have the same range of intellectual abilities as
the population as a whole. Physical impairments can take many different forms.
They can be temporary or permanent, fluctuating, stable or degenerative, and
may affect parts of the body or the whole of it. Learners may have experienced
barriers to learning that relate to negative perceptions of disability and low
expectations. They may also have missed out on vital stages of learning during
their schooling, affecting language acquisition and the development of literacy.
Access to the environment

Impact on learning
The initial barrier experienced by some people with physical disabilities is getting
to the place of learning. For many the inaccessibility of buildings is a problem, so
there are important questions to ask: Is the learning environment accessible? Can
learners get into the building? Can they get around when in it? Is the learner
comfortable? Is there somewhere for learners to rest or take breaks? Would a
different chair be better? Is the table height appropriate? Is the learner able to
reach the teaching and learning materials? For some people with medical
conditions, having to walk long distances can be tiring and affect learning. Others
who are unable to see well may experience difficulties in navigating their way
around or locating learning materials or resources. There can be subtle but
significant differences in impact.
Wherever possible, ensure that the preparatory work on access to the

learning environment is undertaken before the learner starts the
learning programme.
Think carefully about the location where the learning takes place in
addition to any ongoing programme of improvements to access.
Plan the arrangement of, and adaptations to, furniture and learning
resources.
Organise orientation sessions for individuals, to assist navigation

around the building(s), materials and learning resources.
Structure learning sessions to incorporate short breaks, according to

individual needs.
Use low-tech aids, such as cereal packets to cut out glare on a visual
display unit, or thick books or telephone directories to adjust height.
Ensure access to personal, assistive technology.
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Writing by hand
Impact on learning
Many people who want or need to develop their basic skills have difficulties with
producing handwritten work, because the fine motor control required inhibits the
speed and quality of their handwriting.
Establish whether handwritten work is a significant feature of the

programme requirements, and the extent to which handwriting is a
priority for each person. For some individuals it might be very important
for them to be able to improve their writing.
Look at different styles of pen in order to work out which works most
effectively for them.
Liaise with the learner and previous basic skills providers to consider
solutions.
Explore simple adaptations, such as a grip placed around a pen.
Assess or refer individuals for assessment for other writing communication aids, such as a specially adapted keyboard.
Apply to the validating body for examination or assessment
adjustments, which may include using an amanuensis.
Perceptual difficulties
Learners with physical disabilities, neurological conditions or acquired brain injury
may have perceptual difficulties. Perceptual difficulties may take different forms.
Some learners have difficulty actually receiving information by seeing or
hearing, while others can see or hear but cannot process the information they
receive.
Impact on learning
Difficulties can arise with auditory, visual, spatial perception and/or processing.
This can cause learners to have difficulty in finding their way around a building
with a complicated layout and can also lead to difficulties in reading and writing,
for example in locating the correct place on the page, or moving from left to right
when reading or writing. These learners may have difficulties with aspects of
basic skills which require precise tracking, particularly where information is
displayed in tables or multiple-choice grids.
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Explore with the learner techniques that help to compensate for

perceptual difficulties. For example, discuss ways of isolating lines or
blocks of information, possibly using windows cut out of card.
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Provide clear visual guidelines. For example, ensure there is a bold

margin drawn on the left side of the page and highlight or embolden
the first word of a sentence.
Use a frame or ruler to identify the line of text and to help move the eye
to the next line.
Add small symbols to a page to indicate left and right.
Experiment with different ways of presenting information and

organising activities to maximise understanding in negotiation with
the learner.
Clearly chunk processes and information: signpost important facts.
Provide small-step instructions.
Provide explicit, logical links using different colours, cue lines,

diagrams and known symbols when appropriate.
Use auditory back-up/support/alternatives.
Speech difficulties
People with a neurological impairment, people who stammer or have other
speech and language difficulties, along with some people who are deaf or
partially hearing, may all have difficulty in communicating through speech. (See
guidance on Working with learners with speech difficulties in Speaking and
listening section pp545.)
Impact on learning
Including learners with communication difficulties can present staff with certain
challenges. There are some important principles to remember:
People with communication difficulties may well find group work

challenging and stressful.
People with communication difficulties are often thought to be far less

able than they really are. It is very important to check your own
response to see whether you are automatically making assumptions
about peoples intelligence and ability because they are difficult to
understand or their speech is very slow or slurred. The potential of
these learners has often gone unrecognised.
People listening to someone with a speech impairment often find it

embarrassing. Remember this is not the speakers problem. Make sure
this does not lead you to avoid including the person in discussions.
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Establish whether a learner who experiences communication

difficulties has established a successful alternative system of
communication, for example:
using an assistant to act as communicator
using handwritten notes.
Initially ask questions that only need a short answer. However, avoid
questions that require only yes or no answers, as these can appear
patronising.
Ask questions and allow people to show and demonstrate, for

example, answers to calculations.
Ensure you do not exclude a learner with a speech difficulty from any
group activities, and manage the pace of the discussion to ensure that
other learners do not interrupt inappropriately.
Listen closely to what learners say; always respond to the content of

what someone is saying, and do not be misled by the style of delivery.
When it is difficult to understand learners, keep calm, watch their lips,

and take account of facial expressions and body language. Try to avoid
guessing or completing sentences for them, unless learners want you
to do this, to speed communication. Always check with the learner.
Allow time for learners to make their contributions.
If you have not understood what someone has said, ask him or her to
repeat it. Do not just nod and assume that it was not important, but
repeat back to the learner what you think he or she has said, to
confirm understanding.
A speech therapist can provide invaluable support. Some NHS Trusts

provide support to learners.
using a communication board (with letters and words on it) or a

computer with a speech synthesiser
The strategies outlined above are important for the teacher and all members of
the group.
Memory difficulties
Memory difficulties may be one of the major issues faced by those people who
have acquired brain injury, in common with some dyslexic learners or those with
learning difficulties. Responses will need to relate directly and explicitly to
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individual learning goals, learning programmes and contexts. Early guidance

should be given in relation to alternative ways of learning and assessing.
Impact on learning
Memory is fundamental to learning, and memory difficulties will have an impact
on learning basic skills. It can affect long- or short-term memory. Learners with
short-term memory difficulties may find it very hard to remember instructions,
particularly multiple instructions or words previously learned. Some learners may
have fluctuating memories. They may be able to complete a task in one session,
but be unable to do it in subsequent sessions. This causes difficulties when
recording progress on the acquisition of skills. Memory also affects learners
ability to sequence. Some learners with long-term memory difficulties may not
learn even after many repetitions and much practice, and appear to start again
each time. It is important to recognise that this is due to perseveration, which is
a specific memory difficulty. Memory difficulties do not correlate with a persons
general intelligence.
Work with learners on finding memory strategies or triggers that are

effective for them (for example, visual cues or the initial sound of a
word).
Try learning in chunks (not mnopqr, but mn, op, qr).
Find alternatives where necessary, such as: an alphabet card (where

learners cannot remember alphabetical order), key words and word
banks; and post-its and prompt cards for tasks. Tape record important
aspects of study.
Ask questions to help learners to retrieve information; do not expect

spontaneous recall.
Do not persist with memory-based activities and practice where these

are not working.
Use models as memory prompts.
Use cue cards and posters with, for example, multiplication tables,
abbreviations.
Responses will need to relate directly and explicitly to individual

learning goals.
Encourage the habit of using other kinds of individualised aids, e.g.

diary, personal dictionaries, audio instructions on personal stereo,
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topic-based vocabulary lists, number aids, wallets with personal

information such as address, next of kin, etc.
Use specialist support, not just to diagnose, explain or define where

the difficulty lies, but also to build up a bank of learning strategies.
Technology and people with physical disabilities

Many learners with physical disabilities are able to access standard PCs for
reading, writing and other work via alternative and modified keyboards, onscreen and touch-screen keyboards, switch systems, tracker balls, roller balls
with single-click function and lock, other specialist mice, screen-reading software
and voice-input systems. Standard access options with MS windows enables
learners to change screen colour, font size, font style and type of mouse pointer.
Furniture and low-tech devices are also a consideration, such as adjustable
furniture, wrist rests, copy holders, glare guards, page turners, etc. Portability of
systems is important, and it is helpful if systems are on trolleys. The application
of wireless technology is particularly useful for this.
There is a large amount and an increasing range of assistive technology
available. For descriptions of assistive technology products and suppliers, look at
the Resources section.
A welcome addition more recently has been the increase in computer-based
assessment materials.
When using technology with learners with physical disabilities, human support
through enablers, technicians, scribes, etc. (and the management of these) is an
essential issue to address when planning learning programmes.
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People with learning difficulties

There is no exact dividing line between those with and those without learning
difficulties. Everyone learns new skills, information and ideas at different rates
and in a variety of ways.
About 20 per cent of learners may need some extra help with learning at some
time. Some of these will have specific learning difficulties including dyslexia and
dyspraxia (see Dyslexia section pp2632). Others have a general cognitive
learning difficulty that affects their ability to learn. In education, the terms
currently used to describe learners with cognitive learning difficulties are
profound and complex learning difficulties, severe learning difficulties and
moderate or mild learning difficulties. In social services settings, the term
learning disabilities is used.
Provision and programmes, particularly for people assessed as having mild or
moderate learning difficulties, can include learners with wide-ranging, diverse
and vastly different learning needs. Some of their difficulties may have been
compounded by the isolated nature of non-inclusive approaches to education and
have resulted in institutionalisation. For these learners, the barriers to learning
are more societal than intellectual. Learning may be impeded by inappropriate or
immature behaviour in reponse to these difficulties, dependency or acquiescence,
or a strong tendency to cling to routines and familiar individuals. This may be
accompanied by low expectations. The need to unlearn is often the biggest
barrier to learning basic skills.
Impact on learning
Most learners with profound and complex learning difficulties or severe learning
difficulties will be working within the pre-entry basic skills curriculum framework.
However, some learners with learning difficulties can achieve significant success
in literacy and numeracy skills and may well progress to the adult literacy and
numeracy core curricula. Significant numbers of people assessed as having mild
learning difficulties will be able to achieve several, if not all, components of the
adult core literacy and numeracy curricula.
Learners with learning difficulties will often have spiky profiles of learning, that
is to say that they may have considerable ability in certain areas but find others
very hard (see pp78). They are likely to take different lengths of time to gain
certain skills. Teachers need to beware of making assumptions about learners
with learning difficulties. Learners may also have a wide range of other
disabilities or contributing factors that affect their learning. These include their
strengths as well as their weaknesses. This presents teachers with challenges in
differentiating learning activities.
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Learners with learning difficulties may also have experienced a considerable

sense of failure. Responses that affect learning include reluctance to try, or a fear
of trying, anything new (because they might fail in it); the use of strategies that
attempt to hide what they cannot do; frustration and anger. These learners may
also have difficulties with:
memory and retaining information

conceptualising and understanding abstract concepts
sequencing
concentrating
transferring skills.
40
Treat learners as adults and as individuals.

Choose practical activities to develop literacy and numeracy skills.
Try to ascertain learners interests and motivation and build on this. If
learning is difficult, the learner will not want to waste time on tasks that
appear irrelevant to his or her purpose.
Try to find out what has worked and what has failed in their past
learning experiences there is no point in repeating strategies that
clearly do not work. Try to address any emotional barriers, as effective
learning cannot take place when thinking is inhibited by chemical
changes within the body.
Explain tasks clearly and unambiguously. Check learners understanding

of the task by asking them to explain it back to you in stages where
necessary.
Where learners are having difficulties in retaining information, work with

them to develop their own strategies for remembering things, and check
that they use these strategies.
If they have an obvious difficulty with concentration, plan short learning

activities that are relevant and enjoyable for them, and be prepared to
vary activities as frequently as required.
Pace and stage input/interaction in short chunks. Avoid over-teaching.

Encourage learners to ask for help. Show that it is acceptable and is not
a sign of failure.
Be careful not to be too directive some people with learning difficulties

may be likely to say what they think you want to hear.
Avoid paper-based activities if relevant alternatives are available.

Use visual clues, such as graphics, to accompany texts.
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Use learning-support assistants sensitively, appropriately and

creatively. Maximise learner independence, communication and
negotiation.
Be aware of the language you use and that used by other group
members, including body language, and change when appropriate.
Encourage learners to take responsibility for their own learning.
Technology
People with learning difficulties may not need technology as a means of
accessing text in the way that, for example, some visually impaired people may.
However, it can be a very powerful tool in helping them to improve their basic
skills. Learners with learning difficulties, particularly those in the younger age
range, may be very competent in using technology and may enjoy the kudos
that technology gives to an area of work that may otherwise have been tedious
and time consuming for them. They may respond to, and be highly motivated by,
certain software programs that make learning more interesting. Using a computer
to write takes away the fear of making ineradicable mistakes and so helps
learners to be more adventurous in their use of words. Symbol software such as
Widgit is also very useful for some learners.
Teachers need to be very clear about the purpose and expected outcomes of
activities, particularly when these are computer based. It is necessary to be
explicit about the transference of computer-learned skills to daily tasks.
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People with autistic spectrum disorders

Autistic spectrum disorders and Aspergers syndrome have only been recognised
for the last thirty or forty years, and there are considerable differences of opinion
about them. The term autistic spectrum disorders is used to denote the varying
effects people may experience. Different sub-groups within autistic spectrum
disorders have been described: Aspergers syndrome, high-functioning autism,
classical autism, and Kanners syndrome.
The common criteria for a diagnosis of autism is based on a triad of impairments
in social interaction, communication and a lack of flexibility in thinking. The term
autistic spectrum disorder also includes conditions and pervasive developmental
disorders that have the same triad of impairments.
Some people with autistic spectrum disorders also have learning difficulties.
Others are likely to have the same range of intellectual or cognitive skills as
the general population. Some of these people have become very successful in
a range of areas. People with autistic spectrum disorders have a number of
characteristics that have an impact on the way in which they will learn basic
skills.
Impact on learning
People with autistic spectrum disorders and Aspergers syndrome have particular
difficulties with social interaction and with abstract concepts. They may find it
difficult to understand the social and cultural rules that most people take for
granted, and so may misinterpret the intentions, behaviour and conversation of
others. They may, for example, find it very difficult to make appropriate small talk
or know when to pause in the conversation to allow someone else to speak.
They may miss unspoken messages given through body language, facial
expression, or tone of voice that other people pick up subconsciously. They may
make remarks that appear to be inappropriate to the context of the conversation,
but make perfect sense to them. They may have difficulty accommodating to
different audiences.
These learners are likely to use language literally, finding it difficult to understand
metaphors, jokes or abstract concepts. Their difficulty with the abstract and their
inflexibility in thinking can extend to other areas. People with autistic spectrum
disorders are often reliant on fixed routines that are known and trusted and may
find even small changes to routine disruptive or distressing. They may experience
inflexible thinking, or have stereotyped and repetitive behaviour, such as wishing
to sit in the same seat and becoming upset if they cannot.
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As social interaction is so intrinsic to the way in which communication and

speaking and listening skills are developed, people with autistic spectrum
disorders may find learning these skills particularly challenging.
Provide learners with autistic spectrum disorders with a named person

to whom they can go with any concern.
Use literal language and be very precise about what you mean: these
learners find abstract language and metaphors difficult.
Use carefully worded, unambiguous questions to elicit and test

learning.
Provide extra time after group sessions to check that the content has
been understood.
Be sensitive to the fact that some people will find it very difficult to
work in a group: do not force participation.
Establish routines for learners with autistic spectrum disorders.

Discuss any changes to routine with them or their support worker.
Prepare learners to help them to accept change, such as change of

room, or change of tutor.
Encourage a supportive environment and consistent responses to

inappropriate behaviour and comments in a group context.
Explain clearly the conventions for writing for different audiences, for
example creative writing, letter writing. Develop personal prompts to
help learners remember writing conventions.
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Learning styles and learning difficulties and

disabilities
While teaching learners according to their learning style has been shown to be
helpful for all learners, it is essential for learners with learning difficulties and
disabilities, who may be able to use only some styles of learning. This gives
learners fewer strategies and less flexibility in their learning. Some disabilities
such as dyslexia may be partially defined by the learning style. For example,
dyslexic learners are often weak in left-brained language and sequential
processing, so may rely on right-brained approaches such as imagery and
holistic, non-sequential methods.
There are many models of learning styles, but the key elements affecting the
learning of basic skills include some environmental factors such as light, auditory
distractions and space to move around, perceptual preferences, and cognitive
(right/left hemispheric) processing. All learning can be adversely affected by
emotional issues that can create a strong chemical response in the body,
temporarily affecting memory and communication skills.
There are four perceptual modalities, or ways of taking in information: visual,
auditory, tactile and kinaesthetic. Visual learners respond well to pictures and
diagrams and will often like to read, if it is not too great a struggle and the
content is of interest. Auditory learners will learn through listening. Tactile
learners learn by touching or manipulating materials; they need to use real,
three-dimensional resources. Kinaesthetic learners need to experience things for
themselves, and be actively engaged in doing things in order to learn.
Most learners have one or two perceptual preferences for taking in information,
but many successful learners do not have strong preferences, that is, they can
learn in a variety of ways. However, those with learning difficulties, sensory
disabilities and dyslexia frequently have strong preferences, and have additional
problems in using one or more perceptual modes. Many poor readers are
tactile/kinaesthetic learners and have a low auditory preference, that is, they do
not respond well to verbal explanations.
A learners cognitive style is based on the differences between the way the two
hemispheres of the brain process information. The left cerebral hemisphere
specialises in verbal function; it is analytical and processes sequentially. The right
hemisphere specialises in visualspatial and holistic processing; it makes
connections rather than breaking things down.
One model for looking at cognitive style in numeracy is the grasshopper versus
the inchworm. The inchworm takes a step-by-step approach to solving problems;
the grasshopper makes intuitive leaps, jumping over steps or coming at a problem
from a different way. The grasshoppers may have difficulty showing how they got
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the answer and may need help to be able to describe their thinking processes
(see diagram p215.)
Some learners may rely on particular approaches that do not suit their learning
styles, for example learning tables or spellings by rote, or reading by sounding
out when they experience clear auditory difficulties. In these cases, teachers
need to give clear explanations about the reasons for a change of approach. They
need to persuade and motivate learners to try new methods. This is most
effective when success is linked to clear, achievable, short-term targets, and is
regularly evaluated.
A learning styles approach can help with planning for individuals and groups. An
initial diagnostic assessment should inform an individual learning plan and help
learners to begin to explore their strengths and weaknesses. When drawing up
individual learning plans and session plans, learners style preferences can be
taken into account. Learners can then be effectively involved in evaluating and
monitoring learning.
Exploring preferences for spelling strategies, such as highlighting words within
words, can help learners understand that there are different ways of learning and
enable learners to share strategies with one another. Similarly, exploring a range
of strategies for remembering basic maths facts, times tables and number bonds
will help learners build a strong foundation for number skills development.
Learners will gain confidence in their own ability to learn if they are taught in a
way that suits them. A learning styles approach also helps learners become
independent learners by helping them explore how they learn best. It is an
effective way of creating a successful learning experience and counteracting
previous failure. Offering learners opportunities to learn in the way that they learn
best is the essence of inclusive learning.
Creating learning opportunities for basic skills is not just a matter for individual
teachers but require a whole-institution response to create an appropriate
learning environment.
45
2.Strand B Intros
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Literacy
47

Curriculum for Special Needs
Speaking
and listening
In many instances, adults with disabilities and/or learning
difficulties will experience the range of both skills and
difficulties with speaking and listening that other basic
skills learners experience. Some will be very competent in
the areas of speaking and listening and will be very clear
that they have only come to a class in order to improve
their reading and writing. Others may express a wish to
feel more confident in situations that require speaking and
listening skills.
Some learners have very effective forms of communication, but these will not be
through conventional speaking and listening. For other learners, specific
features of their disabilities or learning difficulties will make speaking and
listening particularly hard. Some learners may have a range of difficulties with
either receptive or expressive language processing which will affect their higherlevel abilities to understand and communicate effectively.
It is helpful to observe learners use of language to identify areas of difficulty so
these can be appropriately supported.

Language processing
Some of the most common difficulties with language processing include:
Receptive language
processing sequences, sounds and words quickly
discriminating speech sounds and words that are similar
verbal comprehension
retaining a sequence of information, e.g. instructions
extracting meaning from complex or abstract language and/or grammatical

structures, e.g. passive voice, sentences with embedded clauses
understanding non-literal language, e.g. metaphor, analogies, figures of speech
Expressive language
50
organising and planning what to say
word retrieval
putting ideas into appropriate grammatical forms
holding what is intended in the short-term memory while speaking,

e.g. remembering what you want to say next
pronouncing words, particularly multisyllabic ones
Discussion
Discussion is a very important mode of learning for all learners. However, traditional conventions of
discussion can exclude certain disabled people. When organising discussion with a group of learners that
includes members who might have a disability and/or learning difficulty, it is important to look closely at
the conventions that are being used and to consider whether these include or exclude these members.
Difficulties in discussion that might be experienced by certain disabled learners
Learners who are blind will not be able to see who is speaking, nor will they be able to use
facial expression and body language as additional means of interpreting what other people
are saying.
Deaf learners who use BSL will only be able to follow discussion by looking at their sign
language interpreter. This will inevitably slow down the speed with which they can receive
inputs, and also mean that they cannot always focus on the facial expressions of the speaker.
Deaf and partially hearing learners may find it hard to catch everything that is being said,
particularly when the pace of discussion is fast. Learners who lipread will find it hard to
follow discussion unless seating enables all participants to see each other, lighting and
acoustics are good, and a formal discussion is effectively chaired.
Some learners with autistic spectrum disorders may find it very hard to communicate directly
with other people. Their disability makes aspects of social communication, for example eye
contact, particularly difficult.
Some (but certainly not all) learners with mental health difficulties and with learning
difficulties may find two-way communication hard for a variety of reasons:
they may feel very inhibited in entering a discussion
they may find certain aspects of discussion, for example any contribution that they might perceive as
being critical of them, very threatening
they may become very enthusiastic about a particular subject and find it hard not to dominate the
discussion and reluctant to allow it to move on to other areas
Learners with speech difficulties will often find their difficulty becomes a greater hindrance
when communicating in a larger group (see guidance on Working with learners with speech
difficulties, pp545).
51

Some strategies for discussions
52
Discuss with the group different cultural conventions of

discussion and agree on ground rules which ensure that no
one is at a disadvantage. Certain conventions, such as saying
your name before speaking (in order to include blind learners)
or waving your hand or holding up a coloured card if you wish
to contribute (in order to include deaf learners), may seem odd
at first but are much easier to accept when learners realise
that they are essential if disabled learners are going to have
equal participation.
When working with interpreters, ensure that all group

members address the deaf person directly and not the
interpreter. Also allow time for the interpreter to translate
speech (see guidance on Working with support staff p57).
Discuss how far individual learners feel able to participate in

discussion. Encourage participation, but at the same time
respect an individuals right to stay silent or to opt out of the
discussion altogether. Remember that some people with
mental health difficulties may have fluctuating conditions
which might mean they very much want to participate some of
the time but not at other times.
Ensure that discussion is well chaired so that only one person

is speaking at a time, that everyone has the opportunity to
participate, that each change of speaker is clearly indicated,
and that people have enough time to absorb what has been
said.
Ensure that there is good light and good acoustics, also that
participants are seated in a circle or horseshoe, so that all
learners can clearly see each other.
When possible, use visual aids, either pictures/slides/video or

text at appropriate level. However, if the group includes
visually impaired learners, make sure that what these visual
aids show is explained verbally.
Consider restructuring the teaching environment so that

quieter learners can take part. Some of the best discussions
can take place in less formal surroundings, such as the
cafeteria or even a corridor. Some learners may prefer to
contribute when the pressure of eye-to-eye contact is
removed.
Lipreading and learners who are deaf or partially hearing

The problems for partially hearing learners stem from only partly hearing a
wide variety of language, which they may then use imperfectly. In particular,
sounds that are not heard because of a high-frequency hearing loss may
cause learners to hear the tune of the language but miss essential elements
of the structure. A lot of vital information is contained in high-frequency
sounds that are often also unlipreadable.
The most difficult sounds to lipread are: t, s, k
As a result, word endings and inflections are often incorrectly written, or
missing: for example, walk, walks, walked all look and sound the same to
many partially hearing people, so they may not be used correctly.
Prepositions are often idiomatic in usage rather than logical, so that the use
of unlipreadable words like on, in, at may need to be learned by rule.
Other word endings can cause problems: for instance, interesting, interested
are difficult to distinguish by lipreading or by listening, and the ing/ed pairs
are often incorrectly used.
Learners may not readily appreciate the difference in usage between
different parts of speech and may need to learn to be much more aware of
grammatical rules and characteristic endings than a hearing person. For
example, he is diabetes or she made no respond will sound wrong to a
hearing learner. A partially deaf learner may need to learn why the writer
needs an adjective (diabetic) or a noun (response). When there is no rule,
learners might ask Why does it matter? However, where there are rules,
partially hearing as well as profoundly deaf learners may need explanations
if they are to learn to write more accurately.
Easily lipread shapes are: p, b, m, f, v, sh, ch, j, th, w
Difficult shapes to lipread are: r, s, z, k, g, ng, t, d, n, l
Lipreaders need clear natural speech at a normal, if measured, pace. Pauses
should come after phrase groups, not between individual words.
Exaggerated lip patterns and shouting aggravate communication problems
and are offensive. For deaf learners, all important information needs to be
written down.
53

Working with learners with speech difficulties

Learners may have difficulty in communicating through speech for a
variety of reasons. They may have difficulties with forming words; they
may have been pre-lingually deaf and therefore will never have heard or
learned how to reproduce speech; or they may have a specific condition
such as stammering.
It is important to find out whether learners who experience speech
difficulties have established a successful alternative system of
communication, for example:
using an assistant to communicate for them
using a communication board (with letters and words on it) or a
computer with a speech synthesiser
using handwritten notes.
When you are working with learners who find speech difficult,
remember these principles:
People with communication difficulties are often thought to be
far less able than they are. Check your own response to see if
you are making assumptions about a persons intelligence
because they are difficult to understand or their speech is very
slow or slurred. This is a group of learners whose potential has
often not been recognised. Consequently, it is very important to
listen closely to what they do say, to reassess initial
impressions, to avoid being patronising and always to respond
to the content of what someone is saying and not be misled by
the style of delivery.
People with communication difficulties may well find group
work challenging. You can help by initially asking questions that
need only a short answer. Avoid questions that require only
yes or no by way of an answer, which can appear
patronising.
People often find it embarrassing listening to someone with a
speech impairment. Remember this is your problem not theirs.
Keep calm and watch their lips.
If you have not understood what someone has said, ask him or
her to repeat it. Do not just nod and assume that it was not
important: you could ask the learner to rephrase what he or she
said or ask someone who has understood to repeat it to you.
54
Allow time for the person to make their contribution.

Some people will find it much easier to speak in some situations
than others, for example when they feel relaxed and are not being
put under pressure. Stammerers sometimes find it much easier to
speak on the telephone than in face-to-face dialogue. Learn from
your learners what situations they prefer.
Be prepared to retrack. Sometimes what appears to be an
inappropriate response is a delayed response made to comments
some minutes earlier.
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Access for All
At this level,
adults can
listen and respond
to spoken language, including
simple narratives,
statements, questions and
single-step instructions
Listen and respond

Skills, knowledge and understanding
Adults should be taught to:
1
speak to communicate
basic information, feelings
and opinions on familiar
topics
listen for the gist of short

explanations
understand how to register
engagement or interest in a face-toface exchange, e.g. by body language,
eye contact, facial expression
SLlr/E1
Areas of difficulty which may be
experienced by particular learners
Blind and some partially sighted
learners will be unable to use eye
contact and receive visual cues from body
language.
engage in discussion
with another person in a
familiar situation about
familiar topics
in simple and familiar formal
exchanges connected with
education, training, work and
social roles
Deaf learners may either work through

an interpreter or lipread.
Learners with autistic spectrum

disorders and some learners with
learning difficulties may also find these
exchanges difficult to interpret. Deaf
learners may be particularly adept at
this.
56
listen for detail using key words to

extract some specific information
Some learners with autistic spectrum

disorders or with learning difficulties
may find it difficult to separate the main
point from the detail.
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Adult Literacy Core Curriculum, pp 2223
Entry 1
Teaching approaches and alternative

strategies
Make communication clear. Say blind
learners names when you want to
communicate with them. This is an
alternative to visual cues.
Provide activities to help learners
register engagement through verbal
and sensory means.
Discuss, interpret and practise
different approaches.
See adjacent guidance on Working
with support staff.
For deaf learners all important
information needs to be written down.
With learners with autistic spectrum
disorders try to achieve balance
between encouraging greater eye
contact and not putting the learner
under pressure.
Encourage deaf learners to use their
strengths.
Frequent re-caps and feedback can
help keep the discussion focused.
Working with support staff: sign language interpreters,

communication support workers or other support staff
Some disabled learners will be accompanied by support workers. The
roles of support workers differ. Learners with a physical or learning
difficulty may have an individual support worker to help them with
personal care needs or with the journey to and from the class.
Deaf learners could have the support of a sign-language
interpreter, a note taker, a communicator or a lipspeaker.
Remember that the support worker is not there to teach and that
it is the teacher who is responsible for the learning and progression
of the learner. However, do not expect the support worker to be
completely detached from the lesson. Even when they are not there
to act in a more narrowly prescribed way (for example as an
interpreter), they are there to facilitate the learners access to the
class. There needs to be a balance to ensure that the support
worker is supporting the learners access but not doing the work
for the learner. This needs to be reflected in the planning and
delivery of learning.
In addition, it is important:
to ensure that you always address the learner and not the
support worker
to be clear about the specific role of the support worker
to remember that the support worker is there for that learner
and not as a general class assistant
to recognise that in some cases, particularly with interpreters,
the interpreter will need to have notes and handouts in advance
to remember that interpreting is very tiring, and interpreters will
need regular breaks (these do not necessarily involve stopping
the lesson but, rather, making use of times when the learner is
doing activities that do not require an interpreter)
to make sure you leave enough time for the interpreter to
translate for the student.
Use clear simple language.

Provide a framework with structured
questions to separate and prioritise main
points.
Give learners their own dictaphones to record and playback instructions (see guidance
on Authoring software p157 in Writing section).
Colour code key words on cards and withdraw the cards as learners gain confidence.
Make allowances for the fact that learners with autistic spectrum disorders often
have a set routine they need to follow before settling down. For example, they may
have a preferred chair or like to sit in the same place each session.
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The Adult Basic Skills

Access
for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
listen and respond
simple narratives,
Listen and respond

3
topics
recognise and understand some key

words used in instructions
understand the need to be clear about
what to do and how to ask for
instructions to be repeated if
necessary
familiar topics
social roles
follow single-step instructions in a

familiar context, asking for
instructions to be repeated if
necessary
listen and respond to requests for

personal information
know and understand a range of
contexts where people might
legitimately be asked for personal
information
Speak to communicate
SLlr/E1 (continued)
The sample activity in pairs or in a group,
identifying key words, may be difficult for
some learners with autistic spectrum
disorders, as they will have difficulties
in working with other people.
Some learners, including people with

mental health difficulties, may find
requests for personal information intrusive.
SLc/E1
speak clearly to be heard and

understood in simple exchanges
Those who have speech difficulties, i.e.

some deaf learners, some learners
with speech impairments and
stammerers may be unable to speak
clearly (see Working with learners with
speech difficulties pp 545).
make requests using appropriate

terms
Deaf learners who have not had the

experience of hearing natural speech will
not understand social conventions such as
tone of voice.
know and use some politeness

conventions for making successful
requests
Deaf learners may have learned different

conventions for turn taking. The sign
language conventions of interruption,
e.g. arm waving or arm tapping, may seem
strange to hearing learners. Questions may
appear somewhat direct.
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Entry 1
Teaching approaches and alternative strategies
Provide alternative activity for learners to work on their own with sample activities.
Be aware of learners own sensitivities.

Check that the type of questions being asked are acceptable to the learner. Modify if
necessary.
Discuss with learners what might legitimately be asked in terms of personal
information.
Negotiate with the individual which means of communication they wish to use.
If the learner chooses to use speech, take time to listen. Dont pretend you have
understood if you have not.
Be alert to alternative ways of communicating, e.g. by pointing. Deaf learners who
use speech can be helped with difficult pronunciation by simplifed phonics,
e.g. Thames (tems); daughter (dorter).
Make conventions explicit and teach and practise them. For some profoundly deaf
learners, these conventions are best taught through the medium of BSL and the skills
transferred to the second language.
Introduce issues of appropriateness, e.g. by use of video clips, ensuring there is an

audio description for partially sighted learners.
Video clips from popular TV soap operas are a useful resource.
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Access
for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
listen and respond
simple narratives,
3
ask questions to obtain specific

information
topics

learning difficulties and/or mental ill
health may have difficulties with this.
Learners in SLc/E1.1 and SLc/E1.2 above
will have difficulties with this for the
same reasons.
familiar topics
social roles
SLc/E1 (continued)
make statements of fact clearly

understand the importance of speaking
clearly for the listener
understand that context may affect
how a statement of fact is said,
e.g. the tone of voice for emphasis
Learners with unclear speech (see

Working with learners with speech
difficulties pp 545.)
Some learners may be insensitive or
hypersensitive to tone of voice.
Profoundly deaf learners cannot hear
changes of tone or register, for example
sarcasm or irony, where tone alters or
reverses meaning.
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Entry 1
Role play might be useful in demonstrating conventions. Some learners can gain
through observing, while others may find participation threatening. For some learners
the use of hand puppets is less threatening, while others may consider this childish.
Use sample activities and incorporate the strategies above. For example, construct a
rota for coffee break. In turn, take orders, including preferences for milk and sugar.
Encourage learners to find their own ways of making statements of fact. Use
alternatives, such as speech-based software, where appropriate.
Show changes of tone/register through facial expression and body language.

Describe the context for blind and partially sighted learners.
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Access
for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
listen and respond
simple narratives,
topics
Engage in discussion
1
speak and listen in simple

exchanges and everyday contexts
understand that communication is a
two-way, interactive process
SLd/E1
experienced by particular students
(See guidance on Discussion pp512.)
disorders, and some with learning
difficulties or mental ill health may find
two-way communication difficult.
familiar topics
social roles
Some deaf and partially hearing adults

will have difficulties in participating in
two-way communication.
learners with learning difficulty or
disability
Some learners with learning

difficulties or disabilities may be very
inhibited at entering a discussion.
understand that non-verbal signals as

well as spoken language contribute to
communication between people
Some blind and partially sighted people

may be unable to see non-verbal signals.
Blind learners may have difficulties in
locating other people involved in a
conversation.

disorders and some with mental ill
health may find non-verbal
communication and eye contact
particularly difficult.
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Entry 1

Teach two-way communication through turn taking and question-and-answer
activities.
Play games such as Guess who?, which requires the asking of simple questions.
Establish clear ground rules for discussion, including turn taking and not interrupting.
Practise two-way communication in real-life contexts, e.g. greeting people.
Encourage two-way communication on topics of interest to learners.
Speak clearly and provide good light and acoustics to enable learners to lipread.
Encourage learners to jot down odd words or use non-verbal communication such as
facial expression, pointing and gesture to enhance communication.
Use a third person, e.g. a lipspeaker to repeat clearly what has been said.
Discuss how much learners feel able to participate. Encourage participation but
respect the right to stay silent until learners feel able to participate.
Encourage learners to learn from observation.
Recognise compensating strengths, e.g. blind and partially sighted people are likely to
be practised in, and may be sensitive to, voice tone.
Introduce yourself when talking to a blind learner.
Use the learners name to cue participation.
Encourage participation but respect an individuals right to be silent (see guidance on
Discussion pp512).
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Access
for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
listen and respond
straightforward information,
short narratives, explanations
and instructions
Listen and Respond

listen for and follow the gist of
explanations, instructions and
narratives

may find it difficult to infer meaning if it
is not literal. This also applies to some
deaf learners.
listen for detail in short

narratives

listen for and identify the main

points of short explanations or
presentations

in straightforward familiar
formal exchanges connected
with education, training, work
and social roles
understand that identifying the main

points means making a judgement
about which parts are more important
than the rest
listen to and follow short,

straightforward explanations and
instructions
understand that steps in instructions
are to be followed in order
understand sequential markers in
instructions (e.g. first, next, then) and
in explanations (e.g. because, the
reason for, so that)
listen to and identify simply

expressed feelings and opinions
understand that non-verbal
communication can help to indicate a
speakers feelings and opinions
(e.g. gesture, facial expression, sigh)
64

information, feelings and
opinions on familiar topics
with one or more people in a
familiar situation to establish
shared understanding about
familiar topics
SLlr/E2
Dyslexic learners, learners with

moderate learning difficulties or
acquired brain injury may find
sequencing particularly hard. They may
also have difficulties remembering several
instructions.

learners will be unable to use eye contact
or receive visual cues from body language.
learning difficulties may also find these
forms of communication difficult to
interpret.
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Entry 2
Use sample activities focusing on the need to infer meaning.
Use clear simple language.

Provide a framework with structured questions to separate and prioritise main points.
Help learners to become more specific in selecting information. Create a framework

by asking appropriate questions.
Ask learners to describe in sequence a task they are able to perform, such as how to
make a cup of tea or prepare a meal.
Explicitly teach learners to listen for markers to the next step in a sequence.
Give learners an illustrated sequence of cards and ask them to place the cards in
order. Discuss the reasons for that order.
Recognise compensating strengths, e.g. blind and partially sighted people are
practised in, and may be sensitive, to voice tone.
Role play might be useful in demonstrating non-verbal communication. Some learners
can gain through observing, while others may find participation threatening.
Take videos of learners or encourage learners to video each other, to look at and
discuss the speakers feelings or opinions.
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Access
for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
listen and respond
straightforward information,
short narratives, explanations
and instructions
4
ask questions to clarify

understanding
opinions on familiar topics
familiar situation to establish
shared understanding about
familiar topics
SLc/E2
Some dyslexic learners or those with
learning difficulties may find it hard to
ask questions. This could be because
some may not know how to frame or ask
questions. Others may fear being seen as
stupid or may have learned to be
passive.
in straightforward familiar
formal exchanges connected
and social roles
Partially sighted learners ability to

grasp some concepts will be greatly
influenced by whether they had direct
visual experience in the past (see adjacent
guidance on Concepts and vocabulary of
blind and partially sighted learners).
SLd/E2
follow the gist of discussions
(See Discussion pp513.)

Some learners who are deaf, dyslexic
or who have learning difficulties may
take longer than others to absorb and
process the content of a discussion.
follow the main points and make

appropriate contributions to the
discussion
Some dyslexic learners and some with

learning difficulties, autistic spectrum
disorders and mental ill health may have
difficulty identifying the main points and
relating responses to the topic.
Learners with speech difficulties will
find it hard to make appropriate
contributions, as will deaf learners who
do not speak.
(See Working with learners with speech
difficulties pp545.)
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Entry 2
Concepts and vocabulary of blind and partially sighted learners

strategies
Demonstrate the need to ask questions
for clarification. Show how you can go
away without the information you need
if you do not ask questions to clarify.
Blind and partially sighted learners concepts and vocabulary will be

influenced by whether or not they have ever been able to see. The
majority of blind people have at some time had some sight, so will
have some visual memory and will have developed language with
visual references. However, their concepts of colour or spatial
references, for example, may be either partially or, in the case of
those who have been blind since birth, completely lacking. It will help
to explore concepts and language with individual learners. Use a
discussion topic with strongly visual images such as bonfire night.
Either in a group or one to one, discuss with learners their
experience and impressions of fires and fireworks. How would they
describe these? What mental images have they formed? What
other senses help in building up their understanding, for example
sound, smell, sense of heat, and awareness of social activity?
Build in regular opportunities for

learners to ask questions to enable
learners to become more confident in
asking questions.
Be explicit.
Create an environment where
discussion is structured, so that learners
asking questions is a key part of the session.
Always value and affirm learners questions.
Make sure examples you use are concrete, visual where appropriate and real to
the learner.
Work through practical activities and note questions raised to develop concepts.
Allow sufficient time.

Check to ensure that learners have understood.
Seat learners in a circle or horseshoe formation so that all learners can see each other
clearly.
Facilitate and summarise discussions to support learners to contribute appropriately.
Practise with topics that are of real interest to learners. Structure discussions,
e.g. pick out three main points.
Discuss and agree with learners how they wish to make their contributions. Allow
learners time if vocalisation is hard. Avoid finishing statements for learners.
Teach deaf learners techniques of interruption and contribution, using an interpreter
or communication support worker where appropriate. Ensure that the deaf learner
initiates the contribution, not the interpreter or communication support worker.
Encourage BSL users to sign their contributions so that the communication support
worker/interpreter can voice over.
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Access
for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
listen and respond
straightforward information
and narratives, and follow
straightforward explanations
and instructions, both face-toface and on the telephone
Listen and Respond

1
listen for and follow the gist of

narratives in different contexts

Deaf and some partially hearing
learners will be unable to use a standard
telephone.
understand that listening on the phone

can be more demanding than face-toface listening (usually less knowledge
of the context, no visual cues, so more
reliance on hearing)
opinions on familiar topics,
using appropriate formality,
both face-to-face and on the
telephone
Others who are deaf or have learning

difficulties may have difficulty with the
official language of instructions, e.g. fire
drill.
familiar situation, making
relevant points and
responding to what others say
to reach a shared understanding about familiar topics
in familiar formal exchanges
connected with education,
training, work and social
roles
SLlr/E3
listen to and respond appropriately to other points of view

know some strategies for paying
attention to other points of view and
for responding appropriately even
when disagreeing with the viewpoint
1
speak clearly to be heard and

understood using appropriate
clarity, speed and phrasing
understand that pace of delivery
affects clarity of speech and how
easily the listener can hear and follow
(e.g. speaking too quickly, or with too
much hesitation)

difficulties, mental ill health or who have
autistic spectrum disorders may find it
difficult to appreciate other points of view.
SLc/E3
Some learners with speech
difficulties, learning difficulties,
autistic spectrum disorders, mental ill
health and some stammerers may find
varying the pace of speech particularly
difficult (e.g. some speak very fast and
others hesitate a lot). They may have
difficulty formulating both words and
ideas.
(See Working with learners with speech
difficulties pp545.)
Profoundly deaf learners, particularly the
pre-lingually deaf, may have difficulty in
gauging the pace of speech.
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Entry 3
Use Minicom or e-mail or text messaging.

Use conversation frames (similar to writing frames) particularly when first using a
Minicom, although a Minicom relies on reading rather than listening skills. Remember
that the context or subject of message needs to come at the beginning of the message.
(See guidance on Text messaging in Writing section p173.)
Discuss the official language of instructions, emphasising the need to listen for detail.
Use visual reinforcement.
Model the different ways in which you can respond to differing points of view, using
the sample activities.
Help learners to recognise the effects of different responses.
Provide opportunities to practise disagreeing in a supportive context. For example,
take it in turn to present arguments for and then against issues such as capital
punishment.
Recognise individual patterns of speech and be aware that for some people this might
be an area where they cannot make significant changes, or it is very difficult to do so.
Remember that the audience has a role in this, too, and teaching people to listen to a
range of speech patterns is an important skill.
In some cases, context can affect speech. Beware of putting too much pressure on the
learner or creating unnecessary anxiety. Feeling threatened or nervous can affect
speech.
Use videos with subtitles if possible or on-screen interpreter instead of audio tapes, to
allow use of visual cues. For partially sighted learners, ensure that an audio description
is provided.
Encourage BSL users to modify their delivery to suit the signing skills of the listener.
It might be more appropriate to teach this to BSL users together as a group.
69
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Access
for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
listen and respond
2
use formal language and register

when appropriate
telephone
SLc/E3 (continued)
disorders or who have learning
difficulties might have particular
difficulties in understanding and using
more than one register.
There are many cultural differences that
could affect learners ability to express
themselves in formal registers.
relevant points and
Deaf learners who have learnt their

English through the written medium may
be unfamiliar with informal or colloquial
styles.

roles
3
express clearly statements of fact

and give short explanations,
accounts and descriptions
use knowledge of context and
situation to judge the level of detail
required
understand that sticking to the point is
usually a factor in successful short
explanations, accounts and
descriptions
Some dyslexic learners and those with

learning difficulties, autistic spectrum
disorders and mental health difficulties
can have difficulty both with judging level
of detail required and sticking to the point.
They may also have problems organising
ideas.
They may be unable to decide what is

relevant. On the one hand they may give
too much irrelevant detail. On the other
hand they might go off the point to
something which is important for them but
not relevant to the subject.
Deaf learners may need help to identify

key words such as question words, which
come at the beginning of an English
sentence and may be swallowed or lost
70
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Entry 3
Set up structured opportunities to use different registers in different contexts. Draw

attention to and compare differences (e.g. informal, social settings, formal meetings or
interviews).
Use the sample activities provided and supplement these with videos and film clips
wherever possible. For partially sighted learners ensure that an audio description is
provided.
In role play, ensure situations used are relevant and familiar to the learner.
Use cartoons, TV subtitles, etc. to show the difference between formal and informal
English.
Show learners how to structure and plan speaking exercises.

Use techniques such as ideas-storming and mind mapping to gather ideas and help
decide what is important. Practise ordering and using material generated
(see guidance on Planning and organising mind maps pp75).
Help learners to decide what is important by asking questions and encouraging them
to focus on what is relevant.
Encourage learners to reflect on their own and others speaking and to consider what
is and what is not relevant.
Ensure that deaf learners focus on the question word, i.e. who? what? where?
Repeating the question word again at the end can be helpful.
Provide partially sighted learners with a description of physical context and situation
and check for understanding.
Be flexible with time limits to allow for individual differences.
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Access
for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
listen and respond
1
understand that discussion does not

always follow a linear sequence
be able to listen with some
concentration to grasp main points
telephone
relevant points and
follow and understand the main

points of discussions on different
topics

roles
make contributions to discussions

that are relevant to the subject
make contributions at the appropriate
time, i.e. following on from the
previous point, not several points back
SLd/E3
disorders may feel uneasy at a
discussion which does not appear to keep
to clear rules.
Some learners with learning difficulties,
some with acquired brain injury or
mental health difficulties (especially if on
medication), and some deaf learners may
find it difficult to sustain concentration and
to memorise points.
Some learners who are deaf, dyslexic

or who have learning difficulties may
take longer than others to absorb and
process the content of a discussion.
Some partially sighted learners may find
it hard to enter into discussion, as they
miss out on body language and do not
know who is speaking.
respect the turn-taking rights of

others during discussions
understand that people can use eye
contact and gestures to help signal
that they would like to speak next

difficulties, mental health difficulties
and autistic spectrum disorders may
find it difficult to acknowledge turn-taking
rights.
This will be impossible for blind and
partially sighted people.
The sign language conventions of
interruption, e.g. arm waving or arm
tapping may seem rather strange to
hearing learners.
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Entry 3
Explain links that may not be obvious.
Use videos, with subtitles or an on-screen interpreter for sign language users.
Use programmes aimed specifically at a deaf audience such as See Hear and VTV.
Structure learning with breaks and check understanding.
Allow time and, if necessary, structure discussion by asking for contributions.
Ask everyone to introduce themselves by name when they speak.
Create ground rules as a group, e.g. one person speaking at a time, limited speaking
time.
Create situations where different people chair sessions.
When working with someone with a visual impairment in the group, ensure that
group members say their names.
Examine the different conventions and agree the ground rules for the group
(see guidance on Discussion pp512).
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Access
for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
listen and respond
information and narratives, and
follow explanations and
instructions of varying lengths,
adapting response to speaker,
medium and context
See also in the key skills:
Listen and respond

2
information, ideas and
opinions adapting speech and
content to take account of the
listener(s) and medium
listen for and understand

narratives on different topics in a
range of contexts
Communication key skills level 1

Part A: In discussions. . .
Part B: C1.1
SLlr/L1
learning difficulties or acquired brain
injury may find it particularly hard to
sustain concentration when listening.
understand the importance of

sustaining concentration and listening
to the end to get overall understanding
with one or more people in
familiar and unfamiliar
situations, making clear and
relevant contributions that
respond to what others say
and produce a shared understanding about different
topics
in formal exchanges connected
and social roles
use strategies to clarify and

confirm understanding (e.g. facial
expressions, body language and
verbal prompts)
provide feedback and

confirmation when listening to
others
know and use some visual and aural
feedback signals when listening
face-to-face and on the telephone
74

learners will be unable to use eye contact
and receive visual cues from body
language. Deaf learners may be unable
to hear aural feedback cues.
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Level 1

strategies
Provide listening activities in which the
crucial piece of information is at or
near the end.
Always contextualise information. Give
prompts. Use sensory reinforcement
and/or mind maps.
Vary activities.
Planning and organising mind maps

A mind map is a visualspatial form of representing ideas or
information. Mind maps can be simple spidergrams or more complex,
personal and freely drawn maps. They are usually a mixture of key
words and drawings, but drawings or symbols can be used on their own
for those who cannot read. Mind maps postpone the need to
sequence ideas or connect them logically until a later stage.
Connections can be made by lines or arrows, and by colour coding. The
advantages of mind maps are that a great deal of information can be
put on one page, they use a minimal amount of words and they appeal
to right-brained or global learners through the use of colour and
pattern. More information on mind maps can be found in Buzan
(1982) and Buzan and Buzan (1995) (see Resources).
Improve concentration by ensuring that

all topics are relevant to learners and
by avoiding visual or auditory
distractions. Set the scene and check
that the environment has few
unnecessary distractions. Pace work
appropriately, as learners will
concentrate better in short bursts.
Mind maps are very helpful for a range of learners and purposes. For
example, a mind map created by the teacher can help learners follow a
discussion; this is especially useful for those with poor short-term
memory or who have difficulties remembering order.
Encourage learners to recap the

content.
Learners can also use them to take notes so they remember what
was said, or for planning what to say. Some learners find it a helpful
way to think on paper.
Divide longer narratives into shorter

bites. Identify key words and record
them to aid memory later. (Use
prepared word cards.)
Short-term/long-term memory
activities such as remembering and
passing on complex messages may be
helpful.
They can be used effectively to organise a brainstorm by grouping

ideas from the brainstorm. These can later be put in a linear,
sequential form.
It is important both to model the process for learners and to give

them practice if they are to be confident in using mind maps. However,
for many learners, it is a tool that will also help them with reading and
writing.
Inspirations is an example of mind-mapping software package which is
user friendly. It contains a selection of clip art and a spell check, and
will automatically put the completed mind map into linear form (see
Resources ).
Teach learners who cannot see others visual cues (e.g. nodding) to use them when
listening.
Teach deaf learners who use speech to give oral feedback signals when listening, as
well as non-verbal signals.
Provide opportunities for practice.

Structure discussions. Establish and agree clear ground rules on taking turns in a
group.
75
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Access
for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
listen and respond
medium and context
Listen and respond

5
make contributions relevant to the

situation and the subject
understand that it is necessary to
listen carefully in order to make
relevant contributions at the right time

Part B: C1.1
SLlr/L1 (continued)
Some learners with learning difficulties
or mental ill health may find it hard to let
go of the irrelevant.
Some partially sighted learners will be
unaware of when to participate in group
activities.
topics
and social roles
1
speak clearly in a way which suits

the situation
understand that pace, volume and
precision of articulation vary
depending on the situation (speaking
face-to-face, on the telephone, to a
group)
SLc/L1
Some dyslexic people and those with
speech difficulties or learning
difficulties can have specific problems
with articulation, often with particular
sounds, such as difficulty in articulating
multisyllable words or confusion with
similar sounding words, e.g.
exceed/succeed.
Dyslexic learners may find word
retrieval a problem. They may use many
words because they cannot find the word
they want. This may result in speech that
is unclear, repetitive or cumbersome.
76
express clearly statements of fact,

explanations, instructions,
accounts and descriptions
Dyslexic learners and those with

learning difficulties may have difficulty in
including full detail.
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Level 1
Scaffolding approach
strategies
Use a Fishbowl exercise to help
learners to contribute. Learners must
physically move to sit or stand in the
centre of the group, before they are
allowed to contribute. They must then
move out when the contribution is
over. Alternatively use a ball, cushion
or baton that must be held by the
speaker.
Provide activities and feedback to
help learners distinguish between
relevant and irrelevant contributions.
Use role play.
Have questions and answers printed
on cards. Shuffle cards. Take turns in
reading the questions and answers.
Ask whether the answer is relevant
to the question.

strategies
The use of the telephone can be very
difficult and is inappropriate as a means
of developing skills for some learners.
For others (e.g. some who stammer) it
can facilitate speech. Always ask the
learners.
Ensure other learners understand
difficulties some learners have and do
not ridicule.
Avoid focusing on difficulties help to
suggest alternatives.
Use activities to help learners to extend
vocabulary and become more flexible
and precise in their use of words
(e.g. categorising exercises, finding
synonyms). Add visual prompts.
The notion of scaffolding has been around for a Iong time. It

emanates from Vygotskys concept of the zone of proximal
development and his emphasis on providing assistance to enable a
learner to focus on areas of potential development. At any point in a
learners development, some activities are within the learners
competence, others can be accomplished with guidance, and others
lie outside the learners scope. This central band of activity is
referred to by Vygotsky as the zone of proximal development.
The concept of scaffolding in teaching serves a similar purpose to
the scaffolding constructed around a building to make it safe and
accessible. When the job has been done, the scaffolding is removed
and the new or reconstructed building stands in its own right.
Teachers can use scaffolding techniques to teach a specific aspect
of basic skills. They construct a scaffold around the area so that
learners have direct access to the chosen focus, with nothing allowed
to get in the way. To be of benefit, scaffolding must be temporary.
When the learner shows signs of handling the task in question, the
scaffolding can then be removed gradually until it is no longer
needed. In this way, handover is achieved; without this part in the
process, scaffolding would breed dependence and helplessness.
Scaffolding enables learners to reach beyond their current
competencies and explore new understandings and skills.
In a learning situation that aims to give learners control of writing a
letter for a job application, the teacher might want to work on the
staged approach of modelling, joint negotiation of text and
independent construction.
Modelling involves the discussion of the purpose of the text and
shared experience within that context, followed by examples of a
model text. The teacher and learners would discuss the distinctive
features of text construction and language realised in the model
text. The next stage involves the teacher and learners in the joint
construction of a text in the same genre, foIlowed by the joint
construction of another text by the learners working in groups. In
this stage, the teacher might also supply a writing frame as a
learning aid and work with the learners to revise the groups jointly
constructed texts.
In the final stage of independent construction, the learners
construct their own independent texts.
Adapted from Assessment, Teaching and Learning (A Practical Guide to First Steps)
1999 Education Department of Western Australia
Published by Ginn Heinnnemann Professional Development (GHPD)
Use group fantasy poems to extend vocabulary, e.g. If I were the sun
Use talking frames to develop sufficiently detailed vocabulary.
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Access
for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
listen and respond
medium and context

present information and ideas in a
logical sequence and include
detail and develop ideas where
appropriate
topics
and social roles
1
follow and contribute to

discussions on a range of
straightforward topics

Part B: C1.1
SLc/L1 (continued)
learning difficulties and certain
neurological impairments have
immense difficulty with sequencing and
with remembering order and detail. They
may have difficulty with linking words, as
do some sign language users.
SLd/L1
know how to respond appropriately to

other points of view

disorders or those with learning
difficulties or mental ill health may find
it hard to acknowledge points of view
different from their own.
respect the turn-taking rights of

others during discussions
Non-verbal language will be inaccessible

to partially sighted learners.
know and use some strategies to

signal to others that they can speak
(facial expression, gesture, phrases)
Some learners with mental health

problems or learning difficulties may
find some strategies for signalling to
others such as the hard stare very
threatening.
Deaf learners may have learned different
conventions for turn taking. The sign
language conventions of interruption,
e.g. arm waving or arm tapping may seem
rather strange to hearing learners.
78
use appropriate phrases for

interruption
Deaf learners will not have had the

experience of hearing these but may have
their own signs for interrupting.
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Level 1
Teach learners to sequence information by first giving an overview and then the overall
context.
Use techniques such as mind mapping in planning (see guidance on Planning and
organising mind maps p75).
Use scaffold approach to help learners structure events or ideas (e.g. What happens
next? What makes this happen? see guidance on Scaffolding approach p77).
Use a talking frame, which involves using words or pictures to provide non-verbal
reinforcement, through notes, cards, PowerPoint, OHTs or pictures. This gives cues for
order and helps learners structure their talk.
Agree on appropriate ground rules. Be sensitive to difficulties learners may have in

understanding others points of view.
Ensure topic is one that learner does not feel threatened by.
Ensure that when learners report back to group, they are sensitive to any particular
needs (e.g. learners with difficulties in speaking will need more time).
When working with someone with a visual impairment in the group, ensure that
group members say their names and indicate, e.g. by raising a hand, that they wish to
speak next (see guidance on Discussion pp512).
Use strategies such as passing round an object (e.g. a cushion). Learners can speak
only if they are holding it.
Examine the different conventions and agree the ground rules for the group.
Teach appropriate phrases and practise them in role plays of a range of contexts,
using the sample activities.
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Access
for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
listen and respond
extended information and
narratives, and follow
detailed explanations and
multi-step instructions of
varying length, adapting
response to speaker, medium
and context
Listen and respond

1
straightforward and detailed
opinions clearly, adapting
speech and content to take
account of the listener(s),
medium, purpose and
situation
80
SLlr/L2
listen for and identify relevant

information from extended
explanations or presentations on a
range of topics
Learners who have difficulty with

memory and/or concentration will find
this difficult.
know how to record key relevant

points when listening over a more
extended period
Note taking will be difficult for those who

cannot write easily. Sign language
users and lipreaders will be unable to
follow a presentation and take notes at
the same time.
Sample activities that assume that
learners can read and write will be
difficult for learners (e.g. dyslexic
learners) who have a wide gap between
speaking and listening and reading and
writing skills, and for partially sighted
learners.
variety of different
effective contributions that
produce outcomes
appropriate to purpose and
topic
in a wide range of formal and
social exchanges

In giving a short talk. . .
Part B: C2.1a, C2.1b
listen to, understand and follow

lengthy or multi-step instructions
and narratives on a range of
topics and in a range of contexts

short-term memory may find this
difficult.
respond to criticism and criticise

constructively
Some dyslexic learners and those who

have learning difficulties, or mental ill
health may feel easily threatened by
criticism.
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Level 2
Ensure that content is relevant and interesting to learners.
Discuss the most effective way of recording relevant points with the learner. For some
learners, these will include visual means such as mind maps, illustrations or diagrams;
others may use a cassette player or dictaphone.
Use key-word lists highlighting previously prepared notes.

Encourage presenters to provide written notes in advance.
As an alternative to radio/audio recordings, exploit the use of visual material, e.g. video
clips with signing recorded from TV. When using video, ensure that there is an audio
description.
Break down instructions and use visual cues.

Learners can use tape to record key points of information. Use additional memory aids
such as cue cards, with different-coloured pens to record different stages.
Teach learners the characteristics of constructive criticism and explain why it is

necessary.
Encourage learners to identify and practise constructive criticism using the sample
activities listed. Be very careful to create a safe context for activities involving
criticism.
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Access
for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
listen and respond
and context
3
express clearly statements of fact,

explanations, instructions,
accounts, descriptions using
appropriate structure, style and
vocabulary
know and use an appropriate range of
vocabulary and syntax in order to
communicate more complex meanings
medium, purpose and
situation

SLc/L2
Abstract language, words that have
multiple usage, metaphors and analogy
are all difficult for many learners.
Learners who are dyslexic, have
learning difficulties, are deaf or with
autistic spectrum disorders may have
problems with them.
Deaf learners who use BSL may have
particular difficulty with complex English
syntax, as do some ESOL learners (see
guidance on British Sign Language in
Writing section p155).
produce outcomes
topic

learning difficulties can have difficulties
with passive voice and consistent use of
syntax.
Blind and partially sighted learners
concepts and vocabulary will be
influenced by their experience (see
blind and partially sighted learners p67).

social exchanges
Learners with disabilities or learning

difficulties who speak varieties of
English and ESOL/EAL may have
problems with syntax. These arise from
the nature of their first language rather
than their disability/learning difficulty.
82

logical sequence and provide
further detail and development to
clarify or confirm understanding.
Some dyslexic learners and some who

are deaf may have difficulties with logical
sequencing.
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Level 2
Teach non-literal vocabulary explicitly, e.g. by finding different ways of describing the
same event.
If using the passive voice with deaf learners, use it alongside the active version.
Explore with individuals their mental images and concepts.
Use visual flow charts or mind maps.

Record main points on a dictaphone. Use cue cards. Use sample activities.
83
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Access
for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
listen and respond
and context
medium, purpose and
situation
produce outcomes
topic
social exchanges

SLd/L2
adapt contributions to discussions

to suit audience, context, purpose
and situation
Dyslexic learners and learners with

learning difficulties or mental ill
health, or who have autistic spectrum
disorders may find it hard to adapt to
different audiences.
use appropriate phrases for

interruption and change of topic
Partially sighted and blind learners will

not be able to respond to non-verbal,
visual signals.
know how to signal an intervention

and how to change a topic when
appropriate without dominating the
discussion
use strategies intended to

reassure (e.g. body language and
appropriate phraseology)
Deaf learners will not always pick up on

spoken signals.
Body language will not be accessible to

blind and partially sighted learners and
may be difficult for learners with autistic
spectrum disorders.
Some learners with mental ill health may
find it hard to separate their own feelings
from the discussion exercise.
84
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Level 2
Do activities listed, but be aware of potential difficulty and explain about different
approaches needed for different audiences, and the reasons for them.
Be aware of individual diversity within group. Create conventions within the group
that include everyone.
Use tone of voice as an alternative strategy to body language for blind and partially
sighted learners.
Create clear boundaries around discussion topic and clearly indicate when it ends.
85

Reading
The reading process

Effective readers develop an internal lexicon of sight words that they
recognise visually. This rapid word recognition allows them to concentrate
on the meaning of what they read. When they come across an unfamiliar
word, they may decode it by using phonics, i.e. sounding it out. They
may also use their lexical knowledge of words (e.g. roots, suffixes and
prefixes) to guess at the word. In addition, they may use context to help
work out the word and check if their attempt is reasonable.
When learners first learn to read, they need to develop an awareness of
the alphabetic system, that is the relation between letters and sounds. At
the same time they will be building up their internal lexicon. These two
routes to reading operate independently.
Learners with sensory impairments and perceptual processing difficulties
(e.g. dyslexia) will not be able to use both these systems fully. Those who
are blind and read Braille, for example, will use a soundsymbol system
based on touch rather than sight. Learners who have been profoundly deaf
since birth will not be able to use phonics at all, but can still become
competent readers

The role of context

Efficient readers can recognise words extremely rapidly on the basis of their visual features, so they use
context mainly to monitor their reading. However, poorer readers, especially those unable to use a phonic
approach, may need to rely more on context to compensate for their inability to decode words.
Where possible it is important to help these learners maximise their use of context and their visual/lexical
knowledge of words as a compensatory strategy. Many learners will also be able to use initial sounds to
assist word recognition.
However, it is equally important to know when context is not a reliable strategy, for instance when accuracy
is important and/or context gives inadequate information, as in a recipe where it is important to
differentiate between a teaspoon or tablespoon or when words are out of context, as in a multiple-choice
test. In these cases, use of a dictionary may be helpful.
Those with visual processing difficulties will often be unable to use context effectively to help their reading,
as they have to put so much effort into working out all the words.
Context has another important role for learners. Research has shown that dyslexic people may read at a much
higher level when reading texts in an area of great interest than when reading general texts such as
newspapers. Material of high interest to learners may therefore be easier for them to read and more
beneficial in developing skills than simpler texts of less interest.
88
Diagnostic assessment
For all learners, it is important to find out through questioning what learners
know about the reading process, and to check that they have a stable
perception of print. If print appears to blur, jump about or drift, coloured
acetate overlays may help. Colours will vary for individuals; blue and pink are
common, but orange, yellow or green will work for some. It is useful to ask
learners about their experience of learning to read, what difficulties they
experience and how they were taught. It is extremely important not to give
more experience of failure by repeating methods that have not worked in the
past.
Miscue analysis is an extremely useful form of diagnostic assessment of
reading (see Klein (1993), Resources). It can be used with any learner to
give information on strengths and weaknesses, and also in a more focused
way to assist in identifying language-processing (dyslexic) difficulties. By
tape recording the learner reading, it is possible to listen closely to their
ability to use cueing systems, which ones they rely on and where their
weaknesses lie. These observations can then be discussed with the learner,
confirmed by further observation, cross-referenced with the curriculum and
used as a basis for planning learning.
In order to get an accurate picture, the learner must read a passage at a
level of difficulty that produces 2025 miscues. Any appropriate passage
may be used but readability can be assessed by one of the readability
formulae, such as FOG or SMOG (BSA,1989, Resources). It is extremely
important that the teacher explains to the learner the purpose of the
assessment, that it is meant to be difficult and why. The learner needs to
know how he or she will benefit, and that it is in no sense a test, i.e.
there is no score and no way to fail.
The analysis is of value to the teacher in planning, but it can also be very
useful for the learner in helping to understand his or her difficulties and
strengths and to clarify the reading process. The learning plan can then be
developed from the analysis, and the learner can make sense of the teaching
approaches suggested. The learner becomes more of an equal partner in the
learning process and can contribute more to evaluating the effectiveness of
the teaching methods.
89

Reading and access to text for blind and partially sighted

learners
The ability to access books, newspapers, instructions, forms, timetables and
all the other information presented on paper or via a computer screen is
fundamental to learning. For a blind or partially sighted person, the process
of reading will rely on any combination of the following:
standard print
large print
audio tape
Braille
Moon
access technology.
For the majority of partially sighted learners, the issue of time is also
fundamental to effective learning, because most activities will take longer
than for sighted learners. Fluent readers will keep 23 lines of text in view
at a time (very fluent readers can keep a whole page in view). Those who
rely on vision aids, including bifocals, may not be able to do so and may be
reduced to reading a phrase at a time. This takes longer, and it is easy to
lose the thread of the text.
More time is also needed to develop an understanding of many concepts
that a sighted learner may learn incidentally. This is especially true of
learners who have been blind since birth and who have no innate grasp of
visual and spatial concepts. Learners access to information is more limited
and requires more time because it is influenced by the learners capacity to
observe the environment directly and, therefore, the need to access
information from a range of alternative sources. A partially sighted learner
will also need to record tasks in different media, and the methods used may,
in some cases, be slower.
Access to information for partially sighted learners can be

provided through: large print (produced by enlarging on
photocopier or via PC-enlarged fonts); magnification, either with
lenses, CCTV or on a PC monitor; in tactile format such as Braille or
Moon; via information technology made accessible by speech
output or soft braille lines; or via the spoken/recorded voice.
For partially sighted print users, legibility depends on more than print size.
The following are vital factors in presenting accessible print materials:
90
Print quality.
Fonts: choose a plain sans serif font such as Arial.
Boldness: bold print is more legible, because it gives better

contrast. With bold print many learners can read a smaller font.
Contrast: aim for a good contrast between the type and the background. Black type on a white or yellow background is best , but
check preferences with individual learners or try out a number of
combinations. Ensure that any photocopies also maximise contrast.
Format: an A4 format is easier to handle than oversized

sheets.
Spacing: legibility is improved by using double spacing, as well as

wide margins. Solid blocks of text can be difficult to read,
especially when a learner is using a magnifying device. For
handouts and similar materials, concise sentences and short
paragraphs will be helpful.
Reformatting: when rewriting in large print, some reformatting may

be required. Columns should be avoided. Short, clearly separated
chunks of text and a justified left-hand margin with a ragged
(unjustified) right-hand edge help people to navigate from line to
line.
Any information, including tabular information and forms, must

be clear, simple, contain only the relevant information and be
made accessible in the most appropriate format for the
learner.
Avoid printing in blocks of capital letters (upper case).

Avoid thin or glossy types of paper. Thin paper can cause print to
show through the page, causing shadow; glossy paper reflects
light, which may cause uncomfortable glare.
Where activities involve journeys or journey planning, enlargement

and/or transcription of information, timetables, etc. will assist
understanding. Assistance can also come in audio forms, such as
telephone operator and telephone services, directory enquiries,
train enquiries and taped information.
Collecting and collating information can be done co-operatively

with a sighted partner. Partially sighted learners can use tape
recorders and/or personal memo recorders.
For information from a variety of sources see Resources section.

Libraries are a source of large-print books. RNIB and the National
Library for the Blind are a source of Braille, Moon and taped
books. Envelope guides, writing frames, raised line notepaper,
signature guides and felt-tip pens may also be useful.
91

Visual perceptual problems: unstable print

Research suggests that many reading difficulties are the result of readers perceiving print as unstable. It may
appear to blur, jump or float.
Readers may find reading stressful or very tiring and may fail to perceive words accurately. They may be
sensitive to glare or certain kinds of light. This is known as Meares-Irlen syndrome and can sometimes be
helped by the use of coloured acetate overlays or coloured lenses.
It is useful to experiment with different-coloured plastic overlays to see if they stabilise the print. The effect
of a single colour may wear off after a time, and the learner may then need to try others. However, if one
colour works consistently for a learner over a period of time, a full assessment for coloured lenses by a
specialist optometrist or ophthalmologist or a local Irlen centre may be well worth obtaining (see
Resources).
Reading in dim light will also sometimes help, and text on coloured paper may also reduce the problem.
Again, colours will vary for individuals and need to be explored with the learner.
Using a plain piece of card or finger to track words while reading may help readers to keep their place,
follow a line of print and move from line to line. In cases where learners are visually distracted by print (as
above), it may be useful to cut a window in card the length of a line of text, which learners can move down
the page as they read. The window can be covered with the coloured overlay if appropriate (see guidance on
Making a coloured acetate overlay p145). In making handouts, consider: preferred type and size of fonts, line
spacing, justified left and unjustified right margins, and keeping constant spaces between words.
92
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Access for All
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
short texts with repeated
language patterns on
familiar topics
read and obtain
information
from common signs and
symbols
in texts such as public signs
and notices, lists, forms,
records, simple narratives
Text Focus Reading comprehension
Rt/E1


1
follow a short narrative on a

familiar topic or experience

difficulties may not easily grasp the
basic conventions of print and text.
know that text on a page goes from

left to right and from top to bottom
and be able to track a simple text as
they read it aloud for themselves
Dyslexic learners or those with a

neurological impairment may have
difficulty in reading from left to right and
doing a return sweep to the beginning of
the next line.
These learners, especially those with
visual processing difficulties, e.g. the
Meares-Irlen Syndrome, may also
experience print as jumpy or blurred,
may see the holes in a letter rather than
the letter (e.g. in p or d), may not see the
spaces between words, i.e. words run
together (see guidance on Visual
perceptual problems: unstable print p92).
Learners with visual impairments may

not see the print and text clearly. Also,
those with visual impairments or who
are blind do not have the experience of
an abundance of print and visual stimuli
around them, so they do not pick up
conventions of written language. Those
with tunnel vision or peripheral
difficulties may only see part of the text
(see Reading and access to text for blind
and partially sighted learners pp901).
94
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Reading
Entry 1

strategies
Ensure they understand the conventions of
text, for example, that a word is the same
when used in different sentences; make
these explicit to learners.
Spell-read, a multisensory technique, may
help with this (see adjacent guidance on
Multi-sensory approaches to teaching).
Listening to a tape (read at an appropriately slow pace) while reading, or
reading on screen with an automatic
cursor can help learners follow the text.
Suggest learners put their fingers under
each word as they read, but be careful to
explain why, as some adults may consider
this childish.
A piece of card placed under or above the
line of text can help readers stay on the
line and not skip lines, or use a line
tracker.
Try coloured acetate overlays and/or refer
for a specialist ophthalmologist or Irlen
Centre assessment (see guidance on
Making a coloured acetate overlay p145).
Use masking to prevent visual distraction.
Block off all text but a word, phrase or line
and/or cut up card for words or phrases, etc.
A visual tracking magnifier may help with
some aspects of visual dyslexia.
A thick margin and line on the left-hand
side may help.
Some partially sighted learners may wish
to use low-vision aids such as magnifiers
or CCTV to enlarge text. Where necessary,
use alternative sources of access to text,
such as reading machines or software
(see Technology in Introduction section
p1113, 1617, 212, 25, 301, 38, 41.
Discuss with learners what size, colour
and type of text are best for them. Ensure
appropriate lighting level. Daylight may be
better for some learners. In particular,
avoid shiny surfaces, which reflect glare.
Multi-sensory approaches to teaching

Teaching approaches need to be linked with the learners profile of
strengths and weaknesses, developing and using strengths to
support weaknesses and exploring alternative approaches,
including the use of technology.
Adults with persistent reading difficulties will generally have some
difficulty with processing language, i.e. perceiving, storing and/or
retrieving written language. They will also have a distinct profile of
strengths and weaknesses that requires an individualised approach
using multi-sensory methods, maximising processing strengths and
developing strategies to compensate for weaknesses.
Research in the US suggests that over 80 per cent of poor readers
are right-hemisphered, tactile and/or kinaesthetic learners (Carbo
(1982), and Carbo et al (1994), see Resources). They need concrete,
holistic approaches and personally meaningful materials to learn. It is
worth remembering the abstract nature of marks (letters and words)
written on paper. Consequently, tactile/kinaesthetic materials are
often needed to learn alphabetic systems. The following are
approaches found useful with adults who are having problems at
Entry Level. Not all learners will take to all of these methods. It is
important to explore a range of approaches and select those
learners prefer. Ensure learners understand their own learning style
and difficulties and why these methods might help.
The Fernald method involves the learner tracing over words
selected from language experience written on card in crayon, to
get a feel of the letters. The learner then Looks, says, traces,
covers, says, writes, checks. The learner uses the forefinger of the
writing hand to develop a kinaesthetic/motor memory for the word.
This can be extended through a structured individualised spelling
programme which develops word recognition through spelling (see
guidance on Using an individualised spelling programme in
Writing section for more details pp165 & 167).
Edith Norrie letter case is a multi-sensory resource using letters
on a magnetic board. Letters are arranged spatially, rather than
sequentially, according to whether the sounds they represent are
voiced or unvoiced. Vowels are in red. It also includes a lip mirror so
learners can see and feel how sounds of letters are made.
Learners can move and change letters physically to make new
words, giving them a concrete experience of how the alphabetic
system works; for example, they can take away the h from hat
and make at; then replace the h with b and make bat. There are
enough letters for learners to construct sentences too, which is
especially useful for those with handwriting difficulties.
Plastic or sandpaper letters give the feel of letters, an
experience of the shapes of and holes in letters. They also give
the physical, concrete experience of word building, e.g. changing
letters to make new words. These are also useful for reinforcing
words used in language experience. Plastic letters, with
consonants in blue and vowels in red, can also be used to help
learners get a concrete picture of letters and words, as well as to
understand vowels and consonants.
(continued on p97)
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Access for All
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
familiar topics
read and obtain
information
symbols
Rt/E1 (continued)


1
follow a short narrative on a

familiar topic or experience
(continued)
Some learners may have difficulties in

manipulating paper.
know and use a range of text-level

strategies to get at meaning
Many learners with learning

difficulties may not always have an
understanding of words they are reading,
even though they are able to decode
them; consequently, they will not be able
to use context to get meaning.
Deaf learners will often rely on visual

features to understand meaning.
96
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Reading
Entry 1

strategies
Use information and learning technology
(ILT) materials or aids such as page
turners.
Ensure learners understand all the

words and work explicitly on text-level
strategies.
Present reading in phrases that help
clarify meaning, e.g.
My friend and I/
went shopping/
for new clothes.
or: My friend and I/went shopping/for
new clothes.
Cut sentences into chunks and

encourage learners to reassemble them
in the correct sequence.
Ensure good layout and quality of print
of materials.
Use headings and subheadings,
numbering and bullet points to help
deaf learners find their way through
text.
Using materials written by deaf people
reflecting the deaf culture may help to
involve learners. Use illustrations and
diagrams to reinforce text.
Multi-sensory approaches to teaching (continued)

Symbol mastery (see R. Davis (1997), Resources) is a method
using clay or plasticine for modelling the alphabet. Learners thus
create their own individual three-dimensional alphabet, saying each
letters name and the sound it makes once modelled, e.g. You are
an A and you say a. Learners can also model images to represent
words they find difficult to recognise.
Drawing pictograms to remind them of the look and sound of
letters may be successful for some learners, especially those who
are good at drawing and who think in images. For instance, for
someone who likes cats, a c could be drawn as a curled-up cat,
and an s could be drawn as a Siamese cat, etc.
Spell-read and Sweep-sweep-spell is a more structured version
of paired reading, training the eyes to move from left to right, take
in each letter in sequence and recognise letter groups as words.
The teacher and learner read together. The learner spells each
word, e.g. h-i-m. The teacher says him. The learner says him. If
the learner recognises the word, then he or she says it. Words are
identified by pointing with a finger, pencil or by using a piece of
card to reveal words, if the learner is easily visually distracted.
When the learner is starting to recognise many words while or
before spelling them, begin Sweep-sweep-spell: the learner is
instructed to let his or her eyes sweep over the word and say it.
If he or she doesnt recognise it, sweep it again. If he or she still
does not recognise it, the learner spells out the word, and the
teacher says the word (see R. Davis (1997)).
NB. Always use adult materials of interest to the learner, even if
they seem too difficult: motivation, progress and the sense of
achievement will be greater.
Many learners with reading difficulties who have tactile/
kinaesthetic learning styles will need to move around and may find
that sitting still, particularly at a table, increases their
difficulties with concentration. Creating an environment that suits
these learners may help, such as a reading corner with
comfortable armchairs or cushions where they can sprawl. Some
of these learners will also find that they read better if they walk
while reading. A space to walk without disturbing other learners,
for example at the back of the room, may help.
97
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Access
for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
familiar topics
read and obtain
information
symbols
Sentence Focus Grammar and punctuation

1
read and recognise simple sentence

structures

Rs/E1

Dyslexic learners, those with autistic
spectrum disorders and many with
learning difficulties will have problems
with abstract rules and the conventions of
written language.
Dyslexic learners and some with

learning difficulties will have specific
problems with those abstract aspects of
grammar such as prepositions, some
tenses and the passive voice.
Learners with some forms of dysphasia
will find word order difficult.
Deaf learners who use sign as their first

language may need to learn the subject
verbobject sequence specifically, as well
as the order of adverbs and adjectives.
Sign does not use the auxiliary to be, or
articles, or use word endings to signify
different tenses.
Deaf learners also have particular
difficulties with the passive tense,
because the word order is reversed and
there is no equivalent in BSL.
know the name and understand the
function of a full stop and an initial
capital letter in a sentence and apply
this knowledge to help with reading
As the concept of a sentence is abstract

and based on structure rather than
meaning, some dyslexic learners and
some with learning difficulties may
find punctuation hard to grasp.
Punctuation marks, especially full stops

and commas, are often indistinct and
easily overlooked by learners with partial
sight.
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Reading
Entry 1
Start from concrete reading experience rather than abstract analysis of sentence and
teach sentence level only within text-level context.
Use learners own words through language experience work to approach grammar,
word order and punctuation (see guidance on Using language experience p109).
Avoid worksheets and decontextualised exercises.
Focus more on semantic (meaning) cues at sentence level and introduce syntax
progressively using learners own sentences.
BROGY is a multisensory resource for learning sentence structure, where each part of
speech, e.g. noun, verb, etc. is a different colour (see guidance on Multisensory
approaches to teaching pp95 & 97).
Sentence cards i.e. colour-coded cards with words that are subjects, objects or
verbs can also be made and used with individuals or groups. Learners choose one of
each type at random to construct a sentence. This could be combined with learners
language experience.
Magnetic poetry or letters can be used to make sentences and change tenses.
Recognise differences between standard English and sign and discuss these with
learners. Teach grammar explicitly.
Deaf learners may respond well to a grid method for simple sentences (see Writing
section for illustration p159).
Use visual stimuli, such as misplaced phrases on cartoons to build sentences that
construct a story.
Full stops and capital letters may need to be introduced slowly as learners progress
through Entry Level.
Use tactile resources such as textured, brightly coloured full-stop markers with
language experience, e.g. when rearranging words into new sentences. This will also
help some blind and partially sighted learners.
The Edith Norrie letter case can be a useful multi-sensory resource for building
sentences, using capitals and full stops (see guidance on Multisensory approaches to
teaching pp95 & 97).
Use the symbol mastering approach of Ron Davis (1997), by using clay or plasticine to
make letters, punctuation marks, etc. It helps to make punctuation more concrete
(see guidance on Multisensory approaches to teaching pp95 & 97 for detail).
Highlight, enlarge or colour punctuation marks.
99
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Access
for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
familiar topics
read and obtain
information
symbols
Word Focus Vocabulary, word recognition and phonics

1
possess a limited meaningful sight

vocabulary of words, signs and
symbols

Rw/E1

Learners with visual processing
problems and a poor visual memory
for words, including dyslexic learners,
will experience difficulty with developing
a sight vocabulary, especially of words
that have little concrete meaning,
including most of the Dolch list (p59 of
the Adult Literacy Core Curriculum). It is
important to teach these, but remember
that some learners will always have
difficulties with these words.

difficulties may experience great
difficulty in recognising words.
know and apply some techniques for

recognising words on sight: length,
shape, initial letter combinations,
association with other words
100
Dyslexic learners or others with visual

processing difficulties, as well as those
with partial sight may not see words
clearly or perceive letters in a clear
sequence, or may find it difficult to
identify significant letter features. Letters
may appear to jump around, blur together,
or readers may see the white spaces
instead of the print.
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Reading
Reading
Entry 1
Using symbol software

strategies
Teach sight vocabulary including Dolch
list words within context of language
experience and learners own contexts
never out of context.
Combine word recognition work with a
spelling programme, as spelling often
helps develop and reinforce word
recognition (see Using an individualised
spelling programme in Writing section
pp165 & 167). The Dolch list of words
can be introduced within this context as
part of the learners own developing
sight vocabulary. These words will
appear in texts as learners progress to
higher levels. Note that this works only
within the context of language
experience (see guidance on Using
language experience p109).
Some learners may find it helpful to

have a symbol alongside or over the
word. Symbol software such as Widgit
can do this.
Liz
goes
to
the college.
She
likes
her
She
has
an
Sokol works
He
likes
He
writes
course.
action plan
at
the
his
job.
about
for
her
work.
park.
his work
in
his
diary.
Check for visual disturbances such as

blurring or jumpy print; if there are
signs, refer to specialist
ophthalmologists or a local Irlen centre
for tests for Meares-Irlen syndrome.
Try coloured acetate overlays and/or
large print. The preferred colour will
vary from individual to individual
(see guidance on Comprehension
difficulties and visual processing
problems p115).
Use text-to-speech software, but only
when using texts, not with lists of
words. Highlight words within texts.
Inayat goes
He
sees
to
the
his friends
mosque.
( there )
This is an example of symbol-supported language. There are different

software packages and symbol systems available.
101
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Access
for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
familiar topics
read and obtain
information
symbols
102
Word Focus Vocabulary, word recognition and phonics Rw/E1 (continued)

2
decode simple, regular words

identify sounds in familiar regular
words from spoken experience and
recognise correspondence between
sounds (phonemes) and letters
(graphemes)

Learners who are deaf or partially
hearing or dyslexic with auditory
processing problems, some with
learning difficulties and many with
speech difficulties will be unable to use
phonic approaches effectively. Consonant
blends such as st, bl, cr will be
particularly difficult, as will medial
vowels.
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Page 103
Reading
Entry 1

strategies
Use suggestions from
Rw/E1 1 .
Work with learners processing
strengths.
Use multisensory approaches such as
the Edith Norrie letter case and Fernald
method (see guidance on Multisensory
approaches to learning pp95 & 97).
Use visual-based approaches. Help
learners devise and draw on their own
images to remember the look and sound
of letters, through making pictograms or
using clip art so learners can make their
own choice of images.
Break words into visual/tactile patterns
rather than sounds.
When teaching letter sounds,
emphasise initial sounds, as these are
often easier than middle and final
sounds.
Also teach in sound units rather than
separate sounds, e.g. j-elly/t-elly.
Encourage deaf learners to see the
visual patterns.
Use ILT-based multimedia programmes
such as units of sound (see adjacent
guidance on The role of phonics).
Partially hearing learners who lipread
can use lip patterns to help with
reading.
The Edith Norrie letter case has a lip
mirror to enable learners to watch
themselves say words.
Do not persevere with teaching phonics
if progress is negligible.
The role of phonics

Phonics is a useful tool for learning to read, as it helps readers to
use the alphabetic system to work out new words. However,
learners who are deaf or partially hearing, dyslexic learners, those
with auditory processing problems and some learners with learning
difficulties will be unable to use phonics successfully, but will
rely on visual and lexical (word-based) approaches to work out
words and develop a sight vocabulary. For profoundly deaf
learners, this is obvious, but those with auditory processing
difficulties and hearing impairments may use phonics to some
extent, though imperfectly. It is important to help them use
phonics where useful, but it is equally important that they do not
rely on inaccurate hearing or perception, which will increase their
difficulties. Many dyslexic learners will be able to perceive sounds,
but not hold them or keep track of them while reading or spelling;
in this case, they may appear to learn phonics but they will not be
able to use them effectively. They will need to rely on visual and
motor strategies, in addition to meaningful links (e.g. mnemonics)
and units of meaning to develop reading skills at word level.
However, they can develop good word-recognition skills. They will
also rely on text-focus skills using context, to compensate for
weak phonic skills.
It will help to remember the following when teaching phonics:
teach sound units rather than individual sounds, e.g. m-an c-an
j-elly b-elly rather than m-a-n, j-e-ll-y, etc.
use multisensory methods to reinforce visual and tactile
patterns (see guidance on Multisensory approaches to
teaching pp95 & 97.)
In addition, help learners develop effective visual and lexical
strategies for spelling, and use spelling to develop strategies for
working out words (see guidance on Using an individualised spelling
programme in Writing section pp165 & 167).
Develop sight vocabulary through using high-interest adult
material at an easy level, such as graded readers designed for
ESOL learners (available from many publishers). These encourage
lots of reading by making reading easier and more enjoyable
without sacrificing content, and they also increase difficulty in
graded steps.
Phonic approaches may be of some use for partially hearing
learners in good acoustic conditions. Deaf learners can become
good readers without the use of sound.
Many learners with partial sight may respond more effectively to
phonic approaches than visual ones.
If learners have had unsuccessful experiences of being taught
phonics, it is best to take other approaches rather than reinforce
failure.
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Access
for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
familiar topics
read and obtain
information
symbols

3
Rw/E1 (continued)

recognise the letters of the

alphabet in both upper and lower
case
Partially sighted learners will find fonts

with serifs very difficult.
recognise, sound, name and sequence

the letters of the alphabet

learning difficulties will understand that
the alphabet is in order, but they may
always have difficulty remembering the
order.

They will have particular difficulties with

remembering the sequence of letters.
Some learners may never learn the

alphabet in sequence and will have
difficulty with sample activities on sorting
into alphabetical order.
Partially sighted learners may

experience difficulties.
understand and use the terms vowel
and consonant
104
Learners who are dyslexic, deaf and

some with learning difficulties may
have difficulty in understanding the rules
and structure of language, especially
abstract concepts.
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Reading
Entry 1
The alphabet arc

strategies
the kickers
Use sans serif fonts such as Arial,

wherever possible.
NO
EF
everyone
knows
these
PQ
she feeds them
R S 'peculiar stew'
XYZ
Develop and use alternative strategies

for tasks involving alphabetical order,
such as keeping a notebook with the
alphabet to refer to. Having developed
alternative strategies, it is advisable to
avoid the sample activities that focus on
alphabetical order. Cut out index tabs in
the side of a book and write in letters of
the alphabet (like on an address book).
VW
Use multisensory approaches such as

the Edith Norrie letter case, which uses
a spatial layout of letters based on how
they are formed with the lips and
tongue, and on whether they are voiced.
The Ron Davis symbol mastery
technique is also useful for many
learners (see guidance on Multisensory
the
fitting letters
HI
JKL
Mum says NO
to her kids
TU
Showing the letters of the alphabet in

an arc (wooden letters that fit into a
curve are available) can help spatial
awareness and compensate for poor
memory for sequencing. The alphabet
arc is helpful in chunking the alphabet
and providing clues to assist memory.
(See guidance adjacent.)
the
Americans
Mum
in the
middle
ABCD
2.Reading
ABCD
everyone knows these
EF
the fitting letters: F fits over E
GHI
the Americans
JKL
the kickers (back to back)
Mum in the middle
NO
Mum says NO to her kids
PQRSTU
she feeds them 'peculiar stew'
VWXYZ
the V letters
the
V letters
(see Resources p321)
Spatial and motor memory can be used to compensate for poor sequencing and shortterm memory by using computer and mobile-phone keyboards.
Depending on individual learner requirements, ensure material is available in tactile
form (Braille or Moon) or on PC with appropriate access technology.
Use materials such as the Edith Norrie letter case or plastic letters where vowels are in
a different colour. If this causes difficulty, do not persevere teach it at a later stage.
Point out that in BSL finger spelling, all vowels are on one hand. The other letters are
consonants.
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Access
for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
short, straightforward texts
on familiar topics
read and obtain
information
from short documents,
familiar sources and signs
and symbols
Rt/E2


1
trace and understand the main

events of chronological and
instructional texts

notes, records, e-mails,
simple narratives, letters and
diagrams
Learners with learning difficulties,

hydrocephalus or acquired brain
injury and dyslexic learners may have
problems with sequencing.
Some learners may be able to follow a

sequence but have difficulty in doing
sequencing activities such as putting
sentences in the correct order.
identify common sources of

information
Blind and partially sighted learners will

not be familiar with the range and
conventions of different sources of
information and how they are presented.
They will have particular problems with
sources of information that are presented
visually, such as web sites.
These learners will be slower in locating
specific details which rely on visual
scanning.
106
use illustrations and captions to

locate information

have difficulties with information
presented in illustrations.
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Entry 2
Put instructions and sequences in context. Approach sequences holistically by giving an

overview or framework for the sequence, then picking out the sequence last.
Recognise that some learners may always have problems with sequencing and look for
alternatives, e.g. a tick list when they need to follow instructions.
Avoid exercises in sequencing that have no personal relevance.
If putting things into sequence, use tactile/kinaesthetic approaches, such as sentences
on cards that can be moved around and discussed, to help learners get a sense of the
sequence.
Use personally relevant activities, such as getting learners to explain to someone else
the sequence in which they do something or to describe the sequence in a game,
e.g. football.
Pay attention to presentational factors such as print contrast, print style and size,
layout in terms of margins and line length.
Refer to guidelines on web-site accessibility (see Introduction p12, and Resources).
Advice on web-site design is available on the RNIB web-site.
Ensure all material sources used are visually clear.
Ensure that you give a verbal description of all illustrations.
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for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
on familiar topics

1
read and obtain

information
and symbols
read and understand linking

words and adverbials in
instructions and directions
(e.g. next, then, right and straight
on)

diagrams
Rs/E2

(See Rs/E1
.)
Dyslexic learners and many with

learning difficulties have problems with
adverbials and linking words, as these
have no concrete image with which they
can be associated. These learners and
those with some forms of dysphasia
may find words that indicate direction or
order particularly difficult.
They may also have difficulties with
following a sequence.
This will also be a problem for some
learners with neurological
impairments who have difficulty with
spatial and/or temporal awareness.
use knowledge of simple sentence

structure and word order to help
decipher unfamiliar words and predict
meaning
Deaf learners as well as some who are

dyslexic (particularly those with
auditory processing problems) may
need to rely much more on semantic cues
than syntactic ones when reading.
Activities using cloze may be difficult for
these learners when filling gaps relies on
knowledge of grammar.
Gap tests for assessment are unreliable
for deaf learners, as the gaps often
require a syntactic item, not a
semantic one. Deaf students may
therefore be able to paraphrase the
test passage accurately, but still fail
the test itself.
108
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strategies
(See Rs/E1
.)
Use visual/tactile cues wherever

possible, such as a map, diagram or
drawing with accompanying
instructions.
Avoid compounding the difficulty by
using activities such as putting jumbled
instructions into a logical order. If using
these, have instructions on card that
learners can arrange after trying them
out by literally walking through the
instructions.
Use instructions for tasks that learners
can actually perform and which are
relevant to them.
Have them make help sheets or cards
for difficult words, with a little drawing
or piece of clip art to remind them of
the meaning. If learners choose their
own images they are more likely to
learn the word.
Using language experience

Language experience is highly effective with a wide range of adult
learners. It is a method of teaching reading through writing, using
the learners own words. The teacher scribes, and later the learner
writes, and may illustrate, stories, descriptions, factual accounts,
instructions which he or she then reads. Any genre can be used. In
the hands of a skilled teacher, it also helps develop expression and
editing skills. It is important that the teacher acting as scribe
does not change learners words, but helps them develop their
language and expression through asking questions, suggesting
where more could be said, and encouraging self-editing skills.
Learners whose learning styles are highly tactile and kinaesthetic
will need to have the words on pieces of card so they can reinforce
word recognition by moving these around and making new
sentences. Full stops can be introduced as a large red dot cut out
of card, and other punctuation can be introduced in the same way.
For any learner with difficulties learning to read, language
experience is best combined with an individualised spelling
programme (see Using an individualised spelling programme in
Writing section pp165 & 167), to reinforce word recognition. This
should use words from the learners scribed writing and include
dictations of the learned words in different sentences and
contexts. Learners can then begin to create personal dictionaries.
Suggest they send and read e-mails or text messages to and from each other with
instructions using adverbials, and then explain what they are to do.
Use appropriate adaptive technology for partially sighted learners.
Teach use of semantic cues to compensate for difficulties with grammar.
If using cloze activities, only use in combination with language experience, so that
learners use their own vocabulary (see guidance on Using language experience
above). If appropriate, give a selection of words to choose from.
Use alternatives with deaf learners.
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Access
for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
on familiar topics
read and obtain
information
and symbols
diagrams

4
Rs/E2 (continued)

use punctuation and capitalisation to

aid understanding
(See Rs/E1
understand that this punctuation (full

stop, question and exclamation marks)
serves to help the reader make sense
of written text, and apply this
understanding in their own reading
Learners who are dyslexic or have

autistic spectrum disorders, and many
with learning difficulties will have
problems with abstract rules and the
conventions of written language, which
include punctuation.
.)
Profoundly deaf learners will not be able

to use intonation as a way of
understanding punctuation.
Use the sample activity Read aloud
on p65 of the Adult Literacy Core
Curriculum with caution. Dyslexic
learners, those with speech and
language impairments and some with
learning difficulties may find reading
aloud arduous and very stressful.
Deaf learners and those with speech
and language impairments will need a
strategy to enable them to participate in
group reading activities.
Tactile systems such as Braille or Moon

have different punctuation conventions.
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Entry 2
Use the same strategies for other punctuation marks as for full stops and capitals
(see Rs/E1 1 ).
Use tapes or teacher reading aloud while learners follow text, to demonstrate how
punctuation can aid meaning. Call attention to exclamation marks and question marks
through the use of intonation. Give examples of sentences where punctuation can
change meaning, e.g. What are you doing?/What are you doing! and explore these
with learners.
Explain use of punctuation explicitly. Discuss with sign users how they would convey
pauses in sign, and relate this to the use of full stops.
If using activities where reading aloud is necessary, such as reading parts of a play,
ensure learners have private and supported practice time before reading aloud, and
that they are comfortable with it. Ask for volunteers; never force people to read aloud.
Use a highlighter to mark the cue word that brings the reader in and underscore in a
different colour the part the learner needs to read. The coloured underscore will draw
attention to the relevant parts.
Ask deaf learners to sign their part and use a communication support worker to voiceover. Agree procedure with learner.
In all cases, think about the purpose of reading aloud and find alternatives where
possible to achieve this, e.g. explaining what the text was about or doing a DART
exercise on using punctuation to help with meaning (see guidance on Comprehension
strategies p119).
If hearing a learner read for purposes of diagnosis or assessing progress, arrange a
private time and space.
Check that Braille/Moon users understand conventions/short forms relating to Braille
and Moon.
Where appropriate provide PC-based activities using appropriate access technology.
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Access
for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
on familiar topics
read and obtain
information
and symbols

1
read and understand words on

forms related to personal
information (e.g. first name,
surname, address, postcode, age,
date of birth)

diagrams
Rw/E2

Partially sighted learners, learners
with perceptual difficulties and
dyslexic learners with visual
processing problems can have difficulty
following the layout of a form; for example
they may miss out lines (see guidance on
Reading and access to text for blind and
partially sighted learners pp901).
Learners may be put off or confused by

the tone of instructions such as delete,
omit, explain, block letters.
See also Rw/E1 for difficulties in
developing a sight vocabulary.
112
recognise high-frequency words

and words with common spelling
patterns
This will be a persistent problem for

learners with visual processing
problems and a poor visual memory
for words, including dyslexic
learners.They may experience difficulty
with developing a sight vocabulary,
especially of words which have little
concrete meaning, including most of the
Dolch list (p67 of the Adult Literacy Core
Curriculum). It is important to teach
these, but remember that these learners
will always have difficulties with these
words.
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Ensure print clarity when selecting materials and enlarge forms if appropriate for
individuals (see guidance on Reading and access to text for blind and partially sighted
learners pp901).
Help learners explicitly navigate forms by explaining layout and text features.
Point out the conventions.
Help learners to follow line by line by using a line marker or card.
Help learners find the parts they must NOT fill in and explain why.
Provide forms on screen with suitable access technology.
Provide tactile media.
(See Rw/E1.)
Learners will learn common spelling patterns more easily through words that are
meaningful to them.
When learning high-frequency/Dolch list words, these will be best learnt in relevant
and interesting contexts, e.g. through their own writing or text messages. See sample
activities but ensure high-frequency words come from learners language experience or
writing.
Link with spelling practice to reinforce word recognition (see guidance on Using an
individualised spelling programme in Writing section pp165 & 167).
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Access
for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
on familiar topics
read and obtain
information
and symbols

3
use phonic and graphic

knowledge to decode words

diagrams

Learners who are deaf/partially
hearing and those who are dyslexic with
auditory processing difficulties as well
as some with learning difficulties may
have great difficulty using phonics because
they cannot hear, discriminate or process
sounds.
Phonics are of no use to profoundly deaf
people, but may be of some use to
learners who are partially hearing, if the
acoustics are good.
Remember that profoundly deaf people
can learn to read extremely well so,
although phonics are useful for some
learners, they are not essential in
learning to read.
Some dyslexic learners with visual
processing difficulties may have
difficulty using graphic knowledge as they
will confuse some letters, particularly
those which are mirror images such as
b/d, g/q, etc.
understand that the same sound

(phoneme) can be spelt in more than
one way and that the same spelling
(grapheme) can represent more than
one sound
Learners who are deaf/partially hearing

and those who are dyslexic with auditory
processing difficulties may have fewer or
no problems with homonyms because these
learners do not rely on sound.
Learners with visual processing
difficulties rely on sound rather than visual
recognition, so may have problems with
words with sounds that are spelt the same
but pronounced differently, e.g. tear or read.
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strategies
Use learners processing strengths. If
they have had an unsuccessful
experience of phonics programmes, do
not persist but look for alternative
approaches such as:
emphasising visual patterns
words within words
units of meaning, e.g. root
words/suffixes/prefixes
multisensory approaches
(see guidance on Multisensory
Use multisensory strategies (see guidance
on Multisensory approaches pp95 & 97).
Help learners devise and use mnemonics,

e.g. bat and ball to make
a b.
bed
bed to remember
which way round the
b and d are, or draw a picture,
Also LOOK with Os
Hear with an ear to illustrate.
Comprehension difficulties and visual processing problems

Learners with poor word recognition may use phonics more or less
effectively and be able to read the words, but not to access meaning
from written text. As they do not recognise familiar words, they are
continually needing to work out these words, which interferes with
comprehension. They may function cognitively at a high level but they will
always have these difficulties. The more complex the text, the more
there is to hold in the short-term memory while working out the words,
so the greater the comprehension problems. Often these readers will
need a strategy, such as reading onto tape and then listening back to
gain meaning. This works because they can take in meaning while
listening; gaining meaning from written text is the difficulty. Learners
with other learning difficulties may also experience these problems.
All these learners need structured comprehension strategies such as
PQ4R and DARTs to help them with comprehension (see guidance on
Comprehension strategies p119). However, if problems are severe, they
should be helped to access information through other means than
reading, e.g. tapes and videos, and they may benefit from text-tospeech software. They may need a reader in examinations to ensure
they understand the questions.
They often read at a higher level and can deal with complex reading
tasks in a subject of great interest to them. It is therefore helpful to
work on higher-level skills in an appropriate context, where the reader
has a familiarity with the subject and vocabulary and a driving
motivation.
They get very tired reading, are slow readers and usually have to read
something over several times before they get the meaning. They will not
be able to skim and scan. These difficulties may be compounded by
Meares-Irlen syndrome or other visualmotor problems, which may
result in losing their place or skipping lines. Consequently, they find
reading an arduous task.
made into eyes.
h ear
Their/there/theyre is not a problem for profoundly deaf learners, who have no concept
of the sounds of these words.
As with other learners, draw attention to these words but, because the problem will
persist, emphasise text-level strategies to monitor comprehension such as PQ4R
(see guidance on Comprehension strategies p119).
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for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
on familiar topics
read and obtain
information
and symbols

3
use phonic and graphic knowledge to decode words (continued)

Learners with auditory processing
difficulties may be unable to hold a
sequence of sounds as syllables.
understand how each beat in a word is

a syllable and breaking some words
into syllables can help to decode them
e.g. family

diagrams
use a simplified dictionary to find

the meaning of unfamiliar words
Dyslexic learners and others with

sequencing difficulties, such as those
with learning difficulties or acquired
brain injury, may have persistent difficulty
with remembering alphabetical order.
Deaf learners will have difficulty reading
unfamiliar words.
116
use initial letters to find and

sequence words in alphabetical
order

sequencing difficulties, such as those
brain injury, may have persistent difficulty
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Entry 2

strategies
Use visual/auditory/tactile methods
and kinaesthetic methods, such as
tapping the chin or table or nodding
the head in time with each syllable.
Look for alternatives for breaking up
words, such as words within words,
strong visual patterns and lexical (i.e.
structural) parts such as roots,
prefixes and suffixes to help word
recognition.
While dictionaries are a good idea for

all learners, recognise that some will
be slower. Encourage learners to look
for other cues such as guide words at
top of page.
Use software programs like textHELP
which give the meaning of words. Use
other technological aids, like the
Franklin Language Master, or talking
dictionaries and aids.
Example of an integrated activity for reading based on pp689 in

the Adult Literacy Core Curriculum
It is important that the cognitive and skills profiles of the learners
are reflected in any integrated activity. Learners may have profiles
at very different levels.
Learners who have difficulties with decoding words may still be
familiar with the formats and text features of many texts, such as
notices. In the example notice (If your chip pan catches fire), they
may rely on text features to compensate for their poor word
attack or recognition skills. A discussion on text features for these
learners, at this level, might appear patronising or pointless.
The teacher would also need to ensure that any discussion included
learners with partial sight.
Other learners with poor word skills might know from experience or
other sources what to do if a chip pan catches fire, so exercises in
learning the content and explaining to others will not be
appropriate. An exercise on memorising as part of an integrated
task will be difficult for those with poor memorisation skills and will
not help them develop the reading skills they need.
Consequently, any integrated activity needs to be carefully mapped
against the needs, knowledge and skills of the learners and their
goals. It may be helpful to devise differentiated integrated activities
for pairs or small groups of learners which are appropriate for them.
Dictionaries of BSLEnglish can be a useful reference for learners and teachers, and
can help to set the context for unfamiliar words.
Those who are partially sighted may need special dictionaries and may prefer talking
dictionaries.
Avoid decontextualised exercises in using alphabetical order. When selecting activities

involving alphabetical order, look for contexts where learners are already using
alphabetical order, or might want to, such as storing names on a mobile phone, in text
messaging, or cataloguing a CD collection.
Do not over-emphasise the importance of alphabetical order, especially where this is an
arduous and time-consuming process. Learners can often find individual alternative
strategies for finding and ordering information.
Ensure that a range of resources is available and accessible to meet learners
preferences. Use portable electronic devices, such as Franklin Language Master, which
contains a dictionary, thesaurus, grammar and spelling corrector.
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for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
on familiar topics accurately
and independently
Rt/E3


1
read and obtain

information
from everyday sources
in texts such as forms, notes,
records, e-mails, narratives,
letters, diagrams, simple
instructions, short reports

events of chronological,
continuous descriptive and
explanatory texts of more than
one paragraph
Those learners with learning

difficulties and others who are dyslexic
or have autistic spectrum disorders
may find it difficult to summarise a text.
They may have difficulties with selecting
important points from detail, organising
main events sequentially or grouping
details under general points. They may
also have difficulty putting these into
their own words.

learning difficulties with poor visual
memory for words will have difficulty
getting meaning from text. They need to
concentrate on recognising or sounding out
the words, so they lose the meaning. This
is compounded by poor short-term
memory.
recognise and understand the

organisational features and typical
language of instructional texts,
e.g. use of imperatives and
second person
(See Rt/E2 33 .)
identify the main points and ideas,

and predict words from context
(See Rt/E2 11 and Rt/E3 11 above.)

may not be familiar with the conventions
of instructional texts.
Learners with sequencing and

organisational difficulties will find it
difficult to do activities such as assembling
a coherent text from cards or summarising.
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Entry 3

strategies
Practise in small steps (i.e. paragraph
by paragraph) using high-interest
material.
Structure the summary, e.g. ask them
to give three main points or give
headings.
Remember that explanatory texts will
be more difficult to summarise than
chronological ones for many learners,
so give more support in doing these.
Ask learners to read in small chunks
and check comprehension at each
stage. Use comprehension strategies
such as DARTs and PQ4R
(see adjacent guidance on
Comprehension strategies).
Teach learners to highlight key words
and words that connect one part to
another (e.g. in a passage about
school, all the words that relate to
school, learning, teaching, etc.).
If comprehension is a persistent
difficulty, suggest they read onto tape
and listen back before reading again
for meaning.
(See Rt/E2 33 .)
Pay attention to presentational factors
such as print contrast, style, size and
layout.
(See Rt/E2 11 and Rt/E3 11.)
Comprehension strategies
Learners with comprehension difficulties will need extra support to
access meaning from print, at whatever level they are reading. The
following are effective approaches for improving comprehension for any
learner, but may be essential scaffolding for those with difficulties:
Modelling the reading process, i.e. demonstrating how you read, is
a basic scaffolding device. Use a piece of text on an overhead
projector to take learners through the process as you preview, ask
yourself questions, monitor meaning, repeat something if it does
not make sense, work out new words from context, etc. Then
suggest learners do it with you and/or in pairs.
Directed Activities for Reading Texts (DARTs) is an excellent way
to direct learners to engage with particular aspects of the text to
improve comprehension and develop an active relationship to
reading. Learners can use highlighting, cutting and pasting, moving
enlarged text around, in groups or pairs, to encompass a range of
learning styles. They can be designed around certain text features,
such as those of a report or procedure, or to help learners identify
main points, etc. (ref Basic Skills, April/May 1997).
PQ4R (Preview, Question, Read, Reflect, Recite, Review) uses
these basic comprehension techniques as a scaffold for the reading
process. Learners practise previewing a text to anticipate from
text features and context what they expect it to be about. They
then formulate questions to be answered as they read. These help
them engage actively in the reading process and should include
higher-level questions. They then read, reflect, recite, review each
paragraph/section as they read. Reflecting helps them think about
what they have read; reciting uses the motor memory to help them
retain it, and reviewing helps to go back to their original questions
and develop summarising skills.
RAP is a mnemonic which is a helpful adjunct to PQ4R to develop
summarising skills:
Read a paragraph
Ask yourself what it says
Put into your own words/Paraphrase.
Tapes can be very helpful for those with comprehension difficulties.
There are three main ways to use these:
1. The teacher records a book/selection slowly, modelling good
phrasing and expression. The learner then reads along with the
tape, then reads silently to self. Useful for developing phrasing
and using punctuation to improve comprehension, and for
increasing reading vocabulary and fluency.
2. The learner reads the text onto tape, then listens back, then
reads silently without the tape; the learner may then want to
repeat the process if the text is difficult. This will enable those
who can pronounce most of the words but have weak word
recognition to access meaning from texts.
3. The learner listens to or watches a recorded (or live) version of a
story/play, etc. (e.g. a video, film as well as audio tape) for
pleasure and/or to get the feel and gist, then reads. This will
increase enjoyment, thus encouraging learners to read more,
while improving comprehension.
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Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
and independently
Rt/E3 (continued)


5
understand and use organisational

features to locate information
(e.g. contents, index, menus)
(See Rt/E2
skim read title, headings and

illustrations to decide if material is
of interest
Dyslexic learners and others with visual

processing difficulties will not be able to
read quickly, as the print may appear to be
unstable and they may easily lose their
place. They also process print more slowly.
read and obtain

information
and Rt/E3
.)

Partially sighted learners will inevitably

take longer to read texts.
120
scan texts to locate information
(See Rt/E3 66 above.) As readers with

visual processing difficulties find it
difficult to recognise familiar words, they
will be unable to use scanning techniques.
obtain specific information

through detailed reading
Learners who have problems decoding

words, such as dyslexic learners or
others with auditory processing
problems, and those who do not
recognise familiar words because of
visual processing difficulties may have
problems with accuracy that affect
detailed reading.
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Entry 3

strategies
Use Talking Yellow Pages, and other
alternative telephone sources, for
information. Help learners find available
support, for example blind or partially
sighted and dyslexic people can use
directory enquiries free (see guidance on
Reading and access to text for blind and
partially sighted learners pp901).
Sample activities such as skimming a

selection of texts will be difficult, so
allow learners more time to find
information and accept that some may
never be able to use skimming as a
strategy to find information
(see adjacent guidance on Skimming
and scanning).
Recognise that learners will take longer
to read texts because of their technical
difficulty with reading and not because
of a lack of understanding.
Skimming and scanning

Skimming and scanning are strategies which rely on the ability to
process visualverbal information rapidly. Some learners may be unable
to skim or scan:
Dyslexic learners and others with visual processing difficulties will
not be able to read quickly or fluently. They process print more slowly
and have problems recognising words and generally taking in
information from print, so it is harder for them to identify the
information they are seeking. They often have to sound out words in
order to recognise them. Some have difficulty perceiving print as
stable, which also impedes rapid reading. They also frequently lose
their place.
Partially sighted learners may need large print or may only be able to
see a small portion of the page, which minimises the amount they
can take in at any one time. Small blocks of large print are easier to
read than large paragraphs of large print, where learners can easily
lose their place and lose track of the content.
Skimming and scanning activities may reinforce failure for these
learners, who should be allowed plenty of time to find information in
texts. As many will never be able to use skimming or scanning as
strategies to find information, they should be helped to use organisational features as much as possible, such as contents pages,
glossaries and headings in texts, and guide words in dictionaries and
resources such as Yellow Pages.
It is also helpful to explore other resources, such as the internet,
talking or electronic dictionaries and thesauruses, Talking Yellow Pages,
talking local newspapers and free access to directory enquiries.
(See Rt/E3 66 above.)

(See guidance above on Skimming and scanning.)
Help learners use semantic cues to check meaning. Develop word-focus strategies:for
instance, working on spelling will improve reading for those with auditory processing
difficulties. Focus on words that are important for the detailed reading learners need to
do in their lives.
As those with visual processing difficulties are always likely to misread, they will need
someone else to check, where accuracy is important, and they will need a reader in any
external examinations.
An electronic reading pen which will scan and read individual words is an excellent aid for
any learner whose difficulties may interfere with accurate detailed reading. A scanner and
text-to-speech facility on a computer may be useful.
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Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
and independently
Rt/E3


9
read and obtain

information
relate an image to print and use it

to obtain meaning

The use of diagrams, symbols, maps, etc.

will be problematic for blind and
partially sighted learners.
(See guidance on Spatial representation
and blind and partially sighted learners in
the Numeracy section pp21618.)
Some learners with dyslexia and some
with learning difficulties have
directional difficulties which affect their
use of maps and some diagrams.

1
recognise and understand the

organisational features and typical
language of instructional texts
(e.g. use of imperatives, second
person)
Rs/E3

(See Rs/E1
language.)
and Rs/E2
re abstract

difficulties and those with expressive
language difficulties (e.g. dysphasic
learners and some who are dyslexic)
will have problems with tenses.
Deaf learners whose first language is
BSL may not use verb endings to indicate
tense, as in standard English. Learners
from other language backgrounds may
also have this difficulty.
The sample activity on p75 of the Adult
Literacy Core Corriculum, Complete a
cloze exercise in which all missing words
are verbs, will cause difficulties (see
Rs/E2 22 ).
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Entry 3
Teaching approach and alternative strategies
Texts used should enable readers to get meaning from text without relying on images.
Use spoken or taped explanations of images or raised images.
Encourage learners who have strong visualspatial skills and who are good at using
diagrams to obtain information, to build on this strength.
When using a map, encourage learners to hold the map up and walk in the direction of
travel.
(See Rs/E1
and Rs/E2
.)
Make the relationship between different types of text and grammatical features explicit.
Where learners have particular difficulties with aspects of grammar, these may be better
taught through speaking and writing.
Teach verb endings explicitly.
When using cloze activities with deaf learners, give a bank of words at first, if necessary,
then do the activities without it.
Instead of using cloze activities, suggest that learners write a story in different tenses or
write personal experiences or send text messages in past, present and future.
Use texts of high interest to learners, and work from text focus to sentence focus,
encouraging learners to guess or skip a word and come back to it.
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Access
for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
and independently
read and obtain
information
Sentence Focus Grammar and punctuation Rs/E3 (continued)

2
use implicit and explicit knowledge of

different types of words (e.g. linking
words [connectives], nouns, verbs,
adjectives), of word order, and of
possible plausible meanings, to help
decode unfamiliar words and predict
meaning

Learners who have difficulties with word
order and linking words, including some
dyslexic or deaf learners and some
with learning difficulties (see Rs/E1 11
and Rs/E2 22 ), may not be fully
successful in using knowledge of word
order to decode and predict, and will rely
on semantic cues.
Deaf learners are likely not to have had
opportunities to expand their vocabulary
through listening and will need specific
work on this.
Some deaf learners may have
difficulties with the sample activities on
p75 of the Adult Literacy Core Curriculum:
Read a short text in which certain words
have been masked out. . . and Practise
how to monitor their own reading . . .
becoming used to listening internally
to their own reading to spot errors of
sense.
Some people with dyslexia and some
with learning difficulties or with
autistic spectrum disorders may feel
they must read every word and find it
hard to skip a word they cannot read or
work out from sentence level.
They may also have limited implicit and
explicit knowledge of different types of
word and word order.
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Reading
Entry 3
Emphasise use of semantic cues where learners have problems with using syntax.
Consider using dictionary of BSLEnglish and provide illustrations or an illustrated/photo

dictionary or BSL CD-ROMs. Use word stems, opposites and ramps to explain meanings
of words, e.g. < boiling hot warm tepid cold freezing >.
Avoid masking out words in texts, as this may reinforce weaknesses. Highlighting,
however, is helpful. Use different colours for different language features or tenses. Keep
to the same colours as BROGY (see p99 and Resources).
As deaf learners will not have an internal auditory channel to check meaning, they will
need to perform an explicit check for sense. The PQ4R technique is good for this
(see guidance on Comprehension strategies p119).
Cloze activities may be helpful for these learners, but they will need to be supported and
encouraged. They should be offered a choice of words and/or initial letters for each gap
initially, until they are used to guessing. If it makes them anxious, avoid using this
approach.
Some learners may always be limited in their use of these strategies.

Partially sighted learners will find it helpful to have your comments, suggestions and
notes on audio tape.
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Access
for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
and independently

3
read and obtain

information
use punctuation and capitalisation to

aid understanding
understand that different punctuation
marks are used for different purposes
and know their names, including:
speech marks to mark off what a
speaker says from the surrounding
text; commas to separate words in a
list, or parts of a sentence.
understand that punctuation relates to
sentence structure and text type to
help the reader make sense of the
written text, and apply this
understanding in their own reading

Rs/E3 (continued)

(See Rs/E1 11 .)
Learners who have problems with
abstract rules and the conventions of
written language will have difficulties
with punctuation. These include dyslexic
learners and those with autistic
spectrum disorders or learning
difficulties.
Profoundly deaf learners will not be

able to use intonation as a way of understanding punctuation.

Rw/E3

recognise and understand

relevant specialist key words
Word recognition will be a persistent

problem for many dyslexic learners and
others with a poor visual memory for
words. Though they will often learn and
recognise specialist words more easily
than function words, they may still have
difficulties with these, especially when
they can be easily confused visually.
read and understand words and

phrases commonly used on forms
(See Rw/E2 11 .)
Those with visual impairments or
disturbances may lose their place on a
form, which will affect their accuracy in
completing forms and recognising words.
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Reading
Entry 3
Use clothes peg commas: sentences requiring commas are written on long strips of
card. Learners have clothes pegs on which commas are drawn and clip these to the
sentences where they think punctuation should be. They can turn over the cards to selfcheck their answers. This can be used with individuals and with small groups as a
demonstration/discussion tool.
Kernel sentences (see guidance on Kernel sentences in Writing section p189) are a good
way to introduce punctuation through writing.
Ron Daviss symbol mastery approach, i.e. using clay or plasticine to make punctuation
marks, can make punctuation more concrete (see guidance on Multisensory approaches
to teaching pp95 & 97).
Teach punctuation through meaning and structure rather than sound. Discuss with sign
language users how they would convey pauses in sign and relate this to the use of full
stops.
Link with spelling practice to reinforce word recognition (see guidance on Using an
individual spelling programme in Writing section pp165 & 167).
A personal dictionary or small packs of word cards of important specialist words may
be helpful, especially if they are portable and convenient. Help learners to develop
good comprehension monitoring strategies, such as PQ4R (see guidance on
Comprehension strategies p119).
A reading pen which will scan and read individual words is an invaluable technological
tool for identifying individual words that cause trouble, or where accuracy is particularly
important.
(See Rw/E2 11 .)
Use clearly printed forms, paying attention to size and weight of print. Enlarge or copy
on coloured paper if appropriate check with individual learners.
Help them navigate their way around common forms.
(See guidance on Spatial representation and blind and partially sighted learners in
Numeracy section pp21617.)
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Access
for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
and independently

4
read and obtain

information
use first- and second-place letters

to find and sequence words in
alphabetical order

Rw/E3 (continued)

(See Rw/E2 55.)
sequencing difficulties such as those
brain injury may have persistent difficulty
Those who are blind or partially sighted

and those with dyslexia and learning
difficulties may be unable to use
standard dictionaries and other
text-based resources.
128
use a variety of reading strategies to

help decode an increasing range of
unfamiliar words
Learners with various disabilities

(particularly in visual or auditory
processing) will be unable to use a
variety of strategies and may have to rely
on a narrower range.
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Reading
Entry 3
(See Rw/E2 55.)

Avoid decontextualised exercises in using alphabetical order. If doing activities involving
alphabetical order, look for contexts where learners are already using alphabetical order,
or might want to, such as storing names on a mobile phone or text messaging.
Do not over-emphasise the importance of alphabetical order, especially where this is an
arduous and time-consuming process. Learners can often find individual alternative
strategies for finding and ordering information. Use the alphabetic sort function on
computers as an alternative way of ordering files or e-mails.
Recognise the value of using technological alternatives such as Talking Yellow Pages,
talking dictionaries, etc., rather than learners having to sort words, names, etc.,
themselves.
Encourage dyslexic and partially sighted learners to use alternatives such as Talking
Yellow Pages and to apply for free directory enquiries.
Help learners use strengths to compensate for weaknesses. For example, those unable
to sound out words will need to rely more on context and lexical strategies (e.g. words
within words and structure) to work out new words. Those with a weak memory for
words and or/letters will rely on phonics, but they may lose meaning, so they will have
to be helped to improve monitoring of comprehension.
When raising awareness of word structure use multisensory approaches, such as
highlighting parts of words, and writing words on card and cutting into puzzle shapes,
grouping words together according to meaning or structure, using colour instead of
underlining (see guidance on Multisensory approaches to teaching pp95 & 97).
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Access
for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
straightforward texts of
varying length on a variety of
topics accurately and
independently

Part A: In reading and obtaining information . . .
Part B: C1.2
Rt/L1


1
read and obtain

information
from different sources

events of continuous descriptive,
explanatory and persuasive texts
understand that meaning in texts can
be implied as well as explicitly stated
in reports, instructional,
explanatory and persuasive
texts
(See Rt/E3 11 for learners who have

problems with comprehension and/or
summarising. See also guidance on
Comprehension difficulties and visual
processing problems p115.)
Learners who have difficulties with
inference, or reading between the lines,
include learners who have autistic
difficulties, dyslexic or deaf learners,
who may have difficulties as they tend to
take language literally and may get the
wrong end of the stick. They also have
problems with idioms, puns, metaphors
and words with multiple meanings.
recognise how language and

other textual features are used to
achieve different purposes (e.g. to
instruct, explain, describe,
persuade)
Many of the above learners (Rt/L1 11 ) may

find the example on p80 of the Adult
Literacy Core Curriculum, Be able to
distinguish between an objective
description and a persuasive
description, difficult for the reasons
listed above. They may also have difficulty
with the abstract conventions of language.
identify the main points and

specific detail, and infer meaning
from images which is not explicit
in the text
Dyslexic learners will often find it

difficult to distinguish the main points
from details, as they tend to be rightbrained thinkers to whom everything is
interconnected.
understand that images can be used to

convey additional information to that
in the printed text

disorders or learning difficulties may
be so focused on detail that they cannot
see the wood for the trees.
Learners who are blind or partially
sighted will have difficulties with texts
where some information is conveyed
through images.
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Reading
Level 1
(See Rt/E3 11.)

Make purposes explicit, with clear examples.
Highlight key points in colour.
Do direct, explicit work: explain what inference is and help learners find examples in
their own experience.
Create DARTs designed to guide learners in finding implied information (see guidance on
Explain all puns, idioms, metaphors, words with multiple meanings. For example, go
through a text such as: a travel brochure, picking out metaphors; or a newspaper
article, looking at inferences. Create opportunities to make metaphors.
Encourage discussion of inferential information.
Teach common idioms explicitly and be aware that these are often a considerable
source of amusement.
Work on specific idioms, e.g. colour idioms, animal expressions, things going
wrong. Help learners to understand the functions of certain idioms and group them
together under their functions.
ESOL/EAL books on idioms are a useful resource.
(See Rt/L1 11 .)
Model the process of distinguishing between the two descriptions to show how you
would distinguish between the objective and the persuasive.
Design DARTs to help learners identify main points, such as asking them to give each
paragraph a title (see guidance on Comprehension strategies on p119).
Encourage highlighting one colour for the main point, another for details, a third for
examples.
Recognise the difficulty. Use DARTs to draw attention to what are main points and
what are details. Present the text as a whole, then present the same text with
everything but the main points removed. Discuss with learners, then return to the full
text and use DARTs.
Use materials where all information can be found in the main body of the text.
Describe and discuss how images convey additional information.
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for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
independently
Rt/L1 (continued)


4
use organisational and structural

features to locate information
(e.g. contents, index, menus,
subheadings, paragraphs)
Those who are blind or partially

sighted will also be unable, or find it
difficult, to use these features.
use different reading strategies to

find and obtain information
(See Rt/E3 66 , Rt/E3
read and obtain

information
texts

Part B: C1.2

1
use implicit and explicit grammatical

knowledge (e.g. of different sentence
forms, types of word, verb tense,
word order) along with own
knowledge and experience to predict
meaning, try out plausible meanings,
and to read and check for sense
, and Rt/E3
.)
Rs/L1

Deaf learners who use sign as their
first language, as well as many who are
dyslexic, may have specific problems
with abstract aspects of grammar,
particularly those that have to do with
word order, verb tenses, negative verbs
and linking words.
These learners may need to rely much

more on semantic cues than syntactic
ones when reading. As grammar gets
more complex, difficulties become
compounded.
Deaf learners will often have a limited
vocabulary due to lack of opportunity to
pick up language around them.
Learners with comprehension
difficulties (see guidance on
Comprehension difficulties p109) will
have difficulty using both semantic and
syntactic cues, as they find it difficult to
take in what they are reading.
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Reading
Level 1
Use auditory resources such as tapes. Signals can be added to tapes with a pulse
synchronizer.
Keep organisational features close to the text, not several pages away from it, as in a
conventional index.
(See Rt/E3 66 , Rt/E3 76 ,and Rt/E3 86 .)

Avoid exercises in skimming, particularly timed ones.
Help learners find strategies that work for them, even if they may be slower
(see guidance box on Skimming and scanning p121).

strategies
The sample activities on p83 of the Adult
Literacy Core Curriculum should all be
helpful.
In addition, teach grammar explicitly
(see p 117 Adult Literacy Core Curriculum,
guidance on Kernel sentences p189 in this
document, guidance on British Sign
Language p1415 and p155).
Encourage use of semantic cues to
compensate for weak use of syntax, and
develop text-focus strategies.
For deaf learners, recognise differences

between standard English and sign
language and discuss with learners.
Develop mini-thesauruses.
Teach vocabulary explicitly and in context
to aid the use of semantic and syntactic
cues. Ensure all vocabulary is understood
in reading activities.
Give structured support, using textcomprehension strategies such as PQ4R
and DARTs. Give learners opportunities to
reread in small chunks. However, be
aware that these difficulties do not go
away with practice (see guidance on
Making worksheets for deaf learners

When you are thinking about making worksheets for deaf learners,
the visual appearance of the worksheet is a most important aid to
readability and understanding.
The more the reader knows about the topic of the worksheet, the
easier it is to read, so:
Give your page a helpful title
Use side headings
Include an illustration to clarify the topic or any unusual
vocabulary
Write clearly, or type
Consider line breaks and present the text in
phrase groups, e.g.
Three men arrived yesterday with their
van and equipment to repair the telephone
line at the house opposite
Three men arrived yesterday with their van
and equipment to repair the telephone line
at the house opposite
NO
YES
Make the language clear and unambiguous

Leave plenty of space around the text
Use wide margins and do not justify both sides of the text, as
this makes the text look like a wall
Talk about the text first the more you understand the easier it
is to read
If you are working one to one, use what the learner tells you as
reading material
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Access
for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
independently
read and obtain
information
texts

Part B: C1.2

2
use punctuation to help their

understanding
understand the function of the
omissive apostrophe to indicate a
contracted word form in texts written
in informal style
Rs/L1 (continued)

Many learners have difficulties with
punctuation, especially those who are
dyslexic, deaf and use BSL, or
learners with learning difficulties.
secure knowledge of end-of-sentence

punctuation and commas in helping to
make sense of continuous text
Upper (superscript) position of

apostrophe and inverted commas/speech
marks are difficult for some learners to
spot.
Learners with visual processing and
comprehension difficulties (see
guidance on Comprehension difficulties
and visual processing problems p115)
may have difficulty using punctuation to
help them make sense of text. They will
often not see punctuation as they read,
as all their attention is devoted to
working out the words.
Some deaf learners will have problems
with using punctuation, as they do not
hear intonation.
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Reading
Level 1
Teach punctuation in the context of learners own writing, as punctuation is often

better understood in context.
Teach omissive apostrophes to deaf learners who use BSL by comparing with
contracted fingerspelt words.
Make conventions concrete, e.g. use tactile resources (such as clothes peg
apostrophes) to show how missing letter(s) is/are replaced with an apostrophe
(see Rs/E3 33 and see Writing section p209 for illustration).
Making conventions explicit is especially important in relation to Braille/Moon.
Highlight, enlarge or colour punctuation.
Wordswork (a CD-ROM) has a good interactive activity on apostrophes.
Teach explicitly with DARTs, highlighting punctuation. Encourage reading in small

chunks, and re-reading to check meaning, but be aware that these difficulties do not
go away with practice.
Ask BSL users to sign, and relate pauses to punctuation, but follow up with explicit
teaching of punctuation and grammar.
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Access
for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
independently
read and obtain
information
texts

Part B: C1.2
Word Focus Vocabulary
Rw/L1


1
use reference material to find the

meaning of unfamiliar words
Where sources rely on the use of

alphabetical order, learners with
dyslexia and others with sequencing
and memorisation difficulties will be
slow or rely on other strategies, such as
words at the top or bottom of the page.
In addition, if there are too many
unfamiliar or unrecognised words in the
definition, those with auditory or visual
processing difficulties may not be able
to understand it.
Using reference material to find the

meaning of unfamiliar words is frequently
very difficult for blind and partially
sighted learners and can seriously
impede independent learning.
Learners with physical disabilities
may have difficulties with manipulating
paper.
Deaf learners may not be aware of, or

look for, multiple meanings, so may find
dictionaries confusing or unhelpful.
Dyslexic learners may also have
difficulties with dictionaries
(see Rw/E2 4 ).
Partially sighted learners may be
unable to access text-based reference
material.
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Reading
Level 1
Technological aids
strategies
Recognise the value of using
technological alternatives (e.g. computer
dictionaries, talking dictionaries or
electronic hand-held ones such as
Franklin Language Master and Bookman)
when using paper resources is
particularly difficult or slow.
An electronic reading pen which will
scan and read individual words is an
invaluable technological tool for
identifying individual words that cause
trouble, or where accuracy is particularly
important.
Be cautious about using the first sample
activity on p85 of the Adult Literacy Core
Curriculum, Read a text with some key
terms omitted. Omitting key terms is not
advisable, as it emphasises learners
weaknesses.
Reading machines or software are especially useful for learners

with severe reading difficulties and/or who are frustrated from
long experience of failure. As well as giving the experience and
pleasure of reading to those who have never had it, reading
software can be effectively combined with voice-recognition
technology, enabling a technological version of scribing/language
experience which gives the learner more autonomy. Learners need
to train the machine, but this can be done through introducing
their own words.
The electronic Quicktionary Reading Pen is especially useful for
those with auditory processing problems or hearing impairments.
It scans and pronounces individual words that the learner is
unable to work out or is uncertain of. This is useful for developing
independence for readers who can read most words they need; it
also helps to ensure accuracy, for example when having to read
words out of context or when accuracy is highly important, such
as in following a recipe or safety procedure at work. It also enables
learners to read at a higher level and increase their reading
experience without having to resort to long hours with the
dictionary or risking losing the thread.
(See the technology references throughout the Introduction
pp1113,1617, 212, 25, 301, 38, 41.)
Teach the use of electronic thesauruses.
Use aids such as page turners, or IT-based reference material.
Use the kind of ESOL dictionary that gives examples of words used in sentences to
demonstrate the various meanings and their category, such as verb or adjective.
Alternatively use the Wordpower dictionary, BSLEnglish dictionary or CD-ROM.
(See Rw/E2 44.)

Use electronic resources as an alternative.
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Access
for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
a range of texts of varying
complexity accurately and
independently
Rt/L2


1

events of continuous descriptive,
explanatory and persuasive texts
(See Rt/L1 11. See guidance on

Comprehension difficulties and visual
processing problems p115.)
identify the purpose of a text and

infer meaning which is not explicit
(See Rt/L1 1 .)
read and obtain

information
of varying length and detail
in a wide range of text types

Part A: In reading and summarising information . . .
Part B: C2.2
The sample activities on p 91 of the Adult

Literacy Core Curriculum involving skimming may be difficult for learners with
visual processing problems and
partial sight (see guidance on Skimming
and scanning p121).
Categorising may be difficult for dyslexic
learners, who tend to think holistically,
and for learners with autistic spectrum
disorders, who tend to think literally.
understand that different kinds of text
have different purposes, that texts can
have more than one purpose, and that
the real purpose of some texts can be
different from the explicitly stated
purpose

autistic spectrum disorders are likely to
be confused by double meanings and
implied meanings which contradict
apparent ones, for example recognising
when an article is ironic or satirical.
Irony, which relies on tone, can be
especially difficult for deaf learners.
identify the main points and

specific detail
(See Rt/L1 33 .)
read an argument and identify the

points of view
(See Rt/L1 11 .)
difficulties, autistic spectrum disorders
and mental health difficulties will have
difficulty in acknowledging others points
of view.
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Reading
Level 2
(See Rt/L1 11 .)
(See Rt/L1 11 .)
Avoid sample activities where the emphasis is on skimming exercises.
(See guidance on Skimming and scanning p121.)
Avoid abstract exercises in categorising; instead, look individually at examples of

different types of text to identify their purpose, rather than categorising by purpose.
Use DARTs to identify purposes, explicit and implied.
Make the irony or satire explicit by teasing it out, which may take time, using lots of
examples that learners are familiar with. Cartoons may be helpful in exploring the
concept of satire.
(See Rt/L1 33 .)
(See Rt/L1 11 .)
Avoid persisting if the learner is struggling or uncomfortable. Arrange group activities
flexibly so learners have other options.
If learners are having problems at this level, identify and acknowledge others
viewpoints and draw attention to differing points of view. One example is to have
learners read a passage from different perspectives, such as a description of a house
read from the separate perspectives of prospective house buyers and prospective
burglars; discuss the difference. Then compare how the description of a house might
be written to sell it with the way in which it might be written to discourage burglars.
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Access
for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
independently

Part B: C2.2
Rt/L2 (continued)


5
read and obtain

information
read critically to evaluate

information, and compare
information, ideas and opinions
(See guidance on Comprehension difficulties

and visual processing problems p115.)
(See Rt/L2 44 above.)
Deaf and partially hearing learners may

also have difficulties with complex reading
tasks as a result of underdeveloped English
vocabulary and a lack of knowledge of the
conventions of standard English, although
deaf learners at this level should have
developed their standard English skills.
understand the concept of bias and

that it can be the result of what is left
out of a text as well as what is there
Deaf, dyslexic learners and learners with

autistic spectrum disorders or learning
difficulties may have problems with
identifying what is left out of a text and
how it contributes to bias. Some of these
learners may tend to take language literally,
which may make it difficult to identify bias.
use organisational features and

systems to locate texts and
information
(See also Rt/L1 44 .)

Dyslexic learners are likely to find referencing
systems confusing and difficult to remember.
Blind and partially sighted people will need
extra help in navigating and following systems.
use different reading strategies to

find and obtain information
(e.g. skimming, scanning, detailed
reading)
(See Rt/E3
, Rt/E3
and Rt/E3 88 .)
Some learners may be unable to use the

multi-fronted approach used in the
guidance box on p93 of the Adult Literacy
Core Curriculum.
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Reading
Level 2
(See guidance on Comprehension strategies p119.)

(See Rt/L2 44 above.)
Highlight the different points of view.
Use examples that could be described or interpreted in different ways, e.g. an estate
agents description of a property, a travel agents description of a place, two or more
descriptions of the same illustration of a person from differing social or cultural points
of view, film reviews or political issues.
Give examples and use materials that are relevant to the learner, e.g. what is replayed
or reported on a football match, local issues such as lopping the trees in the street or a
description of their local area.
(See also Rt/L1 44 .)

Ensure that such systems are learned in context and walked through.
Find out what help is available for those with difficulties using these systems.
Encourage library staff to enlarge reference markers.
6 Rt/E3
(See Rt/E3 6,
and Rt/E3 88 .)
Avoid exercises in skimming and scanning (see guidance on Skimming and scanning
p121).
Help learners identify strategies that work for them, even if they may be slower.
Help learners use strategies and aids to
find information, e.g. highlighting, postits.
For those with word-level difficulties
which impede detailed reading,
see Rt/E3 88 .
(See adjacent guidance on Thinking
about what you read.)
Thinking about what you read (see Adult literacy core curriculum, p93)
It is important to remember that, even at Level 2, learners with
learning difficulties and disabilities will need strategies to
compensate for areas of weakness, i.e. they will be unable to use a
full, multi-fronted approach. They will often have a learning style
that determines their acquisition of reading. Some will be less able
to use sentence structure, others sounds; they may have to rely
more on their knowledge of the world and of specific text types.
This spiky profile should be identified so that strengths can be
built upon and weaknesses supported to enable learners to
maximise their potential.
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Access
for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
independently

Part B: C2.2

1
read and obtain

information
Rs/L2

use implicit and explicit grammatical

knowledge, alongside own knowledge
and experience of context, to help
follow meaning and judge the purpose
of different types of text
(See Rs/L1 1 .)
understand that some grammatical

forms and types of word signal the
level of formality of a text, e.g. passive
verbs, third person, abstract nouns
Deaf and dyslexic learners will have

particular problems with passive voice.
understand that specific grammatical

devices are used to persuade,
e.g. deliberate ambiguity, rhetorical
questions, repetition
Learners who tend to take language

literally may find ambiguity hard to
grasp.
Rw/L2


1
read and understand technical

vocabulary
Dyslexic learners may have difficulty

pronouncing new words when reading.
Although they are familiar with words
orally, they may not recognise these in
print.
Word recognition, even of familiar
words, will be a persistent problem for
those with a poor visual memory for
words, including dyslexic learners.
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Reading
Level 2
(See Rs/L1 1 .)
The activities on p95 of the Adult Literacy Core Curriculum are generally useful, but be
aware of the difficulty these learners will have with passive verbs.
Give explicit practice in areas of difficulty.
Ensure that learners know what all the words are, and can link the written form to the
spoken word.
A reading pen, which will scan and read individual words, is an invaluable
technological tool for identifying individual words that cause trouble, or where accuracy
is particularly important (see guidance on Technological aids on p131).
A personal dictionary of key technical words may be helpful.
In sample activities, be aware of learners difficulties with scanning a text (see
guidance on Skimming and scanning p121), and provide alternative activities; allow
them plenty of time to find information in a text.
143
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Access
for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
independently
read and obtain
information

Part B: C2.2
Rw/L2 (continued)


2
use reference material to find the

meaning of unfamiliar words
(See Rw/L1 11 .)
Where sources rely on use of alphabetical
order, dyslexic learners and others with
sequencing and memory difficulties
will be slow or rely on other strategies.
In addition, those with auditory or visual
processing difficulties may not be able
to decode or recognise enough words in
the definition to understand reference
materials.
Deaf learners may not be aware of, or

look for, multiple meanings, so may find
dictionaries confusing or unhelpful.
learners with dyslexia may also have
difficulties with dictionaries.
Partially sighted learners may be unable
to access text-based reference material.
144
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Reading
Level 2

strategies
(See Rw/L1 11.)
Help learners find alternative strategies,
such as using words at the top or
bottom of the page.
Recognise the value of using technological alternatives, when using paper
resources is particularly difficult or slow
e.g. computer dictionaries, talking
dictionaries or electronic hand-held ones
such as Franklin Language Master and
Bookman range. (See technology
references through the Introduction,
pp1113,1617, 212, 25, 301, 38, 41.)
Making a coloured acetate overlay

Smaller pieces of coloured acetate attached to stiff card can be
moved across and down text to focus attention more specifically on
a paragraph. Sometimes large pieces of acetate can be unwieldy to
use, can become distracting and slip about.
card
overlay
Photograph card frames 6" by 4" or 7" by 5" can work well. They have
the advantage of slipping into books easily and of being less obtrusive
than large pieces of acetate.
Use the kind of ESOL dictionary that gives examples of words used in sentences to
demonstrate the various meanings, or use the Wordpower dictionary.
Use auditory or electronic reference material where appropriate.
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Access
for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
independently
read and obtain
information

Part B: C2.2
Rw/L2 (continued)


3
recognise and understand vocabulary

associated with texts of different
levels of accessibility, formality,
complexity and of different purpose
Dyslexic learners have problems with

linking or functional words, as these are
abstract.
BSL will have difficulties with functional
words that have no equivalent single
sign in BSL.
understand the purpose of, and be able

to use, a thesaurus
(See Rw/L2 22 above.)
recognise and understand the use of

similes, metaphors, idioms and clichs
(See Rs/L1 11 .)
Learners who interpret language
literally such as some deaf or dyslexic
learners, or those with autistic
spectrum disorders, may experience
difficulties.
Blind learners who have never had
direct visual experience may also have
difficulties with visual imagery (see
blind and partially sighted learners p67 in
Speaking and listening).
The use of similes, metaphors, idioms
and clichs is an area where many
learners may have difficulties as a result
of cultural and language differences,
rather than a disability or learning
difficulty.
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Reading
Level 2
Helping them identify these words, as suggested, will be useful, but their use and
meaning will need to be made explicit.
Teach functional words explicitly (see guidance on British Sign Language p155).
(See Rw/L2 22 above.)

Computer thesauruses, talking ones and the Franklin Language Master and Bookman
range are very useful in developing vocabulary.
(See Rs/L1 11 .)
Teach explicitly, unpacking meaning and ensuring that learners really do understand.
Learning figurative expressions can be a source of great fun! Compare these with
multichannel signs in BSL.
(See guidance on Concepts and vocabulary of blind and partially sighted learners in
Speaking and listening p67.)
The language of idioms is only learned within a cultural context, so relate to learners
contexts, including that of deaf culture.
147

Writing
The writing process
The writing process consists of composing, spelling and
handwriting. Composing involves planning and expressive
language skills, which include the following:
the ability to formulate and articulate ideas (although this

might be in a non-spoken form such as sign)
the awareness of linguistic boundaries, e.g. a sentence

narrative skills such as sequencing, structuring
vocabulary to achieve expressive purposes such as
describing or explaining, including the ability to use language
non-literally as in idioms, analogies, figures of speech
knowledge and use of syntax, including grammatical

usage, use of complex syntax and linking words
the ability to categorise and classify.
Producing a piece of writing relies on putting ideas into a written

form; that is, being able to spell and write by hand or produce all
the words through some other form, e.g. technological. Writing and
spelling must be automatic in order for the writer to concentrate on
expressing his or her ideas. If learners are unable to develop
automatic spelling and writing, they will find it extremely difficult
to express themselves on paper.
Spelling is a sub-skill of writing; it is primarily a visualmotor skill.

Whereas reading relies on recognition, spelling relies on the recall
of a precise sequence of letters. A good speller is able to see if a
word looks right and will have integrated the conventions of
English spelling to be able to suggest an alternative if it looks
wrong. The motor memory is also important in spelling: the good
speller can spell automatically, without thinking about the letters,
and can feel if the hand makes an error. Those who can use
phonics will integrate sound with letter patterns, but good spelling
is achievable without it: for example, the profoundly deaf can
become good spellers.
Writers with different

disabilities or learning
difficulties will find
different aspects of
writing more or less
problematic, and may
have profiles as writers
which cross several
levels.

Spelling difficulties
Spelling is rightly a priority for many learners. If they cannot make even an approximate guess at a spelling,
or have to think about the spelling of nearly every word, any attempts at expressing their ideas are severely
limited. Even if their spelling does not seem that bad, spelling problems will interfere with learners ability to
write at the level of their spoken language or to express the complexity and range of their ideas.
Learners may have a range of difficulties with spelling:
poor visual memory for words
sequencing and directional (e.g. b/d, d/g) confusions
omitting or confusing sounds because they cannot discriminate or hold them in short-term
memory
poor motor integration or eyehand co-ordination which results in omitting or repeating letters or
syllables.
Dyslexic learners and many with learning difficulties will have problems remembering and applying rules, as
well as acquiring the conventions of English spelling. English spelling conventions will also be difficult for
deaf learners whose first language is sign.
150
Handwriting and motor co-ordination difficulties: dyslexia,

dyspraxia and dysgraphia
Handwriting problems may be caused by a physical disability, fine motor
function impairment, or poor motor integration, i.e. the inability to integrate the
motor function in order to develop rapid automatic handwriting. The latter is
sometimes called dysgraphia and may be a part of a greater motor integration
and/or spatial perceptual problem, often called dyspraxia, or may be part of a
general dyslexic problem. Current research suggests that problems in
developing automaticity is a feature of dyslexia.
Learners with these difficulties may have to think about every letter as they
construct it, and may find it difficult to follow a motor sequence or change
direction when forming letters. This means they forget what they want to say,
as all their concentration is going on forming the letters. They may have
difficulties with controlling the pen, which results in an aching hand after a
short period of writing. Also letter construction may begin to break down and
become messy and unreadable.
Poor motor integration may result in the hand not doing what is intended; for
instance, the hand may go up to make a b instead of down to make a p, or
may repeat a letter pattern. This can result in a lot of crossings-out and
frustration, as well as unintended spelling errors.
Poor handwriting may be compounded by physical factors such as poor muscle
tone.
An effective approach to handwriting problems should include a
combination of the following:
explaining and exploring handwriting difficulties with the learner, along with
demonstrating how we write (i.e. forming letters while moving across the page)
physical strategies to develop control such as squeezing a tennis ball, using

large movements to practise handwriting, e.g. on newsprint taped to the
wall, exploring writing aids or pens to find what works best
teaching letter formation and cursive writing directly this can be practised
in the context of an individual spelling programme
exploring alternatives, e.g. computer keyboard and/or voice-recognition

technology, keyguards, concept keyboards, touch screens, etc.
Many will find that use of the keyboard helps, as it does not require the user
to follow a motor sequence, but only to tap a key. It also frees them from
endlessly crossing out words and enables text to be moved around easily. For
others, motor problems are so severe that even the keyboard is difficult, and
voice-recognition technology is essential in enabling these learners to develop
writing skills.
151

Writing analysis based on a piece of free writing is an excellent way to make
an informal diagnostic assessment. In order to use a piece of writing
effectively, however, the piece of writing should be of the length and at the
level the learner is using in his or her life, work or on a training course, using
an appropriate range of vocabulary. This will need to be established with the
learner. The learner should also be encouraged to aim for fluency and not to
worry about spellings. It is better to make a guess at spelling in order to
concentrate on using the words the learner wants.
The teacher should observe the learner writing, e.g. how he or she holds the
pen and paper and forms the letters, whether there is pressure on the pen,
whether the learner has to stop and think about spellings, etc.
Learners may have difficulty with any or several of the following:
getting ideas down on paper, including word retrieval

planning and organising information and ideas
expressing ideas coherently
internalising conventions of written texts
grammar and sentence structure
vocabulary and expressive language
spelling, often avoiding words they cannot spell
handwriting
punctuation
proof-reading.
The teacher should then analyse the above, including range and complexity
as well as accuracy (for more detailed guidelines, see Klein (1993)).
The writing analysis should form the basis of a discussion with the learner
about strengths and weaknesses and strategies the learner uses. This in
turn can not only help to establish the learners profile of skills, but also help
to determine appropriate strategies to develop skills and compensate for
difficulties.
152
Spelling error analysis

Spelling error analysis is particularly useful not only in identifying spelling difficulties but also in helping
learners to find strategies for learning spellings that suit their strengths and weaknesses.
To get an accurate picture of a learners spelling difficulties, it may be useful to give the learner a dictation.
This is because in a piece of free writing the learner may avoid words that are difficult, and also because a
dictation will include words with a range of letter patterns and sounds and thus show up specific difficulties
more clearly.
Consequently, when choosing a dictation, one designed for diagnostic purposes will give the most accurate
information of the learners difficulties. The learner also needs to make between 20 and 25 errors to give a
clear picture of the pattern of difficulties. The tutor should explain to the learner that it is important to make
errors so the problems can be identified; learners need to understand that it is not a test and that errors are
good.
Errors can then be categorised as good phonic attempts, sequential errors, errors that show lack of knowledge
about rules or conventions, errors that show problems with discriminating or holding sounds, and errors that
show poor motor integration. (For a diagnostic dictation and details on analysing errors, see Klein (1993). For a
range of appropriate diagnostic dictations, see Sunderland et al (1997).)
The analysis of spelling errors can help teachers and learners to focus on the difficult bits of the word and
thus to show the learner that he or she spelled a lot of the word right. They also help to focus on the type of
problem, for example that the learner cant hear the sounds; thus, there is both a reason for the poor spelling
and a positive way of approaching it that does not rely on sound, e.g. through visual patterns and words
within words.
153

Phonics and spelling

Phonics can be a useful aid in teaching spelling, but it is important to be aware of its limitations. As spelling
is primarily a visualmotor skill, spellings must be learned and recalled. Good spellers rely on the look of the
word. There are many alternative ways to spell common sounds in English: for instance, parents, parants,
pairents, pairants, pearants, pearents are all acceptable phonic variations, yet only one is correct.
Partially hearing and deaf learners will have obvious difficulties with phonics. Many dyslexic learners will be
unable to discriminate, segment and/or hold sounds in the short-term memory as they write. Learning letter
strings and word structure through visual and meaning-based strategies is generally more effective for these
learners and can help them see when a word looks right. Even learners with poor visual memories for words
will need strategies such as exaggerated pronunciation or a mnemonic to help remember what words look
like, e.g. k-nife, kitchen knife.
Writing and technology
Handwriting is only one way of recording information on paper. Check how important or appropriate it is for
the individual to write by hand and examine any learning programme or award requirements. The writing
process involves planning, drafting and revising. Technology can help with each of these components of the
writing process (see Technology in Introduction pp1113, 1617, 212, 25, 301, 38, 41).
154
British Sign Language (BSL)

Many adults who were born deaf will be using British Sign Language (BSL)
as their preferred means of interactive communication. Some may have
been brought up in deaf families where BSL is the first language. Adults
from the Afro-Caribbean community may be using American Sign Language
(ASL). Using sign language as the preferred or first language has
implications for learning English, just as there are implications for learners
whose first language is another spoken language.
BSL is not visual English, nor is it universal. BSL is a language in its own
right, systematic and rule-governed, different from English in its grammatical
concepts and structures. As with any other learner of English as a second
language, there will be times when the concepts derived from the first
language interfere with the learning of English.
From a basic skills teachers point of view, some of the most
common significant grammatical differences between BSL and
English are:
An English sentence is organised around the verb. Meaning

depends on the word order of the other words in the sentence.
BSL users begin with the topic and then comment on it.
BSL does not use the auxiliary to be.
BSL does not use the articles a/an/the.
Word order can be markedly different.
Verbs are inflected by changes of speed or placement.
Modification of signs is also shown by changes of placement,

speed or repetition and not by a word ending.
Prefixes and suffixes, e.g. s, ed, ing, are signed in BSL, but they
are not attached to the root word.
Sometimes, however, there are similarities of pattern that teachers can

exploit. For example, BSL usually makes a distinction between you and
yours and me and mine in a pattern similar to the English one but with a
change of handshape.
It is always important to discuss with a BSL user how he or she expresses a
particular idea or concept in BSL, and to make these linguistic differences
part of the learning process.
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Access
Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
write to communicate
information to an intended
audience
in documents such as forms,
lists, messages, notes,
records
Text Focus Writing composition
Wt/E1


1
use written words and phrases to

record or present information
Many disabled learners have spiky

profiles, i.e. their ideas, vocabulary and
oral language will greatly outpace their
ability to write. This is particularly true of
people with physical disabilities
affecting the hand, dysgraphia,
dyspraxia, fine motor co-ordination
difficulties, severe dyslexia.
Learners writing may be severely

affected by difficulties in forming letters
and/or in spelling, even to the extent of
their not being able to make an attempt.
Partially sighted learners may need to

present information in alternative media.
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Writing
Entry 1

strategies
Make use of either a scribe or speechbased software.
Authoring software
Learners with dyslexia and learning difficulties may find authoring
programmes useful for writing simple stories, short instructions
and sequencing activities. These programmes allow the learner to
select images from a resource bank, place them in sequence and
add their own commentary. This commentary can be either typed
underneath the image and/or recorded orally, to be played when
the image is shown on screen.
Use language experience, combined

with an individualised spelling
Learners can also use downloaded images taken by digital
programme based on their own words,
cameras to create a personalised story or sequence a set of
to work on both spelling and
instructions numerically for a specific task. Cambridge Training
handwriting (see guidance on Using
and Development produce a version of this kind of software called
language experience p109, Using an
Slideshow Builder.
individualised spelling programme
pp165 & 167). Language experience is a
highly effective approach for most
beginner writers. It can be used in this more structured way to develop and build on all
writing skills, including those at text, sentence and word level. For instance, learners
can develop written expression, editing skills and vocabulary through having their
writing read back to them and discussed.
Use authoring software to help learners write simple information (see guidance on
Authoring software above).
For those whose handwriting and/or spelling difficulties are severe and who are
frustrated by their inability to write their ideas, develop all their skills on the computer.
Dragon Dictate used with Keystone (to read the text back) may be useful for learners at
Entry Level rather than programs using continuous speech. Remember that speech
software requires reasonably fluent speech, and ensure that learners needs are
considered.
Explore their specific needs to determine words they need to learn, simple messages
they may need or want to write, and develop these through language experience and a
spelling programme as above.
Make use of either a scribe or PC with appropriate access technology for Braille/Moon
users via Braille or Moon production methods. Symbol software such as Widgit may be
useful for learners with learning difficulties (see guidance on Using symbol software in
Reading section, p101).
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The
Adult
Access
for Basic
All Skills Core
At this level,
adults can
audience
records

1
construct a simple sentence
Ws/E1

Some dyslexic or dyspraxic learners,
or those with learning difficulties, have
great difficulty in attempting to write.
Many experience a wide discrepancy
between their cognitive ability and/or oral
expression and their writing ability.
As written English is effectively a second

language for those who use BSL,
tenses also need to be taught specifically.
Deaf learners may not appreciate the
need for a finite verb. Subjectverb
object needs to be taught specifically.
Deaf learners may have greater
difficulties with sentence structure and
grammar than in generating ideas for text.
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Writing
Entry 1
These learners may experience great frustration in being encouraged to write only
simple sentences. It is better to avoid getting them to simplify their sentences. Instead,
help them develop well-formed complex sentences which express what they want to
say within the context of language experience. Scaffolding different syntax can help
them express their ideas, which may not be adequately expressed in simple sentences.
Teach sentence structure and grammar in context rather than separately. At the early
stages teach through text-focus work, e.g. language experience. This is especially helpful when oral language is at a much higher level. Use writing frames at later stages.
Remember they may be at a higher level in text focus than in sentence or word focus!
Grammar and punctuation can be taught using kernel sentences, which can be used to
build up complex sentences (see guidance on Kernel sentences p189). Some learners,
particularly those who are dyslexic, will often work from complex to simple and not the
other way around. If they write (or dictate) complex or confused sentences, help them
find the kernel sentence in it, then rebuild it.
Try using BROGY (see Resources). The colours Blue, Red, Orange, Green, Yellow are
used to teach the basic parts of speech. Nouns, verbs, etc. are each in a different
colour. Colour-coded cards with words that are subjects, objects or verbs can also be
made and used with individuals or groups. Learners choose one of each type at random
to construct a sentence. Combine this with expanding kernel sentences.
Aspects of grammar that are different from BSL need to be taught explicitly.
Approaches used with ESOL learners may be appropriate.
They may learn grammar and sentence structure more easily through reading.
A grid could be used for simple sentences (see samples below).
6
When
Who
What
1
Verb
How
Where
When
Who
What
3
the dog
bit
the paper girl
came
by bus
The man
walked
angrily
This morning
in the leg.
this morning.
out of the room.
Although limited in its use, a grid can make clear the need for a verb, its position in the
sentence, and the way in which the rest of the sentence revolves around it. If a
sentence fits in the grid, its fine. In order to work, it must have a verb. Note that the
grid will not work for questions and negations.
ESOL materials and activities may be helpful.
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The
Adult
Access
for Basic
All Skills Core
At this level,
adults can
audience
records

1
construct a simple sentence

(continued)
Ws/E1 (continued)

Some learners, including those with
autistic spectrum disorders, will have
language impairment, which affects
their ability to express themselves in
meaningful spoken language. Their
problems with semantic and purposeful
aspects of language may hinder the
formulation of written language at
sentence level.
Many learners with partial sight may

need to develop a feel for the rhythm and
pattern of language to compensate for lack
of a visual sense. They will be particularly
sensitive to the aural structure of language
and the cadence of sentences.
For those who lipread, some elements
of grammar are invisible on lips. (See
guidance on Lipreading and learners who
are deaf or partially hearing in Speaking
and listening p53.)
Learners who use telegraphic speech

(e.g. me go doctors) such as learners with
learning difficulties or who are aphasic
or dysphasic may find it hard to write
grammatical sentences.
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Writing
Entry 1

strategies
Ensure all writing development activities
are within the learners understanding
and experience. Recognise that progress
may be slow.
Literacy through Total Communication

Literacy through Total Communication is a scheme designed to
support learners with severe learning difficulties in developing
literacy and communication skills. It involves a complementary use
of signs, symbols and text, and supports learners in acquiring a
core vocabulary from which sentences can be constructed,
understood and read. Learners actively build and own a
personalised portfolio of word cards with both symbols and text.
Flood
Computer
Tractor
Under
If learners have auditory strengths, use

these to make explicit links between
how a sentence sounds and its
structure.
These cards are used in conjunction with signing to ensure a

combined kinaesthetic, auditory and visual approach. In a highly
structured scaffolded learning environment, the learner is
encouraged to sign, speak, listen, sequence, draw and write before
finally writing and reading short sentences.
Elements of English, such as pronouns

and grammatical endings, that are not
visible on lips need to be made explicit.
Use text messaging, which is a
favourite way to communicate for many
deaf learners. As text messaging has its
own conventions, get learners to
translate from text to English
sentences and vice versa (see guidance
on Text messaging p173).
For some learners with severe learning difficulties, literacy may be

an unrealistic goal. Literacy through Total Communication
empowers learners through an alternative means of literacy. There
is evidence that it can lead to the support and acquisition of
literacy itself.
They may learn grammar and sentence structure more easily through reading.
Total Communication is useful for some learners with learning difficulties because it is
a multisensory approach to sentence structure (see guidance on Literacy through Total
Communication above).
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Access
for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
audience
records

2
punctuate a simple sentence with

a capital letter and a full stop
Ws/E1 (continued)

Punctuation is difficult for many learners
who are dyslexic or have learning
difficulties because it is an abstract
convention related to structure rather
than meaning.
Although deaf people will not have had

the experience of hearing natural pauses,
sign language users will have had the
experience of seeing natural pauses in
BSL.
For a partially sighted learner familiar

only with Braille, using a capital letter
at the beginning of a sentence may not
be natural.
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Writing
Entry 1
Sentence structure
(see page 105 in Adult Literacy Core Curriculum)

strategies
For all learners, concentrate teaching of
punctuation on the explicit difference
between meaning and structure.
With all learners, when working on any
punctuation, it is important to use
learners own writing. They will find it
hard to punctuate in worksheet
exercises or other peoples writing and
to transfer this to their own writing.
They may also find such exercises
meaningless, which will affect
motivation.
Explain how capital letters and full

stops mark the beginning and end of a
unit of meaning when written down.
Approach punctuation through the
context of discussing the differences
between spoken and written language.
It is also best taught along with
grammar using the kernel sentence
approach.
Some dyslexic and other learners wishing to express complex

meanings find that simplifying what they say fails adequately to
express what they want to say, and they can become upset. In
addition, they may find it very difficult to write a simple sentence
when they are trying to say something complex. It is important in
such instances to scaffold learners attempts at complex
sentences rather than encourage them to write simple sentences.
In addition, the concept of a sentence is very abstract, and many
learners will find that this will be learned best through their own
experience of writing and rewriting a variety of sentences. Learners
learn in different ways, and some learn the simple only in the
context of the more complex.
A kernel sentence approach (see guidance on p189) can be used
to help learners restructure their own complex sentences, and
work on this can be very effective. Modelling the editing process,
peer editing and error analysis marking (see teaching approaches
p187) can also be helpful in encouraging reflection and selfcorrection.
It is useful to keep in mind that some learners will always struggle
with sentence structure, but this should not restrict the
development of their writing.
Discuss with sign language users how

they would convey pauses in sign and
relate this to the use of full stops.
Stress the importance of the convention

of capital letters; writing on a PC can
help reinforce this convention.
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Access
for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
audience
records
Word Focus Spelling and handwriting
Ww/E1


1
spell correctly some personal key

words and familiar words
understand how letters are formed and
used to spell words
People with some forms of partial sight

will have problems with small writing. They
will also need help with their handwriting.
Learners with spatialperceptual
difficulties may be unable to copy or
reproduce letters or find the appropriate
place on the page.
Visually impaired learners may have

difficulty differentiating between certain
letters when used consecutively,
e.g. l/t, n/m, e/o.
Learners with a physical disability that

affects manual fine motor co-ordination
will have problems forming letters.
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Writing
Writing

104105
Entry 1
Using an individualised spelling programme

strategies
Experiment with different types of
paper and size of lines and always ask
learners what they find is best (see
guidance on Reading and access to
text for blind and partially sighted
learners pp901).
For example, try:
writing grids, one box per word (or
symbol if using a rebus)
lined paper with large spaces
between lines
lined paper with bold, clearly visible
lines
large sheets of paper with thick
felt-tipped pens
a wide black line down the left

hand margin to give clear guidance
on where to begin
different-coloured paper or coloured
overlays with space underneath for
writing.
Some learners may prefer only to use
a keyboard. Keyboards can be
adapted with caps over the letters that
are big, bold and much easier to see.
Large-key keyboards may also be
purchased.
Devise strategies for alerting learners

to difficulty, and practise writing
words containing these letter
combinations.
Strengthen fingers by squeezing rubber

ball/clay, etc.
Help learners to experiment with
different pens and pen grips
(e.g. rubber band or Blu-Tack around
pen or triangular pencils). Avoid ball
point or roller ball pens, as these are
the most difficult pens to control.
Learners with spelling difficulties will need additional help to learn

and retain spellings. A spelling programme tailored to the learners
needs and learning style can be used with learners from Entry 1 to
Level 2 and beyond to give immediate experience of successful
learning, improve spelling and help develop skills in learning how to
learn. It can also be a basis for developing reading as well as writing
skills for those with reading difficulties.
Words to be learned should be selected from the learners own
writing, which will reinforce the relationship between spelling and
writing. Also, many learners will learn more easily words that are
personally meaningful. Learners need to understand that they will
be able to remember spellings only if they practise them and use
them in their writing. If learners are not able to write independently,
the spelling programme should be based on words from their
language experience; this will reinforce the development of sight
vocabulary and allow them to move from language experience to
independent writing through having their own words dictated back
to them once they have been learned.
Learners with difficulties will need to find individual strategies to
remember words. They should then practise the words using the
Look, Say, Cover, Write, Check (LSCWC) method. It is helpful for
learners to say the word at each step: look, say, visualise, cover,
say, write. Then check letter for letter. Success depends on finding
strategies for remembering words that work for individual
learners: the LSCWC method will not be adequate on its own (for a
variation of this method that may be used with deaf learners, see
guidance on Spelling and deaf learners, p171). Strategies should be
based on the learners processing strengths and preferred learning
style. Research has shown that all learners, but especially those
with difficulties, learn better when using a strategy that suits their
learning style (Brooks and Weeks, 1998). Thus learners with a poor
visual memory will need to use strategies that help them use
sound such as an invented pronunciation, or a mnemonic, whereas
those with auditory processing difficulties or a hearing impairment
will need to avoid phonic approaches and rely on lexical approaches
such as words within words, or visual approaches such as finding
patterns in the word (e.g. ind ivi dual).
The process for an effective weekly programme is:
1. Select with learner words from learners writing based on words
the learner wants to learn and uses.
2. Analyse the error where is the problem?
3. Explore with learner strategies for remembering, and choose a
strategy that addresses the problem bit of the word and
builds on learners strengths show this strategy in the column
the learner practises from.
4. Link chosen words with others with a similar pattern or to show
word building (up to 10 or 12 in total, depending on learner).
(continued on p167)
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At this level,
adults can
audience
records

1
spell correctly some personal key

words and familiar words
(continued)
Ww/E1 (continued)
Those with motor co-ordination or
motor integration difficulties (some
dyslexic learners, those with dyspraxia
or dysgraphia) may have any or all of the
following difficulties:
controlling the pen/pencil
changing direction and sequencing
when forming letters
moving across the page.
These all make writing slow and often
arduous.
Some learners may have visual-motor

difficulties that mean they are unable to
co-ordinate left and right in cross-lateral
movements (crossing the midline
between the left and right hemispheres of
the brain).
All the above learners will find it difficult
to write at speed, and many will never be
able to form letters and write
automatically, which will both be
frustrating and also limit their ability to
express themselves.
Some deaf learners may transpose and

omit letters as they are using visual
memory, not auditory memory.
Those with a small degree of hearing
may rely on this incomplete auditory
information rather than learning the
spelling.
Some signs for words are abbreviated
finger spellings, e.g. about is signed abt.
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Writing
Writing
Entry 1
Using an individualised spelling programme (continued)

strategies
5. Learner practises LSCWC using preferred memory strategy.
Have learners practise handwriting on

large paper (e.g. newsprint, flip-chart
paper, butcher paper) using large wax
crayons or felt tips to encourage full
arm movement. This reduces tension
and aids motor memory. Ensure
learners understand why they are
using these materials.
7. Evaluate strategies with learner (if it didnt work, why? what did
work, why?), try a new strategy if it failed, and explore reason for
not learning (e.g. learner didnt practise, or failed to cover words,
etc.) and add to new list.
Teach learners explicitly both how to

form the letters and move across the
page, and also to hold the paper with
one hand as they write with the other,
or to use Blu-Tack to hold the paper in
place.
6. The following week, test learner on words practised.
8. Review one week later in dictation of sentences using learned

words. Put words not remembered on new list, but review
strategy for remembering.
9. Continue with strategy for as long as is necessary for the
learner to develop automatic usage and correctness.
Encourage learners to share and discuss strategies. This helps
them understand that there is no right way to learn, to become
more aware of how they learn best and to become more interested
in, and observant of, words.
Ensure that learners are sitting

comfortably at the right height/use a
hand rest.
Handwriting can also be worked on through practising words on the

spelling list.
Writing (as well as reading) may be

easier if learners hold the paper to one
side rather than in the middle.
Follow by encouraging proof-reading using error analysis marking

(see guidance on p187). This reinforces learning by helping learners
self-correct spellings that have been learned. It is also helpful to
encourage learners to keep a personal dictionary of words they need.
See also the Resources section.
Encourage learners to use alternatives to express themselves fully. For many of these
learners, a word processor is an essential tool in developing writing skills, as tapping
keys is much easier than forming letters.
Those with severe difficulties may find using voice-recognition technology is the only
way in to writing.
For those with physical impairments, investigate specially designed keyboards and
tracker balls, which may be a better alternative than a mouse.
Always discuss with BSL-speaking learners the differences between linguistic
structures and also the letters used for grammatical endings used in spelling.
(See guidance on Spelling and deaf learners p171.)
(See guidance on Using an individualised spelling programme p165 and above.)
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At this level,
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audience
records
Ww/E1 (continued)


2
write the letters of the alphabet

using upper and lower case
Upper case is much more difficult to read

for any learner, because it does not
differentiate the shapes of words. Writing
in upper case inhibits the natural rhythm
and flow of handwriting. Using only upper
case will be problematic for anyone who
has difficulty with vision or visual
perception, also for learners who rely
on word shape or use movement and
flowing patterns to assist with writing.
learning difficulties may have
difficulties remembering the alphabet
(both upper and lower cases) and keeping
the cases separate.
These learners may also use a mixture of
upper and lower case, particularly with
letters where they may be uncertain of
the correct written form, e.g. B and D
instead of b and d.

3
use basic soundsymbol association

to help spelling, as appropriate for
the needs of the learner
Blind learners who use Braille may

need help to spell words that are
contracted or abbreviated in Braille in full
on the keyboard.
They will also divide many single syllable
words into two parts (e.g. plain would
be pla in).
Partially hearing and dyslexic
learners with auditory processing
problems, also learners with speech
and language difficulties and/or
learning difficulties will be unable to
use soundsymbol associations to help
them with spelling.
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Writing
Entry 1
Encourage learners to use both upper and lower cases wherever possible. Limit
activities such as filling in forms, which need to be filled in with capitals, until
learners can write easily.
Teach activities for developing handwriting skills separately from activities concerned
with developing grammatical skills.
Use multisensory methods to teach the alphabet, e.g. making own letters in
clay/plasticine, the Edith Norrie letter case, Fernald method (see Reading section
guidance on Multisensory approaches p95 & 97).
Use tactile/kinaesthetic reinforcement approaches such as tracing the word written in
crayon or sandpaper (to give a rough texture). Feeling wooden letters can also be useful.
Teach correct letter formation and case within the context of teaching handwriting and
spelling. Teaching joined-up letters may make it easier for the learner not to confuse
letters. Lower-case b, d, p, q look very different when they are joined and are formed
differently (see below). Joined-up writing also helps to develop a motor muscle
memory for words.
Although it is important to learn the correct form, it is also important not to inhibit
writing flow by continually pointing out mistakes.
Use both upper and lower cases, but avoid upper case only.
Break up words for learning in the same way as Braille. These will be more helpful to
learners than sound patterns and syllables.
These learners may be very successful in using visual approaches, as spelling is

primarily a visualmotor skill. They will also have fewer problems with homonyms and
irregular words.
Sign language users might find finger-spelling helpful (see guidance on Spelling and
deaf learners p171).
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At this level,
adults can
audience
records
Ww/E1 (continued)


3
use basic soundsymbol association

to help spelling, as appropriate for the
needs of the learner (continued)
Dyslexic learners who have some

ability to discriminate sounds may still
have problems holding and manipulating
sounds. Middle sounds and endings may
be most difficult, but some learners may
be unable to use rhyme.
Learners who have had considerable
experience of failure in using a phonic
approach to spelling will need alternative
approaches.
Those with partial hearing may have

special difficulties that come from relying
on incomplete auditory information.
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Writing
Entry 1

strategies
Kinaesthetic approaches, such as
tracing, may work well. Use forefinger
of writing hand. The Fernald method is
especially helpful for those needing
more reinforcement than the LSCWC
method.
Encourage use of visual and lexical
(word-based) strategies, such as words
within words: be lie ve, w hen.
Start with familiar/important words
(e.g. persons name, address, names of
family members, words related to
individual interests), then link with
words with similar patterns,
e.g. S all y, c all, t all .
Help the learner find mnemonics that
are personal and create mental
pictures.
Use colour, visual spacing between
bits, drawings/cartoon/clip-art images
for letters, words or parts of words.
Use colour to highlight the difficult part
of words, e.g. Wednesday, February.
Group words according to: visual
patterns, e.g. pain, gain, again;
meaning, e.g. sign, signal, signature;
and word families, e.g. cook, cooker,
cooking. Practise with LSCWC in
conjunction with language experience.
Group key words in word families, on
different-coloured cards. The learners
can discard the cards once they gain
confidence in spelling them.
Spelling and deaf learners

Traditional spelling methods often rely on relating sounds to written
forms.
For deaf learners, spelling difficulties are aggravated by their lack of
auditory perception and auditory memory. They are likely to have
insufficient speech to be able to sound out words to help memorise
spelling. When learners cannot hear at all, methods based on phonics
will not be useful.
A spelling programme for deaf learners needs to make use of a visual
approach to memorising and the motor aspect of spelling. Practice in
reinforcing spellings has to be based on visual patterns and muscle
memory. Muscle memory can apply to both handwriting and finger
spelling. To support the learner in this it is useful if the teacher is able
to finger-spell.
Typical patterns of error for deaf learners are:
transposition of letters or syllables (e.g. gril for girl)
omission of letters or syllables (e.g. reption for repetition)
A useful way to proceed is through a Look Copy Cover Write Check
method:
Look at the word. Say it aloud and/or finger-spell it.
Copy the word. Write it and/or finger-spell it over and over again, aiming
at a rhythm.
Cover the word. Say it aloud and/or finger-spell it.
Write the word.
Check the spelling.
This is a variation of Look, Say, Cover, Write, Check (see p165).
If the spelling is wrong, it is important to write the whole word again,
as the act of writing it and/or finger-spelling it aids memory.
After a week, try again. Does the learner still remember? It takes a
long time to commit spellings to long-term memory.
To test spellings, the teacher could use pictures, although it can be
difficult to find pictures to cover all spellings. A form of dictation can
also be used if the teacher can sign, or if the learner is a good
lipreader.
Those with partial hearing may use lip pattern to help them spell.
Some lip shapes are easier to read than others.
Easy: w, v, f, th, sh, ch, p, m, b.
More difficult: s, n, t, d, k, g, ng, l, r, z.
Vowels are also difficult (see guidance on Lipreading and learners who are deaf or
partially hearing p53).
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At this level,
adults can
information with some
awareness of the intended
audience
Wt/E2


1

records, e-mails, simple
narratives
use written words and phrases to

record or present information
(See Wt/E1
understand the concept of fitness for

purpose in composition that the
writer selects the best organisation
and style for the context, audience and
purpose, e.g. continuous text/chart/
numbered points

learners, e.g. those with tunnel vision,
will have difficulty understanding how
chart forms are organised.

172
construct simple and compound

sentences, using common
conjunctions to connect two
clauses (e.g. as, and, but).
use punctuation correctly

(e.g. capital letters, full stops and
question marks)
.)
Ws/E2

(See Ws/E1
.)
(See Ws/E1
.)
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Writing
Entry 2
(See Wt/E1
.)
Use activities that offer alternative forms of presentation for these learners, such as
tactile maps. Charts and graphs can, however, be particularly helpful for others,
particularly those with visual learning styles (see guidance on Spatial representation
and blind and partially sighted learners pp21617).
Use authoring software to help learners write simple information (see guidance on
Authoring software p157).

strategies
Use learners own simple, single-clause
sentences. Write these sentences out
on card and get learners to combine
them using common conjunctions.
When using the sample activity on text
messaging, make explicit the difference
between standard English and textmessaging conventions (see Ws/E1 1 ).
(See adjacent guidance on Text
messaging.)
(See Ws/E1
.)
Teach the use of capitals explicitly for

these learners.
Text messaging
The last few years have seen a rapid increase in text-messaging
systems, which deaf people have taken to most enthusiastically! The
phone has long been an instrument of discrimination at work but now
it has become a lot more deaf-friendly.
Minicom the text telephone with a keyboard, slower and therefore
more expensive than the voice phone, although users can get a 60 per
cent rebate on phone bills. Good English is needed to use it effectively,
and it can be used to access the relay service Typetalk.
Typetalk a service operated by BT and the RNID, which relays
Minicom messages in speech, and voice messages in text, via an
operator, to facilitate deafhearing telecommunication.
Communicator used as a mobile Minicom, looking like a cross
between a mobile and a palmtop. It sends e-mails and can send a fax
to a land phone. It is much used by deaf workers on the move.
Pagers spoken messages are relayed as text, so they are useful for
deaf people. They are commonly used by deaf employees for health and
safety purposes in the workplace.
Fax quicker and cheaper for messages than a Minicom. Users can
think about phrasing their message before they send it, and can send
sketches and diagrams as well as text.
E-mail now a standard means of communication at work, and
increasing in use at home. At work e-mail often uses a less formal
register than the traditional written memo. This more colloquial
language may be less familiar to profoundly deaf learners, who have
learned their English from the written word.
Mobiles/SMS the cheap and ubiquitous mobile was embraced
immediately by deaf young people to send text messages to their
friends. Very useful for deaf parents keeping tabs on their hearing kids.
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Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
audience

4

narratives
Ws/E2 (continued)

use a capital letter for proper

nouns
(See Ws/E1 2 .)
understand what is meant by a proper

noun
understand the purpose of marking
proper nouns by an initial capital
Some dyslexic learners, others with

learning difficulties, and some others,
may have difficulty with the concept of
proper nouns and/or identifying them, as
this too is an abstract convention.
Capitals will be difficult for Braille users,
as Braille does not distinguish between
upper and lower case.
Ww/E2


1
spell correctly the majority of

personal details and familiar
common words
(See the discussion of learners at

Ww/E1 1 .)
understand that not all spellings can

be worked out from the sound of the
word; visual strategies are needed as
well
understand that looking carefully at
letter patterns when reading helps
remember the spelling for writing
Dyslexic learners with visual

processing difficulties will have a poor
visual memory for words and will have
difficulties with sequencing. Common
words with no concrete image or
meaning, e.g. function words such as
which, after, their, etc. will often be the
most difficult. These learners will also
tend to forget spellings easily.
They will also have particular difficulties
with words they have been misspelling,
as the wrong spelling will be reinforced
both visually and through the motor
(hand) memory.
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Writing
Entry 2
Remember that it is not always easy to determine whether something is a proper noun,
especially names or places that are unfamiliar. Always teach using the learners own
writing, using proper nouns that are familiar to the learner. Using capital letters for
names of people and places is a good start.
Teach the use of capitals explicitly for these learners.
(See Ww/E1
.)
(See guidance on Using an individualised spelling programme pp165 & 167.)

Emphasise other strategies, such as making up an exaggerated spelling pronunciation,
or use mnemonics in conjunction with Look, Say, Cover, Write, Check.
Focus on important, meaningful words, always based on the learners own writing (or
language experience), and ensure words are used in learners writing and reinforced by
dictating sentences using learned words.
Help learners understand that words they have misspelled over a long time will be
especially difficult, as they will need to unlearn the spelling.
Help use the motor memory by ensuring that, if learners get words wrong when they
are practising them, they cross out the word and write the whole word correctly, so
that the hand remembers the correct spelling.
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At this level,
adults can
audience
narratives
Ww/E2 (continued)


2
use their knowledge of soundsymbol

relationships and phonological
patterns (e.g. consonant clusters and
vowel phonemes) to help work out
correct spellings as appropriate for
the needs of the learner
understand that it is possible to greatly
reduce the chances of making random
spelling errors by applying their
knowledge of spelling patterns and
rules.
All the learners mentioned in Ww/E1 3

will have the same problems at this level.
The sample activity in the Adult Literacy

Core Curriculum p113 (Listen to a tape
of short sentences containing missing
words with the same vowel phonemes)
would be difficult for learners who are
deaf, partially hearing or who have poor
phonological processing skills.
Deaf and partially hearing learners

whose first language is BSL may have
particular difficulty with grammatical
endings, (e.g. s, ed, and ing) and with
prefixes that are not used in BSL (see
guidance on British Sign Language p153).
Learners may also find some grammatical
endings difficult to lip read (see guidance
on Lipreading and learners who are deaf
or partially hearing p51 in Speaking and
listening).
Learners with learning difficulties or

dyslexic learners may find generalising
from spelling patterns or rules and
applying them very difficult.
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Writing
Entry 2
Electronic spell checkers such as the Franklin Spellmaster and spelling dictionaries
organised by sound such as ACE (see Resources) are especially helpful to those who
spell as it sounds.
(See suggested strategies in Ww/E1
.)
Use alternative visual strategies such as lists of words, so that learners can see the
same vowel phonemes. Also highlight these.
Teach explicitly how these endings are used, and where. ESOL/TFEL approaches to
teaching verbnoun agreements and tenses are helpful for deaf learners.
Introduce grammatical endings as they occur in learners own writing as part of an
individualised spelling programme.
Teach in context of own words, linking these with one or two similar words in their
individual spelling programme, drawing attention to the pattern or rule. Each time a
similar word comes up subsequently, draw attention to it and link it with words already
learned. In this way, move from the particular to the general rather than vice versa.
Reinforce through getting them to self-correct learned patterns in their own writing.
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At this level,
adults can
audience
narratives
Ww/E2 (continued)


3
produce legible text
Learners with physical disabilities,

poor motor co-ordination, dyslexia,
dyspraxia, dysgraphia and integration
difficulties may be unable to produce
legible handwritten text in spite of
practice. Their efforts may be so
strenuous and slow as to defeat the
purpose, i.e. to put ideas or information
on paper.
Learners with learning difficulties or
dyslexic learners who have visual
processing problems will easily miss
out lines in forms. Those with partial
sight or spatialperceptual difficulties
will have difficulties with finding their
way around documents. This may affect
their ability to produce legible text.
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Writing
Entry 2
Stress fluency and ease of writing; if legibility is difficult to acquire, develop writing on
a keyboard or using voice-recognition technology.
Use methods suggested in Ww/E1
Handwriting practice is best done as part of an individualised spelling and writing

programme. Keep handwriting practice separate from activities designed to develop
other skills, such as sentence construction.
Make sure forms are clear: marking in colour may help. Help learners develop selfchecking skills, using personal checklist, e.g. name, address, sex, age, etc.
Copy forms onto coloured paper, which is often easier to read (check colours with
individuals).
Forms may need to be enlarged.
Use forms on the computer.
Encouraging these learners to explore which fonts and size of print are easiest for them
to use is especially helpful for them. Avoid the use of italics (see guidance on Reading
and access to text for blind and partially sighted learners pp901 Reading section).
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At this level,
adults can
information and opinions with
some adaptation to the intended
audience
Wt/E3


1
plan and draft writing

notes, records, e-mails, letters,
narratives, simple instructions,
short reports
Dyslexic or partially sighted learners or

those with physical disabilities, fine motor
co-ordination difficulties or dyspraxia,
may find that their ideas outpace their ability
to write.
Many partially sighted learners experience
discomfort when bent over a piece of writing
for any length of time. This also applies to
looking at a VDU.
understand that the choice of how to

organise writing depends on the
context and audience
Dyslexic learners and learners who

have autistic spectrum disorders or
difficulties with adapting style for
audience.
Deaf learners who have learnt their

English mostly from the written word
may have a restricted range of styles and
may be less familiar with informal
English.
understand that there are different

ways of planning, e.g. notes to
organise and review thinking, a list of
points to include, a diagram to group
related points together
Many dyslexic learners and those with

learning difficulties or dyspraxia will
find it difficult to plan and organise
writing.
acquired brain injury or hydrocephalus
typically have sequencing and
organisational difficulties. These difficulties
increase as organisational structures
become more complex (e.g. a discursive
piece of writing is more difficult to plan and
organise than an account of an event).
Problems also increase as learners ideas
become more complex.
Some learners may always have difficulty
planning and may do much of their organising
after they have drafted their initial writing.
Some partially sighted learners may
be unable to manipulate visual material.
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Writing
Entry 3

Encourage learners to generate ideas and use a scribe or speech-based software tape
recorder, pocket memo or Dictaphone to record them.
Use ideas recorded for subsequent recall and writing down.
Encourage good posture as far as possible and taking natural breaks from writing process
every few minutes (e.g. looking away, stretching).
Use software such as Inspirations (see Resources).
Draw attention to the relationship between audience and style/organisation. Use pairs to
read each others pieces. If learners act as audience, they are more likely to understand the
need for different styles.
Model different styles for different audiences, e.g. compare holiday postcard with a letter
to the council, or text message to letter.
Give examples of inappropriate writing, e.g. a formal letter written as if to a friend, or a
postcard written in a formal way, and discuss.
They will need explicit teaching, particularly in areas of colloquial language, and lots of
experience of different contexts. Use different situations within the same scenario to
illustrate a range of styles from formal, semi-formal through to highly informal. Illustrations
of different dress codes and clothing styles can be a useful way of showing varying
relationships and hence language codes. All conventions and elements of style will need to
be taught explicitly to develop and draft writing. Deaf learners will need extra work on
increasing and using new vocabulary.
Use writing frames (see guidance on Support for writing, p115 of Adult Literacy Core Curriculum).
Model the writing process, i.e. plan and draft a short piece of writing on a whiteboard or
OHT, describing your thinking process aloud as you do it.
Teach learners to make mind maps (see guidance on Planning and organising mind maps
p75 in Speaking and listening section).
Encourage colour coding and tactile approaches. Learners may find it helpful to write ideas
on index cards, then arrange and colour code these according to headings. Always do the
ordering, i.e. sequencing, as the last stage.
Some learners will need to talk through their ideas or ideas-storm with the teacher acting
as scribe, then group them and, lastly, put them in order.
Suggest these learners physically cut and paste their initial draft. Teach them to cut and
paste on the computer.
Use tactile diagrams. Partially sighted learners would benefit from planning software such
as Inspirations, in addition to Jaws speech software (see Resources).
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Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
audience

1

(continued)

short reports
understand that drafting follows

planning and involves turning plans
into something nearer the finished
version
Wt/E3 (continued)
Deaf learners may benefit from visual
planning methods, as will any learner
with a visual learning style.
Dyslexic and dyspraxic learners, and

some with learning difficulties will
have difficulties with perseveration.
This is getting stuck on a single point,
the inability to move from one point to
develop a piece of writing.
Learners with fine motor control or

co-ordination difficulties, or severe
dyslexia will have difficulty with more
sustained writing. They will have to
concentrate on forming letters or working
out spellings; their hand may tire from
pressing hard to control the pen; they
may write too slowly all of which
impede their ability to get their ideas
down before they forget them, and make
writing an arduous task.
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Spidergram
strategies
Use spidergrams to plan work and show
the relationship between the topic and
paragraphs. The rounded format
encourages learners to rethink the order
of the paragraphs and the best links.
friends
Teach learners to use spider plans,

which will allow points to be sequenced
with numbers after all ideas are down on
paper.
work
destination
where to go
postcards
to send
accommodation
own
photos
These learners need clear structures and

individually devised writing frames that
help them to move on.
Rules of thumb such as write three
sentences about the first point, then
three about the second point, etc. may
also help them stick to a plan.
family
souvenirs
Going
on
holiday
travel
arrangements
presents for
friends
what to take
(packing)
clothes
what to see
and do
toiletries
Wherever possible, make more use of speech software and/or the keyboard, depending on
the severity of the difficulties, to develop writing skills.
Suggest learners tape ideas or have a volunteer scribe for them. They can then edit their
writing. This reduces the amount of physical writing required. Alternatively, writing can
be edited by the scribe or by using a computer with appropriate assistive technology.
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At this level,
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audience
Wt/E3 (continued)


2 organise writing in short
paragraphs

short reports

learning difficulties, can have difficulty
with the conventions of written language,
including paragraphs.
understand that paragraphs need to

follow on from each other using
appropriate linking words
Deaf or dyslexic learners and some

with learning difficulties may have
difficulties with linking words, as these
are abstract (i.e. functional) and the
concepts may be expressed differently in
BSL. There may be no direct BSL
translation of many English linking words.
sequence chronological writing

learning difficulties, dyspraxia,
acquired brain injury and other
neurological impairments including
hydrocephalus are likely to have
particular difficulties with sequencing.
understand that certain linking words

are useful to join sentences and
paragraphs in chronological writing,
e.g. first, then, later, while, before,
after
(See Wt/E3 2 , above. The same

difficulties will apply.)
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Organising and planning writing

strategies
The use of writing frames is very
helpful for these learners (see guidance
on Support for writing in the Adult
Literacy Core Curriculum p115).
Teach paragraphs explicitly, e.g. WEE
paragraph:
What is the point?
Explain what you mean
Example
Start with the main idea, then ask

learners to write three or five sentences
about it. Then write three or five
sentences on each of these sentences
to make three or five paragraphs.
Title own paragraphs in a piece of
writing. This helps learners establish
whether their paragraphs have too
many ideas or the point is not clear.
Teach linking words explicitly. Give
handouts with words and where they
are used, and introduce them within the
context of writing frames.
This will often be another major difficulty for dyslexic and dyspraxic
learners. They may perseverate on an idea, i.e. be unable to move on
from one idea to another when writing. They may have problems
organising paper, files and time, as well as writing. They often need
specific help organising folders and planning writing. Some useful
approaches include:
mind maps (see guidance in Speaking and listening section p75)

colour coding
putting ideas on card and arranging them
cutting and pasting, either physically or on the computer
software such as Inspirations (see Resources)
help sheets like the WEE paragraph:
Whats your point
Explain what you mean
Example
writing frames (see guidance on Support for writing in the

Adult Literacy Core Curriculum, p115)
use tapes for recording ideas before trying to write.
Diaries, timetables and coloured file dividers may also be useful for
general organising.
Help learners use their strengths to support weaknesses. Help learners find appropriate
visual representations, for example: draw a story or process first, then label or
describe the drawings; use storyboards; use a time line to help organise a
chronological event.
Make particular use of colour and cut and paste to sequence both physically and on a
word processor.
Peer/paired editing can be very helpful in giving feedback on how to improve ordering.
Encourage learners to ask questions such as What came next? What did you do
first? etc. to help them understand the chronology.
(See Wt/E3
above.)
Help learners to make help sheets for themselves with lists of linking words and
examples of when to use the words. Learners can refer to the help sheets when
writing.
Use writing frames to introduce linking words in context. In some cases these will need
to be customised for individuals in order to support particular difficulties (see Spiegel
and Sunderland (1999) see Resources).
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At this level,
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audience
short reports
Wt/E3 (continued)


4 proof-read and correct writing for
grammar and spelling
Some partially sighted learners and

learners with visual processing
difficulties (such as dyslexic learners
and those with poor binocular control,
Meares-Irlen syndrome, or nystagmus)
will have particular problems identifying
errors. The print may appear to be
unstable, i.e. to move, blur or jump around.

learning difficulties will have some
difficulties with proof-reading if they have
difficulty with word or letter recognition.
Those with a poor visual memory for
spellings will frequently be unable to
recognise whether a spelling is correct.
Deaf learners have difficulties proofreading for syntax but fewer problems
with proof-reading for spelling.
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Entry 3

strategies
Build on strengths of other partially sighted
learners, particularly Braille users, when
proof-reading. An inability to skim and
scan means conversely that learners
possess a close attention to detail,
e.g. spelling, structure of words, use of
punctuation.
Make particular use of technology,
especially speech-based software with a
facility to read back what was written. For
example, Keystone reads back text that
has been written on the computer. This can
help learners evaluate whether what is
written is what they intended. (See
Technology in the Introduction, pp1113
and 212, and also the Resources
section.)
Scaffold proof-reading with techniques
such as error analysis marking (see
guidance on this page).
Error analysis marking

Error analysis marking is a very effective way of developing self-correcting
skills. It is especially helpful for those who have difficulties seeing their
errors, such as those with visual processing difficulties, but it will help any
learner because it can be used to focus on specific difficulties. It helps to
structure work with the learner by giving selective practice, and it avoids
red marks all over the page.
Instead of correcting errors, the teacher uses a code in the margin to
indicate that there is an error in that line and to identify what type it is. If
the learner has difficulties finding the error, the error can be underlined as
well.
Any code can be used as long as the learner understands it. Some
examples might be Sp for spelling, P for punctuation, T for tense, E
for (grammatical) ending or G for grammar, SS for sentence
structure, V for vocabulary.
Spelling errors should only be selected if the learner has learned them as
part of an individualised spelling programme or spelled them correctly elsewhere on the page; otherwise, he or she is unlikely to be able to correct them.
Error analysis marking can be used in a staged way to scaffold
independent proofreading:
1. Put in margin; underline word in text.
2. Put in margin; let learner find error on that line.
3. Put at bottom of text (e.g. find five spelling errors).
4. Learners work in pairs to do error analysis of each learners writing.
5. Learner does own proof-reading.
Break the process of proof-reading into three steps: read first for sense, then again for
punctuation, last for spelling (rather than the two steps suggested in the pairs activity on
p115 of the Adult Literacy Core Curriculum).
Reading aloud or taping their work can help some learners hear if it sounds right. Some
may need to read onto a tape and then listen. Always check with the learner to find out
what works best.
Encourage learners to wait for a day or so to proof-read, as they are then more likely to
identify errors rather than to see what they intended.
Have learners proof-read each others work in pairs, as it is often easier to see others
errors (see Klein and Millar (1990), Resources section, for activities on proof-reading and
editing).
Avoid highlighting spelling errors, as this reinforces the spelling in the memory. Suggest
they underline instead, then self-correct; or show them the spelling, then highlight the
difficult bit in the correct version.
When using error analysis marking for spelling, only put Sp or underline where the
learner has practised and learned the spelling. Other spellings should be identified for
learning as part of an individual spelling programme (see guidance on Using an
individualised spelling programme pp165 & 167).
Make use of spell checkers but explain their limitations. They do not identify errors that
form other words (e.g. form/from) or homonyms such as their/there.
Give deaf learners a checklist of particular grammatical structures to check for in turn
(e.g. capital letters, verb endings, etc.), doing one at a time.
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At this level,
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audience

1 write in complete sentences
understand that simple and compound
sentences can be amplified by
expanding the information around the
noun and the verb to give additional
information about agents and actions

short reports
Ws/E3

Many dyslexic learners may write
muddled or incomplete sentences when
trying to amplify or express complex
ideas.
Deaf learners will find compound

sentence structures (joined with a
conjunction) much easier to manage than
complex sentences with embedded,
subordinate clauses.
188
use correct basic grammar

(e.g. appropriate verb tense,
subjectverb agreement)
Dyslexic learners and others with poor

short-term memory, poor auditory
processing or visualmotor integration
problems will continue to have problems
with written grammar, such as grammatical
endings (ed, s), omitted words,
subjectverb agreement, tenses, etc. not
evident in their speech.
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Entry 3

strategies
Use kernel sentence approach (see
adjacent guidance) to help learners to
rebuild their sentences, then identify
other examples in their writing to
rewrite in the same way.
Use rules of thumb: for example, one
learner who kept writing incomplete
sentences starting with because or
which, and was unable to grasp why
they were not complete sentences, kept
a card to refer to saying, Never start a
sentence with because or which.
Also use error analysis marking to help
learners self-correct.
Offer as an alternative the use of

compound, not complex, sentences, and
develop a wider range of English linking
words. This overcomes the difficulties
arising from the use of embedded,
subordinate clauses.
Kernel sentences
Deaf learners who use sign, dyslexic learners and many with
learning difficulties will find complex grammatical forms and
sentence structure, as well as punctuation, difficult. The kernel
sentence approach (adapted from Shaughnessy (1977), see
Resources) is useful for teaching grammar and punctuation to
learners who find a traditional analytic approach unsuccessful or
who have problems using written language flexibly.
Starting from simple or kernel sentences, learners identify the
subject, verb and object, then practise expanding the sentences
systematically, by adding adjectives, then adverbs, preposition
phrases and, finally, clauses. Punctuation can then be introduced in
a contextualised way in relation to sentence structure and meaning.
Terminology can also be introduced as sentences are expanded.
Example:
Kernel sentence:
Then:
The man investigated the noise.

The tall, dark-haired man investigated the
screeching noise.
The tall, dark-haired man fearlessly
investigated the screeching noise.
The tall, dark-haired man from next door
fearlessly investigated the screeching noise.
The tall, dark-haired man from next door, who
moved in yesterday, fearlessly investigated
the screeching noise which was coming from
the car.
Practice at building sentences gives learners the confidence to

manipulate and extend their range of complex sentence
structures. It can also be a lot of fun, as learners can build
extremely long yet well-formed sentences.
Try using BROGY. The colours Blue,
Red, Orange, Green, Yellow are used
to teach the basic parts of speech.
Nouns, verbs, etc. are each in a
different colour (see Resources).
Help individual learners, or groups of
learners, make their own sentence
cards, i.e. colour-coded cards with
words that are subjects, objects or
verbs. Learners choose one of each
type at random to construct a
sentence. Combine this with
expanding kernel sentences.
Some dyslexic learners and other learners who tend to write long
and confused or run-on sentences can be helped to identify the
kernel sentence within the muddled one. They can then often tease
out the meaning from the confusion and rewrite what they want
to say in a more clearly structured way.
This is especially helpful for those learners who wish to express
complex relationships between ideas and who find that simple
sentences are inadequate, but have difficulties structuring complex
ones.
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At this level,
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audience
short reports

3
use punctuation correctly

(e.g. capital letters, full stops,
question marks, exclamation
marks)
Ws/E3 (continued)

The learners mentioned in Ws/E3 2 ,
along with many with learning
difficulties, will also find it difficult to
remember and apply rules and to
integrate the conventions of written
language, including punctuation.
Remember that dyslexic learners are
often quick forgetters rather than slow
learners.
Deaf learners will not have absorbed

complexities of standard English grammar
by listening to language. Sign languages
have a different syntax and structure from
standard English. Sign order is often quite
different from word order. Signing does
not use articles or auxiliary verbs and verb
endings are differently differentiated. (See
guidance on British sign language p155.)
Those who lipread may not be familiar
with English grammatical structures as
not everything is visible in continuous
speech (see Ws/E1 1 ).
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Reminder
strategies
Dyslexic learners with visual processing
problems and auditory strengths may
find it helps to read their sentences
aloud.
Some aspects of grammar and punctuation may always be

difficult for some learners. Do not pay attention to every detail of
these aspects at the expense of learners writing what they want
to write.
They will learn to generalise only through lots of specific practice in a meaningful
context. Grammar and punctuation need to be taught explicitly and in the context of
learners own writing, as the need for them arises. Reinforce through practice,
rewriting identified sentences.
Encourage over-learning, i.e. continuing to practise something in different contexts
once it has been learned.
Discussing punctuation in the context of reading may help learners use punctuation
better.
Make all conventions and rules explicit.
Encourage deaf learners to make use of their linguistic knowledge by comparing BSL
with English (or any other first language). Explore and discuss with them where sign
language and standard English differ. Also discuss word usage and appropriate
vocabulary as it comes up in the context of the learners writing.
Teach unknown grammar explicitly.
Encourage deaf learners to recognise that some forms of communication are
particularly useful to them (e.g. text messaging) but that they may use different
grammar constructions (see Ws/E1 1 for activities).
(See Ws/E1
.)
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At this level,
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audience
short reports
Ww/E3


1
spell correctly common words and

relevant key words for work and
special interest
Deaf and partially hearing learners

may have difficulties with grammatical
endings, prefixes and suffixes that are not
used in BSL. On the other hand, they will
have no difficulty with silent letters and
will learn words with these as easily as
other words.Their/there/theyre and
to/two/too are not problems for profoundly
deaf learners, as the sound of the words is
irrelevant.
learning difficulties find generalising from
rules and applying them very difficult.
know that there are dictionaries

specifically for spelling, and
understand that ordinary dictionaries
can be used to check spellings if the
initial letters are known
Accessing dictionaries by learners with

partial sight, whether in ordinary print,
large print or Braille, is cumbersome and
time consuming.
learning difficulties will find it
extremely time consuming to use a
dictionary to find or check spellings, as
they often do not know the initial letter or
the subsequent ones.
Learners with auditory processing
difficulties will not be able to use a
spelling dictionary, because their
spellings often bear little resemblance to
the correct spelling.
understand that a computer spell

checker is of limited use until the user
can judge how appropriate the
suggested corrections are for the
sense
192

persistent difficulties in recognising
the correct word will always have
problems in judging the appropriateness
of the corrections. For instance, they may
have difficulties in telling which is form
and which from, etc.
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Entry 3

strategies
(See Ww/E2
.)
Reminder
Confusing words, including homonyms, should never be taught
together.
Instead, they should be taught several weeks apart, linked with words
with similar patterns or structure or meaning, and practised in
learners writing. For example:
wh ere
where
where
wh ere
there
there
h ear
h ear
h ear
hear
h ear t
heart
Never teach here and hear together.
Explain word structure, suffixes and silent letters in terms of meaning and derivation,
which helps these learners to make sense of English spelling (see Resources,
e.g. Klein and Millar (1990)). However, these are best learned within the context of an
individualised spelling programme, using words from their own writing and gradually
linking other words to these.
Use appropriate software (e.g. Franklin Language Master, the Language function in
Microsoft Word see Resources) and encourage learners to build up their own
dictionary; this should be done in a challenging and fun way.
As it is not a good use of learners time to spend long periods looking up words in the
dictionary, it is best to give learners the correct spellings in the margin if they dont know
them. If they have learned but forgotten the word, write Sp in the margin of the line
where the error is and encourage them to find and correct it, using their own spelling
dictionary or practice book.
It is important that learners understand these difficulties and include words that
consistently create problems as part of their individual spelling programme.
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At this level,
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audience
Ww/E3 (continued)


2

short reports
use their developing knowledge of

soundsymbol relationships and
phonological patterns to help spell a
greater range of words and longer
words, as appropriate for the needs
of the learner
All dyslexic learners and many with

learning difficulties will have difficulties
generalising and applying rules.
understand how segmenting words

into phonemes and breaking them into
syllables (beats) or components
(compounds) helps work out spelling
Learners who are deaf or partially

hearing, or dyslexic, especially those
with auditory processing difficulties,
may be unable to use syllabification to
help with spelling.
(See Ww/E1
understand that handwriting is the

most suitable/only medium for some
tasks and word processing is
preferable for others
194
,Ww/E1
,Ww/E1 3. )
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Entry 3

(See Ww/E2
and Ww/E3
.)
Working out rules from looking at spellings is a better way of helping learners understand
these rules than giving exercises that require the application of the rule (see Klein and
Millar (1990) for activities Resources).
Help them find visual ways of segmenting words instead of syllables,

e.g. ind ivi dual, acc ommo dation.
Tactile approaches, such as cutting words into puzzle segments and matching them, can
help with using syllables or other bits to learn spellings.
If teaching syllables, use kinaesthetic methods such as tapping the chin or nodding the
head to each syllable.
Remember many of these learners will need to understand that it is alright for them
to use a computer for all written communication. Teach or develop the use of e-mail for
less formal communications.
Encourage the use of small tape recorders for making lists, reminders, notes, etc.,
where appropriate.
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At this level,
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opinions clearly using length,
format and style appropriate
to purpose and audience
records, e-mails, letters,
narratives, instructions,
reports, explanations

Part A: In writing documents . . .
Part B: C1.3
Wt/L1


1
(See Wt/E3
judge how much to write and the

level of detail to include
Learners who are dyslexic or with autistic

spectrum disorders or who have learning
difficulties can have difficulty with selecting
which details are most relevant.
.)
Dyslexic learners may feel that everything

is interrelated, so that it is difficult to see
what should be put in and what should be
omitted.
disorders are overly focused on the detail
and may not have the wider picture.
3
present information in a logical

sequence using paragraphs
where appropriate
understand that information is best
presented so that: the opening clearly
signals the subject to the reader;
points are organised in a logical order;
it is clear how one point relates to
another; the whole makes coherent
sense
(See Wt/E3
.)
Dyslexic learners or those with learning

difficulties who have problems with the
conventions of language will find it
difficult to signpost and link points to one
another.
They and other learners will also
have sequencing and organisational
difficulties.
Deaf learners may not be aware of

certain English signalling words. BSL
indicates the relationship of one sentence
or statement to another, but there are very
few direct sign/word equivalences for the
wide variety of English conjunctions.
Partially sighted learners may have very

strong skills in logical linear sequencing.
However, other logical relationships, for
example those in matrices or diagrams,
may be much harder for them to grasp.
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Writing
Level 1

(See Wt/E3
.)
Use or develop writing frames that help people to focus and select (see guidance on
Support for writing in the Adult Literacy Core Curriculum, p115).
Dyslexic learners, in particular, are right-brained learners. Start from the whole, for
example ideas-storm and do a mind map. Use colour coding to identify and correct
important points and then select what is important. Discuss the process of selection
at each stage.
Use peer editing to help decide what should and should not be included.
Understand that it is particularly difficult for learners who have problems with writing
to have to select out what they want to say or edit things they have written. Ensure
they agree with editing suggestions and that individuality of style is valued.
(See Wt/E3
3 .)
Teach explicitly the conventions of how to signal to the reader and relate points to
one another, and give handouts with linking and signalling words and instructions on
when to use them.
Model aspects of the writing process, such as where and why you put in signalling
words.
Use writing frames that clearly draw attention to and emphasise where and how
points can be related.
Get learners to explain what they want to say orally prior to writing it.
Introduce PowerPoint for making presentations in different formats to create interest
in visual and dynamic ways to present information.
Ask deaf learners to explain what they mean before writing it up. Asking How do you
express this idea? may be a more useful question than What is the sign for . . ?.
Discuss explicitly the differences between BSL and standard English as well as
written conventions. There are common BSL signs for and/but/because/if/or, (which),
so (a shrug). Most English conjunctions fall within the and/but range and are
conveyed in BSL by sign modification. Emphasise the force of the connection or its
importance through repetition, facial expression, weight shift, pace, expression, etc.
Sequences have to be learned in a linear manner without the benefits of more
sophisticated visual frameworks, such as matrices or diagrams.
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Part B: C1.3
Wt/L1 (continued)


4
use language suitable for purpose

and audience

Deaf and dyslexic learners with

reading difficulties and others with
learning difficulties may have had little
exposure to a variety of styles. They may
also find it hard to be flexible in changing
from one style to another or in
expressing something in a different way
because of underlying difficulties with
the conventions of written language.
Deaf learners who have learned
English solely through the written
word may have a limited variety of styles.
They may have particular problems with
nuance and subtlety of expression.
Blind learners may also lack experience

of visual texts and resources.
use format and structure for

different purposes
(See Wt/E3

ways of organising and presenting
text, depending on its type and
purpose, e.g. paragraphs, numbered
lists, bulleted points, charts, tables,
sub-headings
understand that diagrams, sketches,
drawings can be used alongside
writing to make meaning clearer,
e.g instructions, explanations
understand that a lot of workplace
writing uses pre-set and outline
formats, e.g. accident report forms,
timesheets, job sheets, memo
headings
Anyone with sequencing problems

(see Wt/E3 1 ) is likely to have difficulties
with sequential formats or techniques,
such as flowcharts.
.)
Many learners with partial sight will

find it hard to understand how some
formats and diagrams are organised.
Braille users will not be able to translate
some visual representations.
They, along with dyslexic learners with
visual processing difficulties, may also
have problems keeping the place in some
formats, particularly forms, e.g. they may
miss out a line and thus omit important
information.
Learners with dyspraxia, handwriting

difficulties, poor eyehand co-ordination
or spatial perceptual weaknesses and
some partially sighted learners may have
difficulties with presentations that use
particular formats.
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Writing
Level 1
Give exposure to a range of styles and genres (types of text). Teach different styles
explicitly. Create a variety of unthreatening ways to explore writing in different styles
by allowing learners to select from a range of high-interest books, stories, magazine
articles, etc., including those that have a large visual component (e.g. photographs,
illustrations, graphics, etc.). Use these as a basis for discussion.
Teach appropriate language in relation to style, using writing frames (see Support for
writing in Adult Literacy Core Curriculum, p115) for different types of text in a range of
contexts.
Use colloquial language in speech bubbles and drama text. Contrast it specifically with
more formal forms of language.
Use the same context or scenario for different kinds of written tasks (see suggested
strategies at Wt/E3 1 ). For example, use a bad holiday experience as the basis for
writing a formal report for an insurance claim, and a complaint to the tour operator;
an informal letter to a friend, and an article for a newspaper on the holiday from
hell.
Use simple role plays in which a range of contrasting audiences is involved.
(See Wt/E3
.)
Use visual forms of representations that are not sequential (e.g. spidergrams, mind
maps), or use pictures, illustrations and diagrams to describe sequences such as
processes or instructions.
Teach a variety of visual representations for learners to explore, and let them choose
their preferred type.
Discuss the issues with learners and help them find alternatives, such as tactile
diagrams, audio description.
(See guidance on Spatial representation and blind and partially sighted learners in
Numeracy section pp21617.)
Enlarge forms, etc. if helpful, and ensure photocopies are clear. Some dyslexic and
partially sighted learners may have fewer visual problems when reading or writing on
coloured paper. If so, check the colour with learners as it is a highly individual matter:
blue, pink and yellow are the most common choices, but some learners prefer cream
and pale green.
If using a computer, check the colour and contrast on the screen. Experiment to find
what is best.
Try using a card or physical writing frame to keep place, line by line.
Allow learners to do their work on the computer and support them in learning to use
graphics and other software by co-presenting to support their presentation skills.
199
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At this level,
adults can

Part B: C1.3
Wt/L1 (continued)


6
proof-read and revise writing for

accuracy and meaning
(See Wt/E3
.)


1
write in complete sentences

understand that sentences can be
joined with a wider range of
conjunctions than as, and, but, e.g. if,
so, while, though, since, when to
express meaning more precisely
Ws/L1

Deaf or dyslexic learners and those
learners with autistic spectrum
disorders or learning difficulties can
have particular difficulty with words that
have no clear meaning in their own right.
These words are used functionally and
represent abstract relationships, e.g.
while, however, such, consequently.
English has a wider range of words,
including function words than BSL has
signs. There are very few direct sign/
word equivalences for the wide variety of
English conjunctions. BSL users are more
likely to express their ideas differently.
use correct grammar

(e.g. subjectverb agreement,
correct use of tense)
Both 1 and 2 can be hard for deaf

learners whose first language is BSL.
Some of the more complex tenses can also
be very difficult for dyslexic learners,
those with learning difficulties or other
language impairments, as well as deaf
learners. The passive is particularly
difficult as it inverts normal word order.
(See Ws/E3
200
punctuate sentences correctly,

and use punctuation so that
meaning is clear
(See Ws/E3
.)
.)
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Writing
Level 1
(See Wt/E3 4 .)
Remember that, although all learners may improve in proof-reading, for some it will
always remain a significant weakness.
Teach these words explicitly and within the context of learners own writing. Use writing
frames (see Support for writing in Adult Literacy Core Curriculum p115) that introduce
these words in context.
Use kernel sentences (see guidance on Kernel sentences in Writing section p189).
Use crib or help sheets with common conjunctions and examples of when they are used
(see Ws/E2 1 ).
(See Ws/E1
Ws/E2
and Ws/E3
.)
Use SSE to reinforce the meaning and use of these words. Teach and provide a grid of
the English co-ordinating conjunctions that come within the and and but groups (e.g.
however, nevertheless, moreover, in addition). (See Glossary for explanation of coordinating conjunctions in the Adult Literacy Core Curriculum, p137).
Understand this and pay particular attention to the explicit teaching of grammar.
Some approaches used for ESOL/EAL learners might be useful, but only where the
context is appropriate i.e. not in speech.
Use a kernel sentence approach (see guidance on Kernel sentences in Writing section
p187).
Draw attention to word order in examples of passive tense.
(See Ws/E3
.)
(See Ws/E3
.)
201
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At this level,
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1
spell correctly words used most

often in work, studies and daily life

Part B: C1.3
Ww/L1
(See Ww/E2
and Ww/E3
.)
know and apply some spelling rules to

help attempt and check spellings

understand that the spelling of

homophones is related to meaning and
grammar
For deaf and partially hearing

learners, homophones will have little or
no meaning.
Dyslexic learners, especially those
with weak visual processing who rely
on a phonic approach, will find
homophones difficult to remember.
202
(See Ww/E1
, Ww/E1 2 , Ww/E1 3 .)
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Writing
Level 1
(See Ww/E2
and Ww/E3 11 .)
Exercises on homophones for deaf and partially hearing learners are unnecessary: there/
their/theyre and to/two/too, etc. are not a spelling problem when you cannot hear them.
Avoid decontextualised activities using homophones: these are likely to confuse dyslexic
learners.
Teach homophones separately, several weeks apart and with other words that are alike in
either structure or meaning. For example:
where
where
there
wh ere
wh ere
th ere
h ear
hear
heart
h ear
h ear
h ear t
Never teach here and hear together.
(See Ww/E1
, Ww/E1
, Ww/E1 3 .)
Introduce PowerPoint for presentations (see Wt/L1 5 ).
203
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At this level,
adults can
clearly and effectively, using
length, format and style
appropriate to purpose, content
and audience

Part B: C2.3
Wt/L2


1
(See Wt/E3
judge how much to write and the

level of detail to include
Learners who are dyslexic or learners

with autistic spectrum disorders or
learning difficulties can have difficulty
with selecting which details are most
relevant.
in a wide range of documents
.)
Dyslexic learners may feel that

everything is interrelated, so that it is
difficult to see what should be put in and
what should be omitted.
Some learners who have autistic

spectrum disorders are overly focused
on the detail and may not have the wider
picture.

logical or persuasive sequence,
using paragraphs where
appropriate
(See Wt/E3
.)
Dyslexic learners or those with learning

difficulties who have problems with the
conventions of language will find it difficult to
signpost and link points to one another.
They and other learners (see Ww/E3
will also have sequencing and
organisational difficulties.
Deaf learners may not be aware of certain

English signalling words. BSL indicates the
relationship of one sentence or statement to
another, but there are very few direct
sign/word equivalences for the wide variety
of English conjunctions. Although there are
signs for until and since, BSL users are more
likely to express their ideas differently.
Learners who have been partially
sighted since early childhood lack visual
reinforcement of sequence.
204
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Writing
Level 2

strategies
(See Wt/E3
.)
Use or develop writing frames which

help people to focus and select (see
guidance on Support for writing in the
Adult Literacy Core Curriculum, p115).
Dyslexic learners in particular are rightbrained learners. Start from the whole:
brainstorm and do a mind map. Use
colour coding to identify and correct
important points and then select what is
important. Discuss the process of
selection at each stage.
Use peer editing to help decide what
should and should not be included.
Understand that it is particularly difficult
for learners who have problems with
writing to have to select out what they
want to say or edit things they have
written. Ensure they agree with editing
suggestions and that individuality of
style is valued.
(See Wt/E3
Using a word processor

In addition to useful points made in the Adult Literacy Core
Curriculum document p127, it is important to recognise that
some learners with physical disability/motor co-ordination
difficulties/severe dyslexia will find a keyboard significantly easier
to use than forming letters. In these cases, a word processor is
an invaluable, sometimes essential, tool for gaining writing skills.
For others, speech-recognition software may be the best or only
way into writing. For these learners, technology can help overcome
the enormous frustration caused by the discrepancy between
their ideas and spoken language and their limited ability to put
pen to paper.
For dyslexic learners or others with learning difficulties whose poor
educational experience has inhibited their writing, the use of a
word processor lifts the fear of failure and allows them to express
themselves more freely and to use a far wider range of vocabulary
and sentence structure.
In some cases, they will go on to writing by hand or on the
keyboard once they have found a voice and experienced writing.
Speech-feedback software helps to improve both the quality and
accuracy of writing. Learners often become more sensitive to the
functions of punctuation, for instance when hearing their writing
read back by the computer. Learners with difficulties or disabilities
are also often more able and willing to edit work when using voice
recognition and speech technology.
3 .)
Teach explicitly the conventions of how to signal to the reader and relate points to one
another, and give handouts with linking and signalling words and instructions on when
to use them.
Model aspects of the writing process (see Ww/E3
in signalling words.
), such as where and why you put
Use writing frames that clearly draw attention to and emphasise where and how points
can be related.
Get learners to explain what they want to say orally prior to writing it.
Introduce PowerPoint for making presentations in different formats to create interest in
visual and dynamic ways to present information.
Ask deaf learners to explain what they mean before writing it up. Asking How do you
express this idea? may be a more useful question than What is the sign for?.
Discuss explicitly the differences between BSL and standard English as well as written
conventions. There are common BSL signs for and/but/because/if/or, (which), so
(a shrug). Most English conjunctions fall within the and/but range and are conveyed in
BSL by sign modification. Emphasise the force of the connection or its importance
through repetition, facial expression, pace, etc
Sequences have to be learned in a linear manner without the benefits of more
sophisticated visual frameworks such as matrices or diagrams.
205
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At this level,
adults can
and audience

Part B: C2.3
Wt/L2 (continued)


4
use format and structure to

organise writing for different
purposes
Deaf and dyslexic learners with

reading difficulties and others with
learning difficulties may have had little
exposure to a variety of styles. They may
also find it hard to be flexible in changing
from one style to another or expressing
something in a different way because of
underlying difficulties with the
conventions of written language.
Deaf learners who have learned

English solely through the written
word may have a limited variety of
styles. They may have particular problems
with nuance and subtlety of expression.
use formal and informal language

audience
(See Wt/E3
.)
Anyone with sequencing problems is

likely to have difficulties with sequential
formats or techniques, such as
flowcharts.
Many learners with partial sight will
find it hard to understand how some
formats and diagrams are organised.
They may also lack experience of visual
texts and resources. Braille users will not
be able to translate some visual
representations.
They, and dyslexic learners with visual
processing difficulties, may also have
problems keeping the place in some
formats, particularly forms, e.g. they may
miss out a line and thus omit important
information.
Learners with dyspraxia, handwriting

difficulties, poor eyehand coordination or spatialperceptual
weaknesses and some partially sighted
learners may have difficulties with
presentations using some formats.
206
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Writing
Level 2
Give exposure to a range of styles and genres (types of text). Teach different styles
explicitly. Create a variety of unthreatening ways to explore writing in different styles
by allowing them to select from a range of high-interest books, stories, magazine
articles, etc. including those with a large visual component (e.g. photographs,
illustrations, graphics, etc.) and use these as a basis for discussions.
Teach appropriate language in relation to style, using writing frames (see guidance on
Support for writing in Adult Literacy Core Curriculum p115) for different types of text in
a range of contexts.
Use colloquial language in speech bubbles and drama texts. Contrast it specifically with
more formal forms of language.
Use the same context or scenario for different kinds of written tasks (see suggested
strategies at Wt/E3 1 ). For example, use a bad holiday experience as the basis for
writing: a formal report for an insurance claim, a complaint to the tour operator;
an informal letter to a friend, an article for a newspaper on the holiday from hell.
Use simple role plays in which a range of contrasting audiences is involved.
Discuss alternative forms of expression explicitly.
(See Wt/E3
.)
Use visual forms of representations which are not sequential (e.g. spidergrams, mind
maps) or use pictures, illustrations and diagrams to describe sequences such as
processes or instructions.
Teach a variety of visual representations for learners to explore, and let them choose
their preferred type.
Discuss the issues with learners and help them find alternatives such as tactile
diagrams, audio description.
(See guidance on Spatial representation and blind and partially sighted learners on
pp21617 in Numeracy section.)
Enlarge forms, etc. if helpful, and ensure photocopies are clear. Some dyslexic and
partially sighted learners may have fewer visual problems when reading or writing on
coloured paper. If so, check the colour with learners as it is a highly individual matter:
blue, pink and yellow are the most common choices, but some learners prefer cream
and pale green.
If using a computer, check the font, colour and contrast on the screen. Experiment to
find what is best.
Try using a card or physical writing frame to keep place, line by line.
Allow learners to do their work on the computer and support them in learning to use
graphics and other software by co-presenting to support their presentation skills.
207
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Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
and audience

Part B: C2.3
Wt/L2 (continued)


7
proof-read and revise writing for

accuracy and meaning
(See Wt/E3
.)

1
construct complex sentences
use correct grammar (e.g.

subjectverb agreement, correct
and consistent use of tense)
understand that, when writing texts
such as impersonal reports, passive
verb forms are useful to keep the focus
on the action rather than on who
performs it, e.g. It has recently been
revealed that the association is losing
money.
Ws/L2

Both 1 and 2 can be hard for deaf
learners whose first language is BSL.
Some of the more complex tenses can also
be very difficult for dyslexic learners and
those with learning difficulties or other
language impairments as well as deaf
learners. The passive is particularly
difficult as it inverts normal word order.
(See Ws/E3
.)
use pronouns so that their

meaning is clear
(See Ws/E1
.)
punctuate sentences correctly,

and use punctuation accurately
(e.g. commas, apostrophes,
inverted commas)
(See Ws/E3
.)
Learners who are dyslexic, deaf and

those with learning difficulties may find
these very difficult.
(See Ws/E1
Ws/E3 4 .)
208
and Ws/E1
and
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Writing
Level 2

(See Wt/E3
.)
Remember that, although all learners may improve in proof-reading, for some it will
always remain a significant weakness.
Understand that these areas are difficult for these learners, and pay particular
attention to the explicit teaching of grammar. Some approaches used for ESOL
learners might be useful, but only where the context is appropriate.
Use a kernel sentence approach (see guidance on Kernel sentences in Writing section
p189).
Draw attention to word order in examples
of passive tense.
(See Ws/E3
.)
Clothes peg apostrophes

Write the words do not on
a piece of paper.
(See Ws/E1
.)
(See Ws/E3
.)
Use concrete approaches. For example,

fold card to demonstrate where the
apostrophe goes, e.g. don/o/t and
clothes peg apostrophes (see
illustration, right).
Fold back so that o

disappears.
Make speech bubbles, write dialogue in

them, then transfer to writing, using
speech marks.
Use a digital camera to produce own
storyboard with speech bubbles, then
use this to write a story, dialogue or play.
Use resources such as Wordswork, a
CD-ROM which has an interactive
section on apostrophes (see
Resources).
Place clothes peg over fold

so it becomes the
apostrophe.
(See guidance on Authoring software

p157.)
209
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Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
and audience

Part B: C2.3
Ww/L2


1
spell correctly words used most

often in work, studies and daily
life, including familiar technical
words
(See Ww/ E2
, Ww/E3
.)
understand that some polysyllabic

words have unstressed vowel sounds,
and that it is often helpful to segment
the word into its parts, e.g. diff-er-ent,
inter-est-ing, poison-ous
210
(See Ww/E1 1 , Ww/E1

and Ww/E2 3 .)
, Ww/E1
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Writing
Level 2

(See Ww/E2
, Ww/E3
(See Ww/E1
, Ww/E1 2 , Ww/E1
.)
and Ww/E2
.)
211

Numeracy
Introduction
Numeracy involves a wide range of specific abilities, any of which may prove
difficult for particular learners and affect their acquisition of skills. Some of the
underlying knowledge and skills involved include the following:
giving digits/numbers meaning

understanding number concepts and relationship between numbers
interpreting mathematical information
short-term memory and ability to memorise
visual perceptual skills
ability to perceive and predict patterns
spatial and measurement skills
ability to sequence and organise
ability to reason and think logically
ability to calculate
ability to perceive and remember direction
language skills
handwriting/motor skills
ability to decode an algorithm or numerical task from a complex
problem
ability to relate/choose actions appropriate to purpose (problem

solving)
ability to abstract from the concrete

ability to categorise and hence identify relationship.
Numeracy can be subdivided into related categories based on size, shape,

space and quantity. Learners difficulties might be limited to a specific area of
knowledge or skill.

Whatever assessment tools are used, it is useful to observe learners while
they are working and to question them when they experience difficulties.
Encourage self-assessment.
Be clear about the assessment purpose of each task/question:
Are you assessing number knowledge (e.g. what number comes

after 23)?
Are you assessing knowledge of maths facts (how many cm in half

a metre)?
Are you assessing operation skills (8 + 9)?

Are you assessing maths literacy (write down the sum to work out
the total of 24, 32 and 41)?
Having a clear purpose for each assessment task enables the assessor to
home in on difficulties, rather than to have to undertake secondary
assessment to get to the root of the problem. The resulting lack of
complexity also gives the learner the confidence to demonstrate the skills
and knowledge they do have.
It is important to find out what the learner knows and where the problem
lies:
Are the problems with
concepts?
underlying perceptual/motor skills?
calculations?
language?
organisation?
Are there basic underlying concepts that the learner doesnt understand?
Do you need to backtrack to a point where the learner understands?
Are you sure that the problem with maths is not in fact a problem with
reading or writing? Learners may not be able to understand the written
question; handwriting and directional problems may result in inaccurate
recording which is responsible for errors; poor motor skills may be the cause
of miscalculations on a calculator.
How does the learner learn best? For instance, through two-dimensional or
three-dimensional material? Is the learner an inchworm or a grasshopper,
i.e. a sequential or simultaneous thinker (see opposite, and Introduction
pp445)?
214
Two different learning styles

Inchworm
Grasshopper
Personality
Prescriptive nature
Intuitive nature
Analyses
Holistic
Finds formula
Forms concepts
Looks at facts
Estimates
Has recipe for solution
Uses controlled exploration
Adds straight down
Reverses back and adjusts
Writes down
Solves inside head
Tends to do and
Tends to do and
Unlikely to verify
Likely to verify
Apparatus
Number lines
Dienes blocks
Multilink
Cuisinaire rods
Counting blocks
Graph paper and grids
Unifix cubes
Geoboards
Paper and pencil
Attribute blocks
Reproduced from p16 of Maths for the Dyslexic: A practical guide by Anne Henderson,
published by David Fulton Publishers, London (1998) Anne Henderson
A diagnostic approach will help to devise a learning programme which

builds on the learners knowledge, understanding and skills, as well as to
use strengths and support weaknesses.
Such an approach involves :
identifying habitual errors (e.g. in number operations, amount carried

over is often forgotten);
analysing, through observation and mediation in the learning process,

whether there is an underlying misconception or gap in knowledge
(e.g. place value and the significance of carry over);
devising individualised strategies and learning aids to remedy

misconceptions and develop self-correction and accuracy checking.
Programmes should be designed to teach new topics in short logical steps.

Teachers should not assume that learners understand a concept or process,
even if they can achieve the right answer.
215

Spatial representation and blind and partially sighted

learners
Some partially sighted learners, for instance those who have been blind from
birth, will have no innate grasp of visual and spatial concepts. For example,
concepts such as relative size or distance rely almost exclusively on visual
experience. This will mean that partially sighted learners will inevitably
require both different methods and far more time to learn concepts which
other learners may learn incidentally. In addition, it is important to find ways
of reinforcing 2-D representation so that it is more accessible to a person
with a visual impairment.
216
Some learners may require solid examples of geometrical shapes

before moving into diagrammatic form. Ensure that the learner has
access to a wide variety of shapes and objects, and constantly alert
partially sighted learners to shapes in everyday objects.
Plastic or wooden shapes are preferable to card, as they retain their

shape better. Applying different textures to different shapes can
also be useful. Patterns, for example tessellation, can often be
better understood through using a magnetic board.
Any project that needs diagrams (for example, a map of the local
area) must be clear and simple and contain only the relevant
information. It also needs to be accompanied by a verbal description
and presented in a tactile form for the totally blind learner.
Tables and lists should be clearly presented in well-spaced formats

for partially sighted learners, and in tactile form for the blind learner.
For those who are partially sighted, bar charts using strongly
contrasting colours can be effective. For those who are blind, bar
charts can be made using construction apparatus or unifix cubes.
For measuring tasks, learners need specialist tactile measuring

rulers and talking scales. Partially sighted learners may not be
familiar with weighing and measuring and may need a lot of practice
in measuring objects against each other in a variety of situations.
Partially sighted learners may need additional help in choosing and

using a calculator.
When activities involve planning journeys, timetables will need to be

enlarged for those with partial sight. There is also considerable
audio help in these areas in the form of specialist telephone
services, train enquiries services, etc.
Learners with severe visual impairment may have difficulty in

orientating themselves in space and may need to be physically
moved through directions, while located against a flat surface
so that they can have a fixed reference point. Concepts such as
clockwise and anti-clockwise can be reinforced through the
movement of the hands of a clock, wheels or cogs.
When doing exercises which involve collecting and collating

information, a partially sighted learner can work in partnership
with a sighted learner, using a tape recorder to record
information.
Resources that could be useful in helping blind and partially sighted

learners access the numeracy curriculum
Simple tactile maps
Wide variety of tactile graph grid boards, sheets and modelling

materials
Braille or large display dice
Calculators either large print or talking
Braille Silva marked compass
Enlarged/transcribed information materials, e.g. calendar,

timetables, football league tables, holiday brochures, etc.
Tape recorder
Pre-prepared information from media
Close circuit television
Computer databases using appropriate access technology
A variety of tactile materials, e.g. elastic bands, art straws,

sandpaper, large-size drawing pins, tactile tape measures,
talking scales, cubes, triangles, prisms, Lego
217

Language of maths
Many learners will have problems with the language of maths more than
with maths itself.
There are many words for each operation in numeracy. These are often everyday
words that are used much more precisely in maths, e.g. difference, share,
product.
The use of several words for one operation may also affect the order of the
calculation, for instance 15 take away 2 is the same as 2 from 15. These can
cause problems for learners with sequencing or directional difficulties, as well as
those with difficulties manipulating language or dealing with multiple meanings.
When doing a word problem, learners may become confused because of the
vocabulary, sentence structure or sequence in which the problem is presented.
It is important to identify whether learners are having difficulty with the maths or
the language, and to make issues in the language of maths explicit to learners.
All learners with learning difficulties or disabilities are likely to need
constant repetition and revision of past learning. This is particularly
important in terms of language and mental operations. The language of
mathematics and the ability to calculate mentally are fundamental. Learners
with basic skills often lack or have inadequate language and mental
strategies, which have contributed to their failure with formal, standard
methods of representing calculations. These difficulties are increased for
learners with learning difficulties and disabilities.
Concrete materials are important for all learners but doubly so for learners
experiencing difficulties. Mathematics involves concepts; these cannot be
assimilated without actual experience.
Maths difficulties experienced by profoundly deaf learners
218
Learners may have developed ways of working that rely on the

inner eye (thinking visually) rather than the inner ear (thinking
linguistically).
Learners may be competent in numeracy, but lack an understanding of the language in which maths problems are expressed.
Learners may be competent in maths, but lack an understanding of

the technical maths terms used in English. This is especially true of
learners from overseas.
Learners may not have had the opportunity or the appropriate teaching to develop maths
concepts.
There may be difficulties that arise from using mathematical terms for which there is not yet an
equivalent sign, e.g. area.
Strategies that may be helpful:
Observe the ways in which deaf students attempt maths problems, and be aware of the ways of
thinking and calculating they are using, before imposing a method.
Agree on useful BSL maths signs, and signs for numbers. These vary from one region to another.
Number signs also vary between topics, e.g. age, time, money, distance. The CD-ROM of GCSE
maths signs is useful for both learners and teachers working at a level below GCSE.
Use visual, practical and tactile methods of teaching concepts, rather than talk. Add the technical
terms firmly attached to the maths symbols once the concept is understood. A help sheet or
laminated wallchart of words and symbols could be useful for reference.
Summarise the meanings of common maths terms and their associated symbols as a help sheet
and/or wallchart.
Arrange for examination papers to be modified and/or book an interpreter/communication

support worker as appropriate, and build in extra time (usually 25 per cent) for the exam. This
needs to be done early in the course, well before exam entry times.
219

Dyslexia, dyscalculia and numeracy

Some dyslexic learners may have failed to grasp key concepts of basic numeracy. Other learners who are not
dyslexic may also have failed to understand key concepts. The term dyscalculia, meaning a difficulty
performing mathematical calculations, is given to a specific disorder in the ability to do or learn maths.
Learners with dyscalculia will experience difficulty in number conceptualisation, understanding relationships
of number and using application procedures.
Potential difficulties with numeracy for dyslexic learners or those with dyscalculia
Distinguishing between maths signs and symbols (e.g. , , , etc.).

Distinguishing between digits that are similar in shape (e.g. 6 and 9, 7 and 1, 2 and 5) when
reading and writing numbers.
Sequencing problems, e.g. saying times tables, predicting next number in a series, use of number
line, following a sequence of instructions (e.g. when doing a two-stage calculation).
Remembering with understanding the range of alternative words and phrases for number
operations (e.g. add, plus, and sum are all addition terms; 20 minus 8 means the same as take 8
from 20).
Directional difficulties affect correct use of place value and the direction of number operations
(e.g. subtraction starting with smallest place value, division starting with highest place value).
Particular difficulties with maths word problems may include:

reading and language processing difficulties as described already
holding information in memory long enough to work out what to do and then doing the
necessary calculations
losing track of number operation mid-process, especially if this is being done mentally.
220
Organisation and setting out of calculations in writing.
Memorising and recalling maths facts (e.g. how many grams in a kilogram, recalling tables,
mental arithmetic).
General strategies to help with numeracy
Learners need practice and help to acquire basic concepts before

being able to transfer learning to new situations.
Learners will have to be shown how to interpret the language of

maths, which often appears ambiguous and confusing.
Compensation strategies have to be implemented to help

memorise and recall basic facts. Number squares, number lines
and calculators may prove useful to compensate. The use of pencil
and paper is also helpful.
Use squared paper to help organisation and place value accuracy.
Discuss the whole context/situation of a problem, so that learners

can make sense of it over and above the number crunching
required. Wherever possible, use real, relevant and familiar
contexts.
Show different ways of doing operations or solving problems

allow learners to choose the method they prefer.
Develop and use a range of memory aids and ready references

(e.g. a ruler is a good number sequence aid; a personal maths
chart to keep track of alternative words for operations, maths
facts, etc.).
Explain terms, symbols and operations each time they are used
and encourage learners to self-explain also (e.g. subvocalising the
steps of adding a two-digit number). This will help learners to hold
information in memory and also in diagnosis of errors and
misconceptions.
Use concrete examples to illustrate the variety of ways in which

number operations can be written and what they mean in each case
(e.g. 6 + 4 is the same as 4 + 6, but 7 2 is not the same as 2 7).
Make as much use as possible of colour, objects, sound and

rhythm, movement and large maths props and illustrations
(flipchart paper rather than A4), to engage all the senses in maths
learning.
221
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Page 222
The
Adult
Access
for Basic
All Skills Core
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
information given by numbers
and symbols in simple
graphical, numerical and
written material
Whole numbers

count reliably up to 10 items

difficulties will have difficulty with the
concept of number and also with
sequencing. They may be able to count by
rote without always having a clear
concept of number.
read and write numbers up to 10,

including zero
Some partially sighted learners, some

with fine motor co-ordination or
perceptual difficulties, and dyspraxic
learners may have difficulty with forming
clear numerals.
specify and describe

a practical problem or task
using numbers and measures
generate results
which make sense and use
given methods and given
checking procedures
appropriate to the specified
purpose
present and explain
results
which show an understanding
of the intended purpose using
appropriate numbers,
measures, objects or pictures
N1/E1

dyscalculia will have directional
problems and may confuse some numbers,
e.g. 2 and 5.
222
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Page 223
Adult Numeracy Core Curriculum, pp 2021
Number
Entry 1

Use concrete examples. Some learners may only learn numbers in the context of
activity (e.g. learner learning to count when he or she learned to knit); familiar patterns
may help, e.g. dice or playing cards.
Use a variety of activities with the same intended learning outcomes. Be explicit about
concept being learned and links between tasks.
Experiment and look for strategies and learning processes which correspond to
strengths of learning styles.
(See Literacy Ww/E1
.)
Ensure print is bold and at the best size for learners.

Consider the need for writing support and alternative ways of recording numbers.
Use magnifiers/CCTV if learners have difficulty with sight (see guidance on Access to
visual information in Introduction pp213).
Blind learners may need to use a PC.
Give explicit teaching or training practice in forming numerals.

Put numbers onto cards with arrows showing starting point and direction.
Use tactile methods. For example, write the numerals in crayon, on sandpaper, which
will give them a rough surface; learners trace over these.
Arrange and match number cards, then copy them, touch numbers on familiar objects
such as analogue clock, calendar, telephone and vocalise the number words at the
same time.
Minimise the amount of writing required at this stage. Allow learners to fill in
answers only on question paper.
Present work on a sheet that can be placed at the side of the work.
Cut out numerals in sandpaper. Get learners to trace with finger and with crayon so
that they can feel and see the shape from the rough surface.
Make numerals out of clay, etc. Trace numerals in the air for others to recognise.
223
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Page 224
The
Adult
Access
for Basic
All Skills Core
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
written material
Whole numbers
2

read and write numbers up to 10,

including zero (continued)
understand that numerals can be
represented in different ways, e.g.
Roman numerals, Arabic numerals
generate results
checking procedures
purpose
present and explain
results
N1/E1 (continued)
learning difficulties might find Roman
numerals confusing and hard to remember.
This will not be relevant to blind learners.
Some activities, such as writing down a
telephone number, will be difficult for
learners who have short-term
memory and sequencing problems
and difficulties holding a series of
numbers. The example, on p20 of the
Adult Numeracy Core Curriculum, Input
digits using a numeric key pad (e.g.
telephone, fax machine, remote control
device), will cause problems.
Blind learners rely only on sound and
have no visual reinforcement available.
order and compare numbers up to

10, including zero
understand and use the vocabulary of
comparing numbers, e.g. more than,
less than
understand ordinal numbers, e.g. first,
second, third
Learners who have short-term

memory and sequencing problems
and difficulties holding a series of
numbers will have problems with the
sample activity on p21 of the Adult
Numeracy Core Curriculum, Place a
jumbled sequence of numbers in order.

may not understand the concept of more
and less. Deaf learners, some learners
with learning difficulties and dyslexic
learners may have problems with the
language rather than the concept. Some
learners may find the symbols > <
confusing.
224
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Page 225
Number
Entry 1
Where learners find different forms such as Roman numerals confusing, use only
Arabic numerals at this level, unless they are already familiar with Roman numerals on
a clock or watch.
Introduce alternative strategies gradually only when the first form is thoroughly
learned.
Learners may find using a keypad such as a calculator, telephone or keyboard helps
them to remember the spatial pattern rather than sequence. This will also help learners
with kinaesthetic learning styles.
Increase the number of digits used in calculations gradually and, similarly, the range of
variation(s) used.
Where learners find difficulty in learning long numbers (e.g. telephone numbers), group
digits in groups of two or three.
Use objects or tactile materials and relate these to the sound.
Use authoring software (see guidance on Authorising software in Writing section p157.)
Use concrete examples, such as groups of objects, to explain concepts such as more
or less, for example sets of random number cards/floor tiles to arrange in
ascending/descending order. Say what the connection is between any two cards/tiles
(4 is 3 more than 1 or 1 is 3 less than 4).
Use coins and/or notes (Which would you rather have?), games such as dice or
cards. Highest score wins.
Link results tables (1st, 2nd, 3rd) to routines or everyday activities.
Use cut-out numbers and group objects to sort or match in order of magnitude.
Learners can create and discover their own number line. (See guidance on Using a
number line on p21 Adult Numeracy Core Curriculum.)
Avoid giving jumbled sequences to put in order, as these intensify confusion.
Arrange football shirts in the correct numerical order, numbers on pool balls, rungs on
a number ladder, stairs on a staircase, numbers on a measuring rule.
Which is the first number in the series? Which is the last number in the series?
Arrange group of learners in order of next birthday. Practise ordinal number
vocabulary. Whose birthday comes first?
Teach explicitly the language of maths (see guidance on Language of maths
pp21819).
Give opportunities for over-learning (e.g. practice in many contexts over an extended
period of time).
Have learners take turns giving and following instructions using ordinal numbers,
e.g. folding a serviette, planting seeds, buying a lottery ticket.
225
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Page 226
The
Adult
Access
for Basic
All Skills Core
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
written material
Whole numbers
N1/E1 (continued)
order and compare numbers up to

10, including zero (continued)
Blind students rely only on sound and

have no visual reinforcement available.
add single-digit numbers with

totals to 10

injury may have real difficulty with shortterm memory and hence with mental
arithmetic. Learners may take medication
that affects memory.

generate results
checking procedures
purpose
present and explain
results
Some dyslexic learners and some

learners with autistic spectrum
disorders may be able to do mental
arithmetic without being able to explain
the process or translate it to pen and
paper.
(See adjacent guidance on Short-term,
working memory.)
subtract single-digit numbers from

numbers up to 10
understand that subtraction is not
commutative and that, using whole
numbers, you can only subtract a
number from itself or from a larger one
Lack of visual reinforcement makes

mental arithmetic difficult for partially
sighted and blind learners.
The language of subtraction is confusing
for some deaf, dyslexic learners and
those with learning difficulties,
because of the need to understand the
significance of number order, e.g. 5 3 is
the same as take 3 from 5.
They may also have directional problems,
i.e. knowing which number to start with.
Lack of visual reinforcement makes

subtraction difficult for blind and
partially sighted learners.
understand that subtracting zero leaves
a number unchanged
226

abstract concepts might also have difficulties with the concept of subtracting zero.
2.Number
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Page 227
Number
Entry 1

strategies
Use tactile examples for blind learners.
Use more units to allow counting on.
Place items in a line, with more items
on the second line. Learner uses
counting on to find out the difference.
For the sample activity (on p 21 of the
Adult Numeracy Core Curriculum
(Explore different strategies for mental
addition, suggest that learners use
concrete alternatives such as finger
counting, number lines and blocks.
Count real things.
Use Cuisinaire rods to experiment with
numbers and connections. Use multilink
blocks and the magic square
(Henderson, 1998, p56).
Short-term or working memory

Short-term or working memory is the memory required to hold
information in your head and/or manipulate it as you perform a
task, for example remembering a phone number while you write it
down or holding a formula in your mind while you do the
calculations. In mental arithmetic it has a function of helping to
store or memorise information. As soon as learners are required to
do multiple operations (e.g. ordering, approximating and comparing),
there is a huge burden on short-term or working memory.
Learners with poor short-term or working memory include dyslexic
learners and many with neurological impairments or learning
difficulties. As short-term memory relies greatly on auditory
rehearsal, some deaf or hearing-impaired learners may also have
short-term memory weaknesses.
Learners with these difficulties may have problems with:
recalling basic number facts
mental arithmetic
memorising tables
remembering tables
remembering the symbols they are using, or where they are in a
calculation
Work with learners to identify which

strategies help them to learn best. Use
computer games (see adjacent guidance
on Short-term or working memory).
There needs to be a great deal of concrete pre-activity before expecting blind
learners to handle abstract numbers.
Use the sample activities and make
explicit the range of different ways of
expressing the same thing.
Use over-learning in many contexts, to
get into long-term memory.
Explain the importance of order and
direction to meaning. Encourage
learners to explain and demonstrate
their working to reinforce learning.
Reinforce with concrete material,
using groups of units before using
numerical notation.
Teach through concrete activities,
e.g. from a plate of seven biscuits take
none away. How many are left?
keeping track of operations in word problems.

Help learners to break down the operations in steps, but give them
the overview to help them gain an overall understanding of the
process and to make sense of the steps, for example:
compare currency exchange rates
round decimals to make appropriate calculations
round answers on a calculator to the appropriate degree of
accuracy.
The overview is important, as those with a poor working memory,
such as learners with dyslexia, will rely heavily on understanding as
a compensatory strategy.
It is important to ensure over-learning for learners with shortterm memory difficulties. This means continuing to practise
something in a variety of contexts after it has been learned, in
order for learning to be stored in the long-term memory.
However, it is equally important to help learners find
compensatory strategies such as help sheets, plastic table cards,
aides-mmoire, posters and cue cards.
Where learners are unable to carry out multiple mental operations
reliably, encourage them to use alternatives
(e.g. spreadsheets, calculators, talking calculators).
227
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Page 228

Access
for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
written material
Whole numbers
N1/E1 (continued)
interpret , and in practical

situations for solving problems
Learners with perceptual difficulties

with direction may confuse certain
symbols, e.g. and ; and and .
use a calculator to check

calculations using whole numbers
Some learners with difficulties in

using their hands, with dyspraxia or
visual impairment may find small
calculators very difficult to use because
they cannot see or manipulate them.
understand the order to key in numbers

and operations
Those with visual or short-term

memory problems have trouble
transferring information from
paper/verbal instruction to calculator.
They may reverse the calculation.

generate results
checking procedures
purpose
present and explain
results
228
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Page 229
Number
Entry 1
Language and symbols

Multiplication

strategies
find the product of
(a bracket)
power of
Fridge magnets of the symbols can be

used to allow learners to feel the
sum.
of
Teach confusing signs separately, Use

different colours for different symbols
(see adjacent guidance on Language
and symbols).
Rebus symbols can be incorporated

into dominoes for pictorial support.
Work with symbols must be preceded
by practical, concrete activity.
how many
times
lots of
how many
by
out of
Equals
answer
add
plus
split
will be
value of
is
Addition
Subtraction
total
divide
means
represents
and
group
(the fraction line)
are
same as
more than
put into sets
give
times
whole lot
Teach learners to check signs. Use

help sheets (see adjacent guidance
on Language and symbols), dominoes
and flashcards, matching different
words to symbols.
Use grid-maker software to produce
own dominoes.
division
multiply
square
Ensure symbols are very clearly written

and accentuate differences as they are
taught.
Division
take
sum of
increase
decrease
minus
less than
positive
difference
remove
subtract
take away
pull
Reproduced from p33 of Maths for the Dyslexic: A practical guide by Anne Henderson,
published by David Fulton Publishers, London 1998 Anne Henderson
Some learners may need help in

choosing and using a calculator. For
learners who cannot use regular
calculators there are also talking
calculators. (See guidance on Using
alternative calculators, p235.)
Some learners will find the spatial pattern on a calculator makes calculations much
easier than on paper. This matches their learning style. Find approaches that match
learners learning styles and build on them.
Get learners to read aloud the question and then say what the calculator displays.
Use a calculator that displays the sum that has been input, not just the answer.
When transferring operations from page to calculator, cross off each one as it is entered.
229
2.Number
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Page 230

Access
for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
information given by numbers,
symbols, simple diagrams and
charts in graphical, numerical
and written material
Whole numbers
1
count reliably up to 20 items

count in twos and tens up to 100
count on in tens up to 100, starting
from any two-digit number

using numbers, measures and
simple shapes to record
essential information
N1/E2
(See learners mentioned at N1/E1
.)
Learners with short-term memory

difficulties will find this difficult. Some
may also have problems seeing or
perceiving the pattern and understanding
the sequence.
generate results
to a given level of accuracy
using given methods and
given checking procedures
purpose
present and explain
results
which meet the intended
purpose using appropriate
numbers, simple diagrams
and symbols
read, write, order and compare

numbers up to 100
understand that the position of a digit
signifies its value
know what each digit in a two-digit
number represents, including the use
of zero as a place holder
recognise odd and even numbers up
to 30

dyslexic learners with visual
processing difficulties, others with
sequencing and spatialperceptual
problems will have problems with
understanding tens and units and keeping
place. Some deaf or partially hearing
learners have difficulty with ty and
teen endings, e.g. fifty, fifteen.
Large numbers are hard for blind learners
who cannot visualise large quantities.
add and subtract two-digit whole

numbers
(See N1/E1 4 and N1/E1 5 .)

Carrying and borrowing are difficult to
understand for learners who have
problems with symbolic language.
recall addition and subtraction

facts to 10
Learners with short-term memory and

sequencing difficulties will have
problems with mental arithmetic.
(See N1/E1 4 .)

strategies to help with mental addition
and subtraction
understand that subtraction is the
inverse of addition
know how to align numbers for column
addition
230
Dyslexic learners and those with motor

or visual problems may find this difficult.
2.Number
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Page 231
Writing
Number
Entry 2
(See suggested approaches in N1/E1 1 .)

Ensure learners understand the concept of tens and units before going on to higher
numbers.
Group any sets of objects into twos and tens.
Colouring in charts enables learners to see patterns. Cuisinaire rods and multilink
blocks can be used to reinforce the difference between tens and units.
To count up in tens, use Base 10 blocks.
Use coins such as 1p10p. Link numbers to known quantities such as money.
Use the sample activities given. In addition, make use of clear visual and tactile
kinaesthetic aids such as an abacus, rods, colour, markers, card.
Use squared paper to help keep place.
Focus on understanding and incorporating mental maths strategies, staged as
appropriate, as early as possible.
Use tactile aids.
(See N1/E1
and N1/E1
.)
Reinforce place value by working with objects before putting pen to paper.
Gradually build up the number of tasks. Use the little but often approach.
Do not use terms like carrying or borrowing (p25 of the Adult Numeracy Core
Curriculum) if they are difficult. Use the alternatives in the curriculum. Consolidate
firmly before moving on to the next step.
See strategies for mental addition on p25 of the Adult Numeracy Core Curriculum.
Explain and reinforce these, using concrete objectives such as a number line or
number squares.
Encourage discussion and comparison of strategies.
Practise the idea of estimation to self-check.
Use Cuisinaire rods, clay and plastic numbers that you can move, and squared paper
marked out in large squares with clear dark lines.
231
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Page 232

Access
for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
Whole numbers
5
understand and use the vocabulary of

multiplication, e.g. multiplied by,
times, lots of
understand the operation of
multiplication as repeated addition,
e.g. 3 5 5 5 5

generate results
purpose
present and explain
results
and symbols
232
multiply using single-digit whole

numbers
N1/E2 (continued)
Some dyslexic learners or learners with
partial sight, learning difficulties will
easily get confused with different symbols,
especially and (see N1/E1 6 ).
understand that multiplication is

commutative, e.g. 2 4 4 2, but
that the meaning is different, e.g. take
2 tablets 4 times a day (4 2) is
different from take 4 tablets twice a
day (2 4)
Some learners (see N1/E1 6 ) may have

difficulty with concepts such as the
relationship between multiplication and
addition, and the commutative aspects of
numeracy. They may have difficulties in
remembering and recognising the
significance of number order.
(See N1/E1 5 .)
understand the relationship between

halving and doubling
The same learners may have difficulty

grasping this concept.
approximate by rounding to the

nearest 10

and autistic spectrum disorders can find
rounding up hard, as it involves uncertainty.
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Page 233
Writing
Number
Entry 2

Make sure symbols are clear and teach differences explicitly.
See guidance on Language and symbols p229.
Write confusing symbols in different colours.
Use concrete aids, e.g. abacus, and use tactile tables, cards, raised columns.
Use sample activities from the Adult Numeracy Core Curriculum.
Use squared paper to illustrate commutative properties.
Use counters or rods to show that different combinations can make up the same area.
Use Base 10 blocks.
Make and lay out clay balls in a large square learners can count along and down as with
a multiplication square. Mark off unwanted ones and physically count remaining balls.
Illustrate using everyday, concrete examples. Also use calculator/cuisinaire rods.
Understand this is a difficulty. Develop

the notion of approximation in stages.
First establish the notion of exactness.
Exactly how many fingers are on the left
hand? Would one more or less be
accurate? Contrast the situation where
you do not know the exact answer,
e.g. how much money is in someone
elses pocket? Use this to introduce the
notion of guess-timation.
Card game
Use a card game for at least two people. The aim of the game is to
make the highest number with your cards. Numerals 09 are written
on cards; distribute one card each. Whoever has the highest number
gets another card. As learners understand the game, extra number
cards may be added, with the game becoming more complex as
number understanding increases. Alternatively, play with the aim of
getting the lowest number.
Practise rounding numbers up to make approximate calculations.

Write down numbers and identify process through arrows pointing up and down.
Put into practical contexts and focus on the value of rounding up.
A metre rule (100cm) could be used to illustrate approximation in stages: 89 is seen to
be closer to 90 than 80.
(See guidance above on Card game.)
Show and reinforce use of estimation as prediction of nearness or best fit. About
how many? About how much? In number operations, about how much should the
solution be? Why do you think that?
233
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Page 234

Access
for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
Whole numbers
6
understand place value for units and

tens

generate results
purpose
approximate by rounding to the

nearest 10 (continued)

visualspatial problems may have
problems with this. Also some of those
with learning difficulties may find the
concept of place value difficult, as it is
abstract.
use and interpret , , and in

practical situations for solving
problems
Learners with perceptual difficulties

with direction may confuse certain symbols,
e.g. and ; and .
(See N1/E1 6 .)
use a calculator to check

calculations using whole numbers
(See N1/E1
present and explain

results
and symbols
234
N1/E2 (continued)
.)
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Page 235
Number
Entry 2
(See N1/E2 2 .)
Make columns clear and use concrete materials such as an abacus, rods, etc. to
demonstrate.
Give lots of practice and over-learning.
(See N1/E1 6 .)
(See guidance on Language and symbols p229.)
Encourage the use of a clear personal style when writing these symbols.
Use games such as broken calculator,

where learners have to find 35 without
using 3 or 5, for example. This will
reinforce concepts before using pen
and paper, and encourage mental
arithmetic.
(See adjacent guidance on Using
alternative calculators.)
Using alternative calculators

Learners with physical, motor or sight impairments may benefit from
the use of an alternative calculator. It is important to provide
training for the learner in how to use the calculator. Some learners
will need to develop listening skills in the early stages of using sound
or talking calculators. Check the forms of vocabulary used on talking
calculators, as they vary and will need to be taught specifically. In
addition, check the functions and language on different kinds of
calculator. Scientific calculators will differ from regular ones. Help
learners by making clear links between the skills being developed on
regular and specialist calculators.
Different makes of calculator may need different sequences of keypresses. Basic calculators may give different answers from scientific
calculators. Learners should become familiar with their own calculator
and use it when required.
235
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Page 236

Access
for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
Fractions
1
read, write and compare halves

and quarters of quantities

N2/E2
Some learners with partial sight might
be able to read whole numbers but have
difficulty in understanding the relationship
of fractions to whole numbers.
Dyslexic learners and those who find
writing difficult or lack spatial
awareness such as some with
perceptual difficulties, acquired brain
injury, or learning difficulties may have
difficulties with reading and writing
fractions.
generate results
purpose
present and explain
results
and symbols
The denominator representing the number

of parts making up the whole can be very
confusing.
Blind learners need to learn about

numbers in terms of collections of concrete
objects. Fractions need to be approached in
a similarly concrete manner.
find halves and quarters of small

numbers of items or shapes
Learners with problems with spatial

awareness and some partially sighted
learners may be unable to reproduce
patterns.
Some learners may have difficulty in
folding paper in the sample activity.
Investigate how many ways a piece of
paper can be folded in half, e.g. a square, a
rectangle.
236
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Page 237
Number
Entry 2
Remember to check and enlarge when necessary, but keep fractions in proportion to
whole numbers.
Give practice and make explicit the relationship of fractions to whole numbers. Start
with blank shapes and objects. Use a clock to teach fractions. Show halves and
quarters on clock faces. Be aware that a clock face may be confusing for some learners
because of its left/right aspect or because it has too much background.
Use special paper (e.g. lined or graph) if
it helps individuals.
Bar of chocolate
Show fractions by using folded or

shaded paper.
Use everyday objects and relate to tasks
that people can already perform such as
cutting, e.g. food or cake. Explain
fractions as parts of a whole.
Demonstrate with segments of objects
such as pizzas or oranges.
Establish that, for example, four parts
make the whole, and build towards the
notion that John is given one part out of
four parts, so has 14 , or a quarter. Use
structured worksheets to illustrate
fractions.
How many parts are shaded?

How many parts make up the whole bar?
6
12
1
2 (half)
Use tactile aids.
Quarter
1
4
Three quarters
3
4
Half
1
2
Find ways of teaching that involve matching rather than reproducing shapes.
Some learners may be able to create shapes out of meccano strips, or elastic bands on
geoboards. Try as many versions as possible to aid this.
Use tactile aids as illustrated above, and link these directly to language.
Encourage appropriate use of IT and relevant software, as described in the sample
activities. Use graphic software to create, divide and colour simple shapes into halves
or quarters.
Link this to measurement, shape and space at this level, when appropriate.
237
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Page 238

Access
for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
information given by
numbers, symbols, diagrams
and charts used for different
purposes and in different
ways in graphical, numerical
Whole numbers
1
count, read, write, order and

compare numbers up to 1000

(See N1/E2 2 for learners who may find
place value and sequencing difficult.)
short-term memory (see N1/E1 4 ) will
find mental calculation particularly hard
(see guidance on Short-term or working
memory p225).

diagrams to collect and
record relevant information
generate results
using given methods,
measures and checking
procedures appropriate to the
specified purpose
Partially sighted and dyslexic learners

may have problems with the example on
p28 of the Adult Numeracy Core
Curriculum, Write a cheque. Difficulties
could include: writing in the small space
provided; spelling; or writing numbers as
words.
present and explain

results
numbers, diagrams, charts
and symbols
238
N1/E3
Blind learners may need a concrete grasp

of number before being able to handle
abstract numbers of this magnitude.
recognise odd and even numbers
Learners with dyscalculia or learning

difficulties may have problems with the
concept and terms odd and even.
add and subtract using three-digit

whole numbers
(See N1/E2
.)
recall addition and subtraction

facts to 20
(See N1/E2
.)
multiply two-digit whole numbers

by single-digit whole numbers
(See N1/E2
.)
2.Number
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Page 239
Number
Entry 3

(See N1/E2
.)
(See N1/E1 4 ) for strategies.

Recognise that some will not be able to succeed in mental arithmetic and you will need to
concentrate on alternative strategies, such as writing numbers down or using a calculator.
Encourage individual mnemonics.
Offer a list of words and corresponding numbers.
Banks will give customers large-size cheque books to help with visual or motor
impairments.
In addition to suggested examples, use: Cuisinaire rods, place-value board and moveable
units, tens and hundreds rods.
Teachers need to work with tactile material, linking units in groups, to enable blind
learners to develop an intuitive understanding of number. The learner will benefit from
tactile number squares.
Use concrete examples:

colouring chart patterns
multilink cubes (show odd numbers visually)
show that odd numbers cannot be halved or divided by two
sharing pennies.
Encourage learners to create their own aides-mmoire. Create number lines.
(See N1/E2 3 .)
Encourage learners to work together and to discuss their own strategies.
(See N1/E2
.)
(See N1/E2
.)
239
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Page 240

Access
for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
Whole numbers
5
understand how the distributive law

can be used in multiplication (the
concept, not the terminology)

generate results
specified purpose
present and explain

results
and symbols
240
recall multiplication facts

(e.g. multiples of 2, 3, 4, 5, 10)
N1/E3 (continued)
Some learners may have difficulty with
generalising and applying abstract rules
and concepts.
divide two-digit whole numbers by

single-digit whole numbers and
interpret remainders
Some dyslexic or partially sighted

learners and some with learning
difficulties will easily confuse different
symbols, especially and .
understand that division is not

commutative, i.e. 8 4 is not the
same as 4 8
Learners may have difficulty in

remembering the significance of order in
division, e.g. 10 divided by 2 is not the
same as 2 divided by 10 (the commutative
aspects).
understand the concept of remainder,

and that remainders need to be
interpreted in context when solving
problems
The concept of a remainder may also be

difficult for these learners.
approximate by rounding numbers

less than 1000 to the nearest 10 or
100
Dyslexia learners and those with

perceptual difficulties will find it hard to
use place value, because the places
move in both directions, e.g. 99 rounded
up to 100 needs to be written in columns
moving from right to left, in order to keep
the place value.
2.Number
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Page 241
Number
Entry 3

Make examples explicit and concrete with over-learning.
Use matching games for reinforcement.
Number squares are very useful for dyslexic learners and other visual learners.
Use a calculator to check working out.
Encourage counting in 2s, 5s, and 10s. Show learners to recognise patterns in the tables.
Use number facts, such as numbers ending in 0 or 5 are divisible by 5, and encourage
learners to recognise patterns in the tables.
(See N1/E2
and N1/E2
.)
Look at various ways division can be written. Discuss direction, which way to start when
reading the question. Check understanding of the use of words for direction, place and
order.
Practise with counters or clay balls. Use real objects to illustrate remainder.
Use PowerPoint with columns.
Use clearly marked columns or squared paper.

Link to relevant practical uses such as quantities needed for a party or buffet, number of
seats needed for learners in a class. Discuss the reasons for rounding up or down. Use
calculations based on guessing.
Write H (for hundred) on forefinger of left hand as a reminder of place value direction.
Also, when rounding to nearest 10 or 100, it is easier to deal with T (tens) and U (units)
first by covering the hundreds column with a finger.
241
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Page 242

Access
for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
Whole numbers
8
estimate answers to calculations

N1/E3 (continued)
Estimation can be an abstract and difficult
concept for some learners with learning
difficulties or autistic spectrum
disorders who may think more literally.
Estimation requires the learner to

generate a number, which is an abstract
procedure. Counting a number of digits is
concrete and therefore easier than
estimating.
generate results
specified purpose
present and explain
results
and symbols

learners may not be able to visualise
spatial arrangements of number values.
This limits the reinforcement available to
the learners. Developing the ability to
handle these operations abstractly,
without visual reinforcement, is likely to
be more difficult.
use and interpret , , , and

in practical situations for
solving problems
(See N1/E2
.)

sequencing, abstract language and
multiple meanings may find the language
of maths problematic, particularly where
there is a variety of ways of saying the
same thing. e.g. 6 2 is the same as If 2
people share 6 things, etc. (see guidance
on Language of maths pp21819).
Blind learners will require a great deal of
concrete reinforcement to be able to
handle problem solving in the abstract.
242
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Page 243
Number
Entry 3
Practise in a range of different, concrete contexts related to the learners own life, such
as sweets in a packet, people in a room, biscuits in a tin.
Use money to round to the nearest whole . Estimated totals can be compared with
actual costs. Contexts include shops, cafs and catalogues.
Estimating can also be very useful, as an estimate is never wrong or right. It can be
good/close to/fairly accurate/away from/inaccurate.
Use a number line so learners can see sequence when making estimates.
Develop abstract thinking skills in small steps. Use oral or mental guessing and checking
games.
Use plenty of concrete activities with tactile materials.
(See N1/E2
.)
Use visual representation and concrete ways of explaining related to learners own
experience.
Ask the learner to verbalise the procedure before starting, then question to ensure the
process to be used is carried out in the correct order.
Introduce language in concrete, practical situations rather than in written problems.
(See guidance on Language and symbols p229.)
Do many practical examples, games, computer exercises before introducing the use of
pen and paper, as that is often the point at which learners experience difficulties.
Use equipment such as magnetic boards, unifix grids and Lego.
243
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Page 244

Access
for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
Fractions and decimals
N2/E3

1
read, write and understand

common fractions (e.g. 3 , 23 , 1 )
4

(See N2/E2
.)
10

Some learners with partial sight, spatial

awareness or learning difficulties may
have problems with recognising common
factors of numerator/denominator pairs.
generate results
specified purpose
present and explain
results
and symbols
recognise and use equivalent

forms (e.g. 5 1 )
10

learning difficulties, or who are deaf,
will have difficulty in understanding the
relationship between digits within
fractions, and the same digit as a whole
number.
Some learners with manipulative

problems will have difficulties with
concrete activities involving cutting and
folding.
244
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Page 245
Number
Entry 3
Fractions of 12
1 whole

strategies
(See N2/E2
1
6
.)
Introduce concept of equivalence using

diagrams together with notation
(see adjacent Fractions of 12).
It may be useful to do build-up
worksheets, limited to just one common
factor per page, before going on to
identify various common factors.
1
12
1
6
1
12
1
12
1
12
1
6
1
12
1
12
1
6
1
12
1
12
1
6
1
12
1
12
1
12
Link simplification method to diagrams in stages:

Simplify 4
6
4
6
At each level, relate numbers to

concrete examples. Use an abacus,
money, chocolate bars, cake, or folding
paper.
1
12
1
6
4
6
2 2
3
2
has been simplified to
2
3
Colour and cut out segments, which

learners can move around and
compare in size.
Brick walls may be more effective to
demonstrate equivalence than circles.
The fractions 4 and 2 are equivalent fractions

6
Use learners themselves. For instance,

if the whole group is 12, ask how
many like coffee/how many have black
shoes, etc., e.g. 10 , 8 .
12 12
In similar circumstances, if if the whole

group is 24, e.g. whole class 24
,
24
ask how many like coffee, e.g. 18 .
24
From these concrete problems,

introduce fractions on a calculator.
Explore cues within words such as
equal or equivalent.
2
8
1
4
If it is difficult for learners to cut and

fold, then prepare shapes beforehand
made from card or plastic so that
learners can then put them together or
take them apart.
Use computer programs to produce
fraction circles (see illustration).
245
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Page 246

Access
for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
Fractions and decimals

3

read, write and understand

decimals up to two decimal places
in practical contexts (such as:
common measures to one decimal
place, e.g. 1.5m; money in decimal
notation, e.g. 2.37)
N2/E3 (continued)
Dyslexic and dyspraxic learners and
others with poor spatial perception,
and some with learning difficulties and
acquired brain injury will have
difficulties with keeping place and
sequencing.
Some learners will also find the concept
of decimals difficult.
generate results
specified purpose
present and explain
results
and symbols
246
use a calculator to calculate using

whole numbers and decimals to
solve problems in context, and to
check calculations
(See N1/E1 7 N1/E2

use of a calculator.)
concerning the
2.Number
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Page 247
Number
Entry 3
Big red decimal point

Teaching
strategiesapproaches and alternative
strategies
Find practical examples, such as relating
decimals to money. Learners can then
transfer their knowledge of decimals to
other areas.
1
100p
10p
1p
1.00
1
10
1
100
0.01
Use a place-value board and relate back

to fractions that have already been
covered, e.g.:
1
10
1
100
.10
.01
.3
0.30
.37
0.37
100
0.10
10
decimal point
1 1
10 100
a. Cardboard cut into these shapes is useful and cheap.

1 .
b. The unit can be cut into 101 and even 100
c. The big red decimal point is an excellent teaching aid.

(A. Henderson 1989)
Use columns cut in card and a large red decimal point (see guidance above on Big red
decimal point).
Use concrete examples such as abacus, real money, etc.
(See N1/E1
, N1/E2
.)
247
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Page 248

Access
for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
straightforward mathematical
information used for different
purposes and independently
select relevant information
from given graphical,
numerical and written
material
See also in the key skills: Application of number key skills level 1
Part A: In interpreting information . . .
In carrying out calculations . . .
In interpreting results and presenting your findings . . .
Part B: N1.1, N1.2, N1.3
Whole numbers
1

numbers, including large numbers
understand the symbols for greater
than, less than
N1/L1
People with directional difficulties,
especially dyslexic learners and some
with learning difficulties will confuse
the symbols.
(See guidance on Directional, spatial and
sequencing difficulties opposite).

a practical activity, problem or
task using mathematical
information and language to
make accurate observations
and identify suitable
calculations to achieve an
appropriate outcome
generate results
using methods, measures and
checking procedures
purpose
present and explain
results
purpose using an appropriate
format to a given level of
accuracy
Blind learners may be unable to read or

write numbers (see Access to visual
information in Introduction p21).
Understanding large numbers is reinforced
for sighted people by visual awareness of
large groups and having a visual idea of
such relative concepts as large and small.
This is much harder for blind learners
who must rely on tactile experience.
248
recognise negative numbers in

practical contexts
(e.g. temperatures)

abstract concepts may have difficulties
with negative numbers.
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Page 249
Number
Level 1
Use a description of a symbol to show meaning of symbol
This end
Smallest
Largest
is LESS than
this end
Largest
Smallest
Colour symbols < and >. Consistently use

the same colours.
Do preliminary work on size using:
(a) objects
(b) groups of small items for large/small
groups.
Discuss greater than and less than
situations in everyday life, current events
and relate these to the contexts in which
learners work, learn and live.
Use a PC and appropriate software, or
Braille if they are Braillists.
(Mathematical Braille, however, is
difficult and used by very few blind
people.)
Directional, spatial and sequencing difficulties

Dyslexic and dyspraxic learners, those with visual or spatial
perceptual problems, and many learners with learning difficulties
may experience directional and/or sequencing problems.
Directional problems may result in confusions with signs, such as
confusing with , or 6 with 9 or with . Learners may also
have problems with place. They may easily miscopy numbers,
reproduce them wrongly on a calculator, or put the decimal point
in the wrong place. So 52 may be recorded as 25, or 5.02 as 50.2.
Directional difficulties affect numeracy particularly: we read words
and numbers and do division from left to right, but do addition,
subtraction and multiplication from right to left. Learners with
directional difficulties are likely to forget the order for each
procedure.
Sequencing problems may mean confusions between 26 and 62,
missing or confusing steps in a process or doing calculations in
reverse, such as 12 divided by 3 as 3 divided by 12.
Use concrete examples to show

negative numbers as far as possible,
such as temperatures and overdrafts.
The language of maths makes it even harder for learners, as

direction or sequence will be different according to how a problem
is expressed, e.g. divide 5 into 15 means the same as divide 15 by
5, although the order of the numbers is reversed.
249
2.Number
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Page 250

Access
for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
material
Part B: N1.1, N1.2, N1.3
Whole numbers
3
add, subtract, multiply and divide

using efficient written methods
N1/L1 (continued)
Some learners may use unconventional
strategies to overcome difficulties with
memory and/or sequencing.
Many learners with learning difficulties
lack flexibility. An inefficient method may
be the only one they can use reliably.

appropriate outcome
generate results
checking procedures
purpose
present and explain
results
accuracy
Some learners may be able to group and

use methods, without being able to
explain them. They will have difficulty
with the sample activity on p35 of the
Adult Numeracy Core Curriculum, Explain
own written methods of calculation
multiply and divide whole numbers

by 10 and 100
understand place value for whole
numbers and to two-decimal points
250
(See N1/E3
.)
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Page 251
Number
Level 1
Identify and encourage learners to develop and use strategies that work for them, even
if they do not appear to be the most efficient.
Offer alternative methods to the standard methods given, but accept that learners
own methods may be best for them. Be aware of alternative methods for written
calculations. Do not try to make learners use new methods if they already have a
method that works for them.
The Russian method for multiplication can work if learners can double and halve:
e.g. 23 13:
Double
23
46
92
184
Halve (ignoring remainders) 13

6
3
1
Cross out doubles with even corresponding halvings, then add up the remaining
doubles column.
23
13
46
6
92
3
184
1
23 92 184 299
(even)
Accept that sometimes learners will not be able to explain method, but could
demonstrate it.
Encourage learners to use illustrations and images or other means of communication to
enable them to demonstrate, talk through or explain more clearly.
Use squared paper to help keep columns in line.

Use concrete examples such as Multi-base. Cuisinaire rods have unit rods and ten rods.
251
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Page 252

Access
for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
material
Part B: N1.1, N1.2, N1.3
Whole numbers

recall multiplication facts up to 10

10 and make connections with
division facts
The example on p36 of the Adult

Numeracy Core Curriculum, Use mental
methods of multiplication and division ,
will be difficult for dyslexic learners or
those with poor short-term or working
memory, who may be unable to learn
tables and do mental calculations.
recognise numerical relationships

(e.g. multiples and squares)
Learners with learning difficulties,

dyslexic learners and those who lack
visual reinforcement may have difficulty
with square numbers.

appropriate outcome
generate results
checking procedures
purpose
N1/L1 (continued)
know square numbers up to 10 10
The square of 1 may be particularly

confusing (1 1 1).
present and explain

results
accuracy
7
work out simple ratio and direct

proportion

learning difficulties and autistic
spectrum disorders, have difficulties
with ratios and proportions. The examples
given may be too abstract for some
learners to understand.
may have difficulties with ratio and
proportion when they have not seen
objects in relation to each other.
252
approximate by rounding
N1/E3
estimate answers to calculations
N1/E3
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Page 253
Number
Level 1

strategies
An L-shaped mask
Use alternative strategies such as

table charts and calculators.
Use an L-shaped mask to cover up a
table, leaving spots uncovered which
can be counted (see adjacent diagram).
Twelve spots are revealed when there
is a 4 3 grid. Do not use a number
square for this; just have a series of
spots.
12 spots revealed
Use concrete examples to explain

square numbers, e.g. using squares of
square tiles or squared paper, if learner
can use it easily.
Relating square numbers to area could
help with 12.
Use concrete examples, e.g. the number of learners in a group who are male/female,
wearing jeans or who have short hair, etc.
Get partially sighted people to offer tutor their examples, e.g. the number of people
who have loud or quiet voices.
Use tactile examples.
(See N1/E3
receipts.
). Round up shopping prices to estimate bill. Use real supermarket
(See N1/E3 8 ). Use context appropriate to learner so that sensible estimates will be
more obvious.
253
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Access
for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
material
appropriate outcome
Part B: N1.1, N1.2, N1.3
Fractions, decimals and percentages

1

common fractions and mixed
numbers
understand that, in unit fractions, the
larger the denominator, the smaller the
fraction, but that this is not true of
non-unit fractions
find parts of whole number

quantities or measurements
(e.g. 2 or 3 )
3
generate results
checking procedures
purpose
N2/L1
Learners who experience difficulties
in abstract thinking will experience
difficulties with this. It conflicts with what
learners know about whole numbers.
It will be difficult for dyslexic learners

and/or those with dyscalculia if they do
not have a real understanding of fractions.

strategies for finding fractional parts
present and explain

results
accuracy
254
recognise equivalencies between

common fractions, percentages
and decimals
1
(e.g. 50% 12 , 0.25 4 )
and use these to find part of
whole-number quantities

decimals up to three decimal
places
Learners may experience difficulties with

decimal points and place value,
e.g. 0.25 and 25%.
2.Number
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Page 255
Number
Level 1

strategies
Use the fraction wall on p39 of the
Adult Numeracy Core Curriculum and
read fractions used in recipes.
Fraction tiles can be used and are
commercially available.
Use concrete examples: Pizza Party

from LDA catalogue has several samesize card pizzas cut into a variety of
fractional slices, which can be
compared. This is good for
equivalence, as there are slices of
different sizes.
Use learners interests as far as
possible, e.g. reduce the quantities in
a recipe.
Use a 10 10 grid (see below right).

Make sure learners know that per
cent means of each hundred not just
of a hundred. So 25% of 400 means
25 out of each of the four hundreds,
total 100. Relate to discounts in
shopping, e.g. 20% off 1.00, using
coins (i.e. 10p =10%).
Dyscalculia and dyslexia

Dyscalculia literally means difficulty with calculation. Although many,
but not all dyslexic learners have problems with maths, frequently
these problems are common to dyslexia generally, such as difficulties
with short-term memory, direction and sequencing. Some dyslexic
learners are very good at maths or particular aspects of maths such
as geometry, but have problems with the language of maths.
Learners with dyscalculia are those who have particular difficulties
with calculation, that is some or most of the following:
understanding numbers (e.g. amounts of money)
reading numbers, including direction and sequence
remembering number facts and memorising tables
adding, subtracting, multiplying or dividing correctly and/or quickly
performing the correct operation, e.g. adding or subtracting
when they should be multiplying
putting numbers or decimal points in the right place
being able to apply a process from one problem to another one
understanding time.
Dyslexic learners and those with dyscalculia often have uneven
learning profiles; that is, they are sometimes able to grasp complex
processes and concepts but have great difficulty with the basics.
These learners will need specific approaches such as colour coding,
mnemonics, multisensory techniques, diagrammatic
representations, number and table squares. They will also need
help in developing compensating strategies, such as using a multifunction watch for doing calculations, keeping a notebook or cards
with basic information about money, measurements, etc. Many
excellent ideas are contained in Anne Hendersons books (see
Resources).
1
Colour 4 of
the grid.
How many
squares are
coloured
(25)? Relate
this to 0.25
and 25%.
Use abacus method, or columns of

shaded squares on squared paper.
Draw a diagram to compare numbers
and to show visually the difference
between 3.26 and 3.17.
255
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Page 256

Access
for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
material
appropriate outcome
Part B: N1.1, N1.2, N1.3

N2/L1 (continued)

decimals up to two places
Putting the decimal point in the correct

place may cause problems for learners
with spatial, perceptual or directional
problems (see guidance on Directional,
spatial and sequencing difficulties p249).
multiply and divide decimals by 10,

100
(See N2/L1
approximate decimals by rounding

to a whole number or two decimal
places
Learners may have difficulty with

remembering the rule for rounding up.
find simple percentage parts of

quantities and measurements
Mental strategies for finding percentages

can be confusing for learners with
short-term memory problems,
especially if they involve repeating an
operation mentally (see, for example, the
mental strategies for finding percentages
in Adult Numeracy Core Curriculum p41).
11
use a calculator to calculate

efficiently using whole numbers,
fractions, decimals and
percentages
Blind or partially sighted learners may

have difficulty in using a standard
calculator.
above.)
generate results
checking procedures
purpose
present and explain
results
accuracy
256
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Page 257
Number
Level 1
Adding the decimal places in the starting numbers will give the total number of
decimal places required to the product of the numbers. Encourage learners to discover
the pattern for themselves by working lots of examples on a calculator. Discuss results
across a group. Then get learners to estimate answers first, before giving them
calculations. Give many exercises with similar digits but different values.
Be prepared to re-visit basic place-value concepts. Encourage learners to create visual

or tactile patterns.
Use boards with columns for physical numerals and a decimal point. Actually move the
numerals to explore what happens when the decimals are 10, or 100. Use
calculators to explore what happens when numbers are 10, or 100.
Calculations can be checked by using a

scientific calculator set to the required
number of decimal places.
Tricks and shortcuts can be confusing,

particularly if they involve repeating an
operation mentally (e.g. Find half, then
half again where to stop halving?).
Learners own methods should not be
discounted, even if they are slower.
Reminder
Place value in decimal fractions is very difficult to grasp. Start
with the familiar (i.e. money), using whole numbers expressed as
decimal fractions: e.g. 5 is worth the same as 5.00 where the
unit is the and the decimal places are for fractional parts of a
(pence). Follow by reinforcing exercises: changing whole numbers
to decimal numbers (by convention, decimal point and one zero)
and vice versa.
Multiplication by 10 can be demonstrated with money to show how
multiplying/dividing a number by 10 makes it 10 times
larger/smaller (5 x 10 = 50 and 5.00 x 10 = 50.0). You can use
plastic overlay with headed columns and decimal point to show
figures moving to the left. Next, introduce 0.5 (e.g. 1.5 x 10 = 15.0)
and prove before moving on to the more abstract.
Use alternative large or speech calculators and give training on how to use them
(see guidance on Using alternative calculators p235).
Different kinds of calculator may need different sequences of key presses. There are
two types of calculator: one type is a left-to-right calculator, which works through
calculations from left to right; and the second type automatically puts brackets round
any multiplication or division and calculates them first. Learners should be encouraged
to find out which type of calculator they have, so that they can use it efficiently.
Learners should become familiar with their own calculator and use it when required.
257
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Access
for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
mathematical information
used for different purposes
and independently select and
compare relevant information
from a variety of graphical,
material
a practical activity, problem
or task using mathematical
increase understanding and
select appropriate methods
for carrying through a
substantial activity
generate results
to an appropriate level of
accuracy using methods,
specified purpose
present and explain
results
clearly and accurately using
numerical, graphical and
written formats appropriate
to purpose, findings and
audience
258
Part B: N2.1, N2.2, N2.3
Whole numbers
N1/L2
carry out calculations with

numbers of any size using efficient
methods
Learners with difficulties in

sequencing and memory will have
problems in applying sequential rules.
evaluate expressions and make

substitutions in given formulae in
words and symbols to produce
results
Dyslexic learners and others who

have difficulties with abstract symbols
in sequences, as in simple algebra
equations, will experience difficulties from
the need for short-term memory to
remember sequence, and the meanings of
symbols.
It is essential to understand processes. It
is possible to copy procedures used in the
session but, unless the formulae and
working are understood, the process is not
usually held in short-term memory.
2.Number
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Page 259
Number
Level 2

strategies
Use patterns, e.g. multiples of 9
always have a digit sum of 9. Patterns
may be shown visually, with colours.
Try to represent the symbols concretely.

Use visual, aural and IT-based cues with
explanations to link symbols.
Speed, distance and time
LONDON
10 miles
In the activity on p43 of the Adult

Numeracy Core Curriculum, Use
formulae for calculating mile per gallon,
speed, etc., learners could find the
speed of a car which travels 100 miles
in 2 hours, keeping the abstractness
as limited as possible. The formula
for speed is S (D over T) D/T. This
could be shown in full as:
5 mph
Distance
Speed
Speed = Time
(see adjacent diagram).

Note that the word DISTance gives D
S/T to ensure that the formula
(symbols) is retained.
2 hours
Create card dominoes to match the

explanation to the expression.
Create memory aids that depict the
expressions or formulae with
explanation.
Cuisinaire rods
Use Cuisinaire rods to show the formula

in concrete terms (see adjacent
diagram).
Ensure that learners over-learn so that
they can commit key symbols to longterm memory.
Where learners cannot memorise
symbols or formulae, use crib sheets,
etc. for everyday formulae.
In the sample activity on perimeter

LWLW
2 (L W)
= 2L 2W

259
2.Number
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Access
for All
Core Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
material

N2/L2
use fractions to order and

compare amounts or quantities
(See N2/L1 1 .)
It is difficult for dyslexic learners or
those with dyscalculia to make
comparisons if they have not acquired
the basic understanding of fractions.

evaluate one number as a fraction

of another
(See N2/L1
generate results
specified purpose
order, approximate and compare

decimals when solving practical
problems
For learners with a poor working

memory, this will be difficult, as it
requires two levels of abstract
calculations. (See guidance on Short-term
or working memory p227.)
find percentage parts of quantities

and measurements
(See N1/E3 7 .)
If a dyslexic learner or one with
dyscalculia does not understand the
concept, he or she will experience difficulty
recalling the process.
present and explain

results
audience
260
Part B: N2.1, N2.2, N2.3
.)
2.Number
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Page 261
Number
Level 2
Use fraction wall, fraction circles, Cuisinaire rods, clock fractions

( 15 = 1 ).
60
Use concrete examples:

4 250g weights 1 1kg weight.
Order using concrete examples: lengths on metric rulers, weights using balances,
capacities using scaled containers.
Percentages over 100% could be confusing. Relate percentages over 100 to top-heavy
fractions.
Watch out for percentages written as pc rather than % in newspapers, etc. (which is
becoming standard practice nowadays) and teach this explicitly.
261
Measures
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Page 262
The
Adult
Access
for Basic
All Skills Core
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
written material
Common measures
1
recognise and select coins and

notes


may not understand that size does not
necessarily relate to value.
Blind and some partially sighted learners
will not be able to recognise coins by sight.
generate results
checking procedures
purpose
present and explain
results
MSS1/E1
Learners with poor short-term or working

memories will have difficulties remembering
the difference between different coins and
different notes (see guidance on Short-term or
working memory p221).
2
relate familiar events to: times of

the day; days of the week;
seasons of the year
Some dyslexic learners and learners

with learning difficulties, acquired
brain injury, or hydrocephalus may have
a poor concept of time and difficulty with
temporal sequencing. They may also have
directional problems with telling time.

be unable to use conventional watches
and clocks.
262
describe size and use direct

comparisons for the size of at
least two items
(See N1/E1 3 .)
Some deaf learners whose first
language is signing can have difficulty
with terms such as larger, smaller, which
are not represented in BSL.
describe length, width, height, and

use direct comparisons for length,
width and height of items
As they receive no visual reinforcement,

blind and partially sighted learners take
longer to distinguish between different
criteria of size (long/short, thick/thin,
many/few). This is usually an issue with
children, but the problem can persist with
blind and partially sighted adults, especially
those with learning difficulties.
describe weight and use direct

comparisons for the weight of
items
(See
above.)
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Entry 1

Explain explicitly.
Blind and partially sighted learners need to use tactile methods. Use frames to help
blind people identify coins.
This skill will need constant reinforcing.
Use calendars with personal dates to enable learners to recognise seasons and
months.
Use calendars with pictures that are meaningful to the learner to get the sense of
years.
Get learners to make a visual diary of days of the week (e.g. using colour and pictures
of meaningful activities that happen at specific times).
Use mobile phone with time display.
Use information and learning technology (ILT) programs such as PowerPoint.
Use symbol software to produce learners timetable in pictorial/symbol format (see
Resources).
Use alternatives when they are more appropriate for individuals, e.g. digital, tactile
and talking watches.
(See N1/E1
.)
Teach explicitly.
Use Base 10 blocks.
Blind and partially sighted learners need concrete activities.

Make sure items are of a size that a blind or partially sighted learner can handle.
(See
above.)
263
Measures
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Page 264
The
Adult
Access
for Basic
All Skills Core
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
written material
Common measures
6

describe capacity and use direct

comparisons for the capacity of
items
generate results
checking procedures
purpose
present and explain
results
Shape and space

1
recognise and name common 2-D

and 3-D shapes
MSS1/E1 (continued)
(See MSS/E1
, above).
The underlying concept of conserving a

number (or volume) by varying distribution
between component parts is very difficult
for a blind or partially sighted person.
The transition from concrete activity to
handling abstract concepts is made more
difficult by a lack of visual reinforcement.
MSS2/E1
This may be difficult for some learners
with difficulty in manipulation, spatial
perception or handeye co-ordination
including some dyslexic, partially
sighted, and dyspraxic learners and
some with learning difficulties or
acquired brain injury.
The activity on p51 of the Adult Numeracy
Core Curriculum, Experiment with drawing
common shapes, and the guidance on
compass patterns, can be difficult for these
learners.
difficulties will also have difficulty with
concepts of two and three dimensions
and also with the terminology.
Partially sighted learners may not have
problems with the concepts of 2-D and
3-D, but the language may cause
problems.
2-D shapes are essentially visual and
can be representationally understood by
a blind or partially sighted person
only through concrete experience (see
guidance on Spatial representation and
blind and partially sighted learners
pp21617).
264
Measures
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Entry 1

(See MSS/E1
, above).

Be explicit; check where the difficulty lies.
Use images, mnemonics, wall charts, index card.
Use alternative methods where necessary.

PowerPoint is particularly useful for shapes.
Explain concepts using real examples and everyday objects.
Help reinforce connection between shape and maths terminology, using tactile 2-D and
3-D shapes.
Use concrete tactile examples, such as plastic cut-outs.
265
Measures
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Page 266
The
Adult
Access
for Basic
All Skills Core
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
written material
generate results
checking procedures
purpose
present and explain
results
Shape and space

2
understand everyday positional

vocabulary (e.g. between, inside
or near to)
MSS2/E1 (continued)
signing, some dyslexic learners and
those with learning difficulties can find
positional words difficult.
Sign language does not have the same
range of ways of expressing positional
relationships as spoken English. It can be
confusing where word order is reversed,
e.g. The cup has sugar inside. There is
sugar in the cup. The cup is outside the
sugar.

learners cannot visualise position. They
need to learn prepositions through
practical activity (see Concepts and
vocabulary of blind and partially sighted
learners in Speaking and listening section
p67).

Literacy Core Curriculum refers to
Speaking and listening (see Difficulties in
discussion that might by experienced by
certain disabled learners on p51).
266
Measures
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Page 267

Entry 1

Explain the meaning of these words using concrete examples.
Get learners to use their own bodies to illustrate concepts.
Use 3-D models and reinforce activities with appropriate language.
Encourage learners to get as much practice as possible, through creative activity,

painting and designing.
267
Measures
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Page 268
The
Adult
Access
for Basic
All Skills Core
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
numbers, symbols, simple
diagrams and charts in
written material
Common measures
1
make amounts of money up to 1

in different ways using 1p, 2p, 5p,
10p, 20p and 50p coins

generate results
purpose
present and explain
results
and symbols
MSS1/E2
difficulties will find it hard to understand
the apparent contradiction between the
number of coins and their value. It relies
on an understanding of abstract
numerical relationships and can appear
contradictory. For example, the smallest
coin might be worth the most.
learners may have difficulty in identifying
coins.
calculate the cost of more than

one item and the change from a
transaction, in pence or in whole
pounds
Some dyslexic learners, those with

dyscalculia and many with learning
difficulties will find mental calculations
very hard, as they involve abstraction,
speed and short-term memory.
read and record time in common

date formats
Some dyslexic learners and those

with neurological impairments or
learning difficulties can have problems
with sequencing, which results in
problems with dates. (See guidance on
Directional, spatial and sequencing
difficulties p249.)
This will be problematic for blind and

some partially sighted learners.
268
Measures
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Page 269
Entry 2

Use concrete examples and ensure underlying concepts are fully understood.
Practise exchanging the respective number of 1p coins for coins of higher
denominations. Once these are understood, progress to exchanging higher
denomination coins, e.g. 2p coins for a 10p.
These learners will need practical experience and may initially benefit from a template
to identify coins. Dots can be put on the replica coins with a glue gun to signify the
value of the coin.
Recognise that for some people this may be a persistent difficulty. Do not perpetuate
experience of failure.
Find alternative strategies, such as using fingers, calculator.
Remember that a calculator may be confusing for sums of money because it doesnt
show 0 for values of 10, i.e. 50p will show as .5.
Encourage learners to develop and use the skills of rounding up and estimation.
(See N1/E1
, N1/E3
and N1/E3
.)
Focus on dates that have meaning for learners such as birthdays, holidays, Christmas,
special religious events, days and times of favourite TV programmes.
Use illustrations and different colours to identify different elements.
Use tactile clocks and watches, and talking clocks.
269
Measures
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Page 270
The
Adult
Access
for Basic
All Skills Core
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
written material
Common measures
4

read and understand time

displayed on analogue and
12-hour digital clocks in hours,
half hours and quarter hours
MSS1/E2 (continued)
Some dyslexic and deaf learners and
some with learning difficulties or
neurological impairments have
directional problems and/or problems
with directional language such as to/past.
This can make analogue watches or
clocks very difficult to use.
Learners may have difficulty in
distinguishing between hour and minute
hands.
generate results
purpose
present and explain
results
and symbols
Some blind and partially sighted

learners will not be able to see a clock
or watch face.
5
read, estimate, measure and

compare length using common
standard and non-standard units
(e.g. metre, centimetre, paces)
Estimation is difficult for some learners

(see N1/E2 6 ).
Not all non-standard measures will be
relevant to all learners, e.g. a wheelchair
user or person with impaired mobility will
not be able to use paces.
Some learners with manipulative or

perceptual problems as well as
dyspraxic or partially sighted learners
may find the precision required in accurate
measurement very difficult.
Units of measurement are an abstract
concept which is difficult for some
learners, particularly those with learning
difficulties, to grasp.
learners will have problems with larger
dimensions, because they have no visual
reference.
270
Measures
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Page 271
Entry 2

Teach directional words explicitly.
Recognise when it is more appropriate to use an alternative digital watch or clock.
Consolidate use and understanding of one form before comparing with another.
Using an analogue clock with numbered minutes, different-coloured and differentshaped hands and clear numerals may help some learners.
Use shaded or coloured overlays or folded paper for
1
2
past, 14 past and
1
4
to.
Always teach time in context. Use learners experiences to relate time to key events in
their own lives.
Use tactile clocks and watches or talking clocks.
(See N1/E2
.)
Use an alternative to the sample activity on p53 of the Adult Numeracy Core
Curriculum, Measure the length and width of the room in paces, such as using a
measuring wheel.
If the learner is agreeable, mark the wheel of a wheelchair with coloured tape and
record the revolutions in the same way that a trundle wheel is used. Do plenty of
activities using non-standard units: crisp packets, hands, feet, fingers.
Use ILT with a tracker ball. Invite learners to use a support worker to carry out
measuring on their instructions, or encourage peer working.
Recognise that the precision required in accurate measurement might be a problem.

Use a measure marked out with coloured bands in place of a conventional ruler/tape.
Teach measurement through practical activities such as woodwork. Relate

measurement to learners own situation and experience.
Over-learn in various contexts.
Start on a small scale for these learners.
Use templates and guides.
Ensure you have clearly marked rulers or tactile rulers with raised markings.
271
Measures
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Page 272
The
Adult
Access
for Basic
All Skills Core
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
written material
Common measures


compare weight using common
standard units (e.g. kilogram)
(See MSS1/E2

compare capacity using common
standard and non-standard units
(e.g. litre, cupful)
Measures may be difficult to read for

dyslexic learners, and those with visual
impairment and visual perceptual
difficulties.
read and compare positive

temperatures in everyday
situations such as weather charts
(See MSS1/E2
generate results
purpose
present and explain
results
and symbols
MSS1/E2 (continued)
above.)
above.)
Reading measurements accurately can be

difficult for dyslexic learners or
learners with learning difficulties,
visual impairments or perceptual
difficulties, particularly if they are in small
print, have decimals, long numbers, etc.
read simple scales to the nearest

labelled division
Those with visual impairments and

perceptual difficulties can find diagrams
inaccessible. They will have difficulty with
the sample activity.
Complex diagrams are difficult to
transcribe into tactile format and may need
breaking down into two or more simple
diagrams.
272
Measures
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Page 273
Entry 2

(See MSS1/E2 5 above.) Use the strategies learners currently use successfully in
everyday life, e.g. when cooking or buying clothes.
Encourage learners to share their strategies.
Prepare enlarged copies.

Use a ruler to track rows on paper.
Use large-size, clearly marked temperature scales and charts.

Temperature recordings (e.g. 16C) can seem arbitrary unless set within a scale
related to a persons experience.
0C
Winter picture
0C
ice tray
16C
16C
30C
heatwave
100C
boiling kettle
Help people understand where to find and how to read numbers on labels or rulers,
etc. Enlarge where appropriate.
Use real scales rather than diagrams.
For simple diagrams use German film, a clear sheet which can be traced over and will
retain the shape of the diagram. More detailed advice on producing complex
diagrams can be obtained from RNIB (see Resources).
273
Measures
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Page 274
The
Adult
Access
for Basic
All Skills Core
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
written material
Shape and space


recognise and name 2-D and 3-D

shapes
(See MSS2/E1
describe the properties of

common 2-D and 3-D shapes
(See MSS2/E1 1 .)
These concepts can be difficult, as
learners may be unable to differentiate
between sides and faces, edges and
corners.
use positional vocabulary

learning difficulties, perceptual
difficulties or acquired brain injury may
have problems with giving and following a
sequence. They may also have directional
confusions, e.g. with right or left. Those
with weak visual memory will have
problems remembering signs (see
guidance on Directional, spatial and
sequencing difficulties, p249).
(See MSS2/E1 2 .)
generate results
purpose
present and explain
results
and symbols
MSS2/E2
.)
The example on p56 in the Adult

Numeracy Core Curriculum, Give
directions using positional vocabulary, will
be difficult for these learners.
274
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Entry 2

(See MSS2/E1
.)
Reinforce by using everyday objects and drawing attention to sides, faces, edges and
corners. Compare everyday objects to mathematical shapes.
(See MSS2/E1
.)
For some learners, drawings or diagrams may help, as will landmarks.

For learners who find plans and maps very hard, use kinaesthetic methods such as
following finger, turning map over, walking through directions. Use giant floor
maps/draw in chalk, etc.
(See MSS2/E1
.)
275
Measures
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Page 276
The
Adult
Access
for Basic
All Skills Core
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
Common measures
1

add and subtract sums of money

using decimal notation
(See MSS1/E2
know how to enter sums of money in a

calculator
Partially sighted learners can have

problems with reading in columns, partly
because of the size of print of many
financial statements (e.g. till receipts).
acquired brain injury who have
spatialperceptual and visual
processing difficulties will have
problems with the alignment of columns.

generate results
specified purpose
present and explain
results
and symbols
MSS1/E3
.)
Learners with visual impairments and

also some with manipulative difficulties
or dyspraxia will have problems entering
data on a standard calculator.
round sums of money to the

nearest and 10p and make
approximate calculations
(See N1/E3
read, measure and record time
(See MSS1/E2
.)
read and interpret distance in

everyday situations
(See MSS1/E2
.)
have an idea of distance in miles,

e.g. know what is in walking distance
when following directions

learning difficulties can have difficulty
with bringing two sets of abstractions
together, e.g. estimating the time needed
to go certain distances.
, MSS1/E2
, MSS1/E2

may have difficulties in visualising
distance.
276
.)
Measures
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Page 277
Entry 3
Ensure clarity and magnification of any materials used.

Use bold lines to make columns clear.
Use coloured paper or acetate over where this helps to stabilise print. Check with
learners which colour is most effective.
Obtain large-size calculators or, if necessary, speech calculators.

Use computers with ready-made columns (e.g. spreadsheets) to help with accurate
recording.
(See MSS1/E2
, MSS1/E2
.)
(See MSS1/E2 4 .) Use estimation

strategies with simple timing such as
count-down activities. Gradually go
on to extend timing situations.
Start with familiar short distances,

such as How long does it take to
walk to the canteen?
Start
(3 miles)
Also estimate how much time it has

taken to undertake the activity and
record the results.
Use alternative strategies such as
time related to familiar landmarks
when walking. (see adjacent
diagram).
(2 miles)
(1 mile)
Based on average walking speed of 1 mile per 20 minutes.
277
Measures
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Page 278
The
Adult
Access
for Basic
All Skills Core
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
generate results
specified purpose
Common measures


compare length using nonstandard and standard units
(See MSS1/E2
.)

compare weight using nonstandard and standard units
(See MSS1/E2
, MSS1/E2
.)

compare capacity using nonstandard and standard units
(See MSS1/E2
, MSS1/E2
.)
choose and use appropriate units

and measuring instruments
(See MSS1/E2
, MSS1/E2
.)
read, measure and compare

temperature using common units
and instruments
(See MSS1/E2
, MSS1/E2 8 .)
present and explain

results
and symbols
278
MSS1/E3 (continued)
Measures
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Page 279

Entry 3

Explore options of different measuring tools, e.g. large-size, clearly marked or raised
figures on rulers, scales and thermometers.
(See MSS1/E2
, MSS1/E2
.)
(See MSS1/E2
, MSS1/E2 7 .)
(See MSS1/E2
, MSS1/E2
(See MSS1/E2
, MSS1/E2 8 .)
.)
279
Measures
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Page 280
The
Adult
Access
for Basic
All Skills Core
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
generate results
specified purpose
present and explain
results
and symbols
280
Shape and space

1
sort 2-D and 3-D shapes to solve

practical problems using
properties (e.g. lines of symmetry,
side length, angles)
understand and use vocabulary related
to shape, e.g. side length, angle, line
of symmetry
MSS2/E3
Some deaf or dyslexic learners or
learners with learning difficulties may
find the vocabulary of shape hard to
grasp.
Learners with partial sight and some
dyslexic learners may find it difficult to
understand concepts through diagrams.
People with physical disability,

dyspraxia and spatialperceptual
problems, and some with visual
impairments may have difficulty
reproducing shapes.
Measures
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Page 281
Entry 3
(See MSS2/E1
and MSS2/E1
.)
Encourage learners to write down specific words that they find difficult on index cards,
with diagrams or tactile shape attached.
Develop a wall chart for reference.
Explain and give experience of these through the use of concrete objects.
If this is a real problem, avoid manual reproduction and use either activities with real
objects or computer.
281
Measures
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Page 282
The
Adult
Access
for Basic
All Skills Core
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
material
appropriate outcome
generate results
checking procedures
purpose
present and explain
results
accuracy
282
Application of number key skills level 1

Part B: N1.1, N1.2, N1.3
Common measures
1

sums of money and record
know that, for column addition and
subtraction, decimals should be
aligned by the decimal point
MSS1/L1
(See N1/E2 5 and N1/E3 4 for
multiplication and division.)
visual/motor problems will have
difficulty with transferring and
sequencing information in correct
columns.
(See MSS1/E3
for columns.)
Partially sighted learners may find

spreadsheets difficult to access.
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Page 283

Level 1

Use large decimal point (see illustration Big red decimal point on p247).
Use large-squared paper to keep columns aligned, and large calculators that show
sums on screen.
Make sure that the decimal point to mark the pence from pounds is always aligned.
Use cut-out/plastic numbers and decimal points which the learner can move around.
Use large-size spreadsheets, but recognise that these may not be ideal if the overview
is lost.
Recognise that learners using alternatives may need longer.
PC-based spreadsheets are now becoming more accessible to blind learners.
Use learners own experience.
283
Measures
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Page 284
The
Adult
Access
for Basic
All Skills Core
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
material

Part B: N1.1, N1.2, N1.3
Common measures
2
read, measure and record time in

common date formats and in the
12-hour and 24-hour clock
understand time in the 12-hour and
24-hour clock

appropriate outcome
MSS1/L1 (continued)
Some learners who are pre-lingually
deaf, dyslexic or have learning difficulties
may have problems with questions involving
the language and word order of time. This is
because of the complexity of word order, and
ambiguous and abstract language.

difficulties tracking across and reading
the figures accurately when using
timetables, the internet, etc.
generate results
checking procedures
purpose
Learners may have problems reading time

on lists that are out of context and mean
nothing to them.
present and explain

results
accuracy
Learners with learning difficulties and

dyslexic learners may have problems
with both the 12-hour and 24-hour clock.
Those with directional difficulties will
have problems with to and past and may
confuse 25 past with 25 to, etc.
There will be problems with translating,
e.g. 18.00 = 6pm.
know that midnight is 00.00, or 0000,

and 12.00 or 1200 is midday
284
There will also be problems with the

abstraction of the 24-hour clock
e.g. 12 midnight = 00.
Measures
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Page 285

Level 1

For the sample activity on p63 of the Adult Numeracy Core Curriculum that asks the
question What time must I leave Cambridge to arrive in London by 10.00?, use the
alternative: I must arrive in London at 10.00. What time do I leave Cambridge? This
starts with the information you are working from and then asks the question based on
it (see guidance on Language of maths pp21617).
Use digital watches and clocks.
Use a marker such as a plain card to keep place.
Place 24 hours on a 12-hour clock face. Use regularly for practice, memorising
translation. Could also use method 12 1, 12 2 for afternoon.
Use listings of TV programmes that learners watch so that they can put time into
context.
Use tactile or speaking clocks.

Use strategies suggested in curriculum but recognise that learners may experience
additional difficulties.
Before and after could be used instead of to and past.
Provide lots of practice with practical examples, e.g. using clocks, videos, magazines,
etc. rather than relying on written questions, until ready to consolidate learning.
Use equivalency tables as prompts.
Link times to personal routines. Use individuals experiences of 24-hour clock such as
train timetables, plane journeys, video recorders, teletext. Use the 2 (12) method.
Use equivalency tables as support tools or prompts. These can be visual or auditory.
Link to language and images, e.g.:
Midnight
00.00
Midday
12.00
Transitional times (midday/midnight) can be described as changeover times, where

pm/old day ends and am/new day begins.
Use large clocks with both 12 and 24 hours displayed. Relate to their digital alarm
clock, watches, with which they are familiar.
285
Measures
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Page 286
The
Adult
Access
for Basic
All Skills Core
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
material

Part B: N1.1, N1.2, N1.3
Common measures
2
read, measure and record time in

common date formats and in the
12-hour and 24-hour clock
(continued)
know that midnight is 00.00, or 0000,
and 12.00 or 1200 is midday
understand and use timetables

appropriate outcome
MSS1/L1 (continued)
Blind people will not, in some cases,
have a sense of day and night. They are
likely to have a poor intuitive sense of
time, because they have no visual clues
such as when it gets lighter or darker.
Many learners with learning difficulties
and dyslexic learners will find it far easier
to read digital watches than analogue.
Younger learners in particular may be very
familiar with the 24-hour clock.
Partially sighted people may have
particular difficulties with the small print
of timetables.
generate results
checking procedures
purpose
People with learning difficulties may

have difficulty with the convention of how
to read timetables.
present and explain

results
accuracy

learning difficulties can find estimating
and working out time difficult.
Some dyslexic and dyspraxic learners

and learners with learning difficulties
may have difficulties planning and
organising time and will find the example
on p62 of the Adult Numeracy Core
Curriculum, Plan an event, difficult.
286
calculate using time
(See MSS1/L1

compare length, weight, capacity
and temperature using common
units and instruments
(See N1/E2
above.)
and MSS1/E2
.)
Scale is a difficult concept for blind and

some partially sighted learners, as they
have no visual reference point. They might
have particular problems working on a
large scale.
Measures
25/2/02
11:31 am
Page 287
Level 1

It is helpful for blind people to use the 24-hour clock as a useful way of coherently
structuring the day.
Use the association of familiar sounds/temperatures as contextual clues.
Use enlarged examples, but recognise that this may distort format (e.g. you cannot see
it all at once) and that learners may therefore take longer.
Increasingly information is available through talking timetables.
Give lots of practice with relevant timetables. Ensure abbreviations and notes are
discussed and understood.
Use time lines to work out passage of time.

For example: A TV programme begins at 7.35 and ends at 8.55. How long does it last?
20 mins
1 hour
7.35 ------------- 7.55 --------------
8.55
time = 1 hour 20 minutes

Introduce the notion of planning through events in learners own lives.
Create personal timetables.
(See MSS1/L1
above.)
Ensure that measuring and recording devices are tactile and/or have speech output.
Use real equipment; make sure scales are clearly marked.
287
Measures
25/2/02
11:31 am
Page 288
The
Adult
Access
for Basic
All Skills Core
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
material

Part B: N1.1, N1.2, N1.3
Common measures
5


compare distance
For estimating distance see, MSS1/E3
know how to use a simple scale to

estimate distance on a road map
Dyslexic learners may have problems

visualising distance. Their estimates on
time/distance can vary greatly; this will
need to be investigated/discussed.

appropriate outcome
Learners with visual impairment and

dyslexic learners and those with
acquired brain injury who have visual
spatialperceptual difficulties and/or
directional difficulties will have problems
reading maps. However, other dyslexic
learners may be highly skilled at using
maps, e.g. those who are visualspatial
thinkers.
generate results
checking procedures
purpose
present and explain
results
accuracy
288
MSS1/L1 (continued)
These same learners may find the concept

of scale in maps very confusing. The
concept of ratio is an abstract relationship,
and the way in which scale is represented
(e.g. 1:25) is confusing and can be
misunderstood or confused with decimal
point.
add and subtract common units of

measure within the same system
For use of tables, see MSS1/E2
work out the perimeter of simple

shapes

or those who are deaf or dyslexic, may
find the language of spatial measurement
and the symbols used to represent it
confusing (see guidance on Language of
maths pp21819).
25/2/02
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Page 289
Level 1
Use everyday journeys undertaken by learners.

Use rulers with large markings.
Refer back to decimals/money to reinforce concept of decimal notation.
Use comparisons with lengths of football pitches, tennis courts, swimming baths.
Ensure maps are enlarged, clear, coloured (see guidance on Spatial representation and
blind and partially sighted learners pp21617).
Identify and use landmarks on maps.
Cardiff
Edinburgh
Glasgow
Leeds
Liverpool
Manchester
Sheffield
Destinations
Birmingham
Mask mileage charts with an L-shaped

card (as for number squares). String
marked with scale measurements, or
flexible tape measures, may be used for
finding distance on maps.
London
Measures
Airports
miles
miles
miles
miles
miles
miles
miles
miles
miles
Aberdeen
551
437
537
130
152
333
363
357
369
Discuss abbreviations, language and

symbols thoroughly.
Birmingham
114
115
306
304
119
110
97
89
East Midlands 118
40
150
274
296
83
102
80
53
Work from known, e.g. look at local

maps learner is familiar with and talk
about distances involved.
Gatwick
35
147
177
448
446
239
252
239
209
Glasgow
421
306
407
56
229
232
227
265
Heathrow
16
109
139
410
408
201
214
201
171
Encourage the use of prompts when

necessary.
Luton
34
91
168
383
381
170
186
174
140
Stansted
38
126
197
363
383
176
221
189
151
Begin by replacing symbols with words,

e.g. 1 to every 25 (or similar).
Manchester
197
82
183
228
226
58
37
10
45
Newcastle
292
214
323
99
151
100
182
151
137
Use activities in appropriate contexts

for learners.
Do a lot of measuring (small objects

and full-size diagrams) and
consolidate before moving on to
scale diagrams.
miles
miles miles miles
Aberdeen
551
437
537
130
Birmingham
114
009
115
306
East Midlands
118
040
150
274
Gatwick
Glasgow
Heathrow
289
Measures
25/2/02
11:31 am
Page 290
The
Adult
Access
for Basic
All Skills Core
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
material

Part B: N1.1, N1.2, N1.3
Common measures
MSS1/L1 (continued)
work out the area of rectangles
(See MSS1/L1
10
work out simple volume

(e.g. cuboids)

learning difficulties will find the rules
that govern area and volume confusing.
This is particularly a problem when the
side of an object is 1 unit, as 12 (one
squared) and 13 (one cubed) remain 1.
above.)

appropriate outcome
generate results
checking procedures
purpose
present and explain
results
accuracy
For problems in translating 2-D to 3-D,

see MSS2/E3 1 .
290
Measures
25/2/02
11:31 am
Page 291
Level 1

(See MSS1/L1
above.)
Use concrete examples, not just counting paper squares but real ones in a learners life,
such as lino or carpet tiles in squares in kitchen or bathroom.
Move from counting individual squares
to counting rows and columns
(see adjacent diagram).
12 squares
4 lots of 3
3 lots of 4
Area: measuring two sides 2-D
Use cubes to build up shapes, then

count layers.
Talk about surfaces involved.
x
x
Volume: measuring three

ways 3-D
291
Measures
25/2/02
11:31 am
Page 292
The
Adult
Access
for Basic
All Skills Core
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
material

Part B: N1.1, N1.2, N1.3
Shape and space

1
solve problems using the

mathematical properties of regular
2-D shapes (e.g. tessellation or
symmetry)

appropriate outcome
generate results
checking procedures
purpose
present and explain
results
accuracy
292
MSS2/L1
those with spatial perception
difficulties (those who are dyslexic,
dysgraphic and dyspraxic) could find
planning and/or drawing difficult.
Learners with manipulative difficulties
will have problems with drawing.
Language of maths may cause a problem,
e.g. symmetry (see guidance on Language
and symbols p229).
draw 2-D shapes in different

orientations using grids (e.g. in
diagrams or plans)
(See MSS2/L1
above.)
Measures
25/2/02
11:31 am
Page 293

Level 1

Avoid drawing by hand unless a learner really wants to work at it; use graphics
packages instead, although these might also be difficult for some learners.
Use strategies such as pinboards and squared paper. Good manual dexterity is required
to use a pinboard.
Use concrete examples: packs of tessellating shapes, squares, rhomboids, hexagons
are available from educational suppliers.
Use mirrors to demonstrate symmetry.
Use paper shapes showing how shapes fold exactly on themselves along the lines of
symmetry, without any overlap.
Use a full-circle protractor instead of a standard one.
Use index cards and formula books keep information visual, such as colour wall
charts.
Make shapes into mobiles to improve spatial awareness and ability to visualise
shapes and their properties.
Use tracing paper to show different orientations.
293
Measures
25/2/02
11:31 am
Page 294
The
Adult
Access
for Basic
All Skills Core
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
material

Part B: N2.1, N2.2, N2.3
Common measures
MSS1/L2
calculate with sums of money and

convert between currencies
Learners with visual impairments,

spatialperceptual and visual
processing difficulties may have
problems reading or aligning columns.
calculate, measure and record

time in different formats
Some learners who are pre-lingually

deaf, dyslexic or have learning
difficulties may have difficulties with
questions involving measures. This is
because of the complexity of word order,
and ambiguous and abstract language.

generate results
specified purpose
present and explain
results
audience
294
Learners may have problems reading time

on listings that are out of context and
mean nothing to them.
Measures
25/2/02
11:31 am
Page 295

Level 2

(See MSS1/E3
and MSS1/E2
.)
Use conversion tables, cards and specialist currency converters (electronic and/or card
versions).
Use cards with prompts. Encourage learners to work together on related projects and
shared tasks.
Use actual coins or notes, and physically exchange one for the other when converting.
(This requires a degree of rounding if amounts are not carefully selected.)
Look for patterns between currencies to produce methods of easy estimation,
e.g. 10 Hong Kong dollars = 1.
(See MSS1/L1
.)
Use listings of TV programmes that learners watch so that they can put time into
context.
Use times for practical measure, e.g. in cooking, using a microwave, hairdressing,
drying times for cement, paint, glue, wallpaper paste.
Use personal daily activities and record timing in different formats.
295
Measures
25/2/02
11:32 am
Page 296
The
Adult
Access
for Basic
All Skills Core
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
material

Part B: N2.1, N2.2, N2.3
Common measures
2
calculate, measure and record

time in different formats
(continued)

MSS1/L2 (continued)
Blind people will not, in some cases,
have a sense of day and night. They are
likely to have a poor intuitive sense of
time, because they have no visual clues
such as when it gets lighter or darker.
Many learners with learning
difficulties and dyslexic learners will
find it far easier to read digital watches
than analogue. Younger learners in
particular may be very familiar with the
24-hour clock.
generate results
specified purpose
Partially sighted people may have

particular difficulties with the small print
of timetables.
People with learning difficulties may
have difficulty with the convention of how
to read timetables.
present and explain

results
audience

learning difficulties can find estimating
and working out time difficult.
Some dyslexic and dyspraxic learners
and learners with learning difficulties
may have difficulties planning and
organising time. They will find the
example on p62 of the Adult Numeracy
Core Curriculum, Plan an event, difficult.
estimate, measure and compare

temperature, using reading scales
and conversion tables
Scale is a difficult concept for blind and

some partially sighted learners, as they
have no visual reference point. They
might have particular problems working
on a large scale.
The sample activities on p69 of the Adult
Numeracy Core Curriculum involving
conversion between Celsius and
Fahrenheit may present difficulties for
learners with learning difficulties or shortterm memory difficulties.
296
Measures
25/2/02
11:32 am
Page 297

Level 2

It is helpful for blind people to use the 24-hour clock as a useful way of coherently
structuring the day.
Link use of times to everyday routines when appropriate.
Use enlarged examples, but recognise that this may distort format (e.g. you cannot
see it all at once) and that learners may therefore take longer.
Increasingly information is available through talking timetables.
Give lots of practice with relevant timetables. Ensure abbreviations and notes are
discussed and understood. Use straight masks or rulers to help follow information.
Use time lines to work out passage of time.

(See example on p287.)
Introduce the notion of planning through events in own lives. Keep activities as real
as possible but extend by encouraging group work.
Create personal timetables.
Ensure that measuring and recording devices are tactile and/or have speech output.
Use real equipment; make sure scales are clearly marked.
To help learners distinguish between the two scales, have two thermometers (one
Celsius and one Fahrenheit) instead of a thermometer with a single dual scale.
297
Measures
25/2/02
11:32 am
Page 298
The
Adult
Access
for Basic
All Skills Core
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
material
Common measures
MSS1/L2 (continued)
calculate with units of measure

within the same system
As units of measure are an abstract

concept, they may present difficulties to
learners who think literally or who
have no visual reference.
understand and use given

formulae for finding perimeters
and areas of regular shapes
(e.g. rectangular and circular
surfaces)

learning difficulties or those who are
deaf or dyslexic may find the language
of spatial measurement and the symbols
used to represent it confusing (see
guidance on Language and symbols
p229).

formulae for finding areas of
composite shapes (e.g. nonrectangular rooms or plots of land)
Learners with memory difficulties may

be unable to remember formulae.
generate results
specified purpose
present and explain
results
audience

Part B: N2.1, N2.2, N2.3
Partially sighted learners may be unable

to see or visualise composite shapes.
298

formulae for finding volumes of
regular shapes (e.g. a cuboid or
cylinder)

learning difficulties will find the rules
that govern area and volume confusing.
This is particularly a problem when the
side of an object is 1 unit, as 12 (one
squared) and 13 (one cubed) remain 1 (see
diagram on p291).
Measures
25/2/02
11:32 am
Page 299

Level 2

For the example on p70 of the Adult Numeracy Core Curriculum, Work out the best
value of products of different weights or capacities, use real food packaging for
comparisons of value.
Some learners may need help with manipulation, handling weights/packages or with
reading the texts on packages. Others may need the support of aides mmoire.
Use concrete examples, not just counting paper squares but real ones that learners
come across in daily life, such as lino or carpet tiles (squares) in kitchen or bathroom.
Have a crib sheet for formulae. Use different colours for the different lines
(e.g. diameter in red, circumference in blue, etc).
Be aware that (pi) may look different in different fonts or when handwritten, and
that textbooks or other commercially produced material may give different numerical
values for pi. Calculators will give a long string of decimal places.
Use a transparent 1cm grid to overlay composite shapes, then count squares.
Cut up and reassemble composite shapes to emphasise that they can be broken down
into simpler shapes. In Microsoft Word, this is particularly effective if the composite
shape is made up without perimeter lines, and filled in in a bright colour. The
component shapes can be dragged around the screen and put back together.
Use diagrams drawn full size, so that missing measurements can be checked with a
ruler, before going on to non-scale diagrams.
Provide tactile illustrations of composite shapes.
For see MSS1/L2
above.
Use IT packages such as PowerPoint.
299
Measures
25/2/02
11:32 am
Page 300

Access
Curriculum
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
material

Part B: N2.1, N2.2, N2.3
Common measures
10
work out dimensions from scale

drawings (e.g. 1:20)
MSS1/L2 (continued)
Learners need to understand the concept
fully to be able to recall how to use
formulae.

generate results
specified purpose
present and explain
results
audience
Shape and space


recognise and use common 2-D

representations of 3-D objects
(e.g. in maps and plans)

those with spatialperceptual
difficulties (those who are dyslexic,
dysgraphic and dyspraxic) could find
relating 2-D representations to 3-D
shapes difficult.
solve problems involving 2-D

shapes and parallel lines (e.g. in
laying down carpet tiles)
(See MSS2/L2
understand the meaning of parallel

and recognise parallel lines
300
MSS2/L2
.)
Measures
25/2/02
11:32 am
Page 301
Level 2
Volume = L W H
strategies
Work with concrete examples such
as models of buildings, art,
architecture, sculpture as well as
building plans (see adjacent
diagram).
1 cm
= 1cm3
1 cm
1 cm
Remind learners that is the grouping symbol group(s) of/ lot(s)

of/ times using this more literal translation to reinforce
understanding. Remind them also that, in this case, the thing being
counted is a unit of measure (space) having three dimensions.

Make shapes into mobiles, etc. to improve learners spatial awareness and their ability
to visualise shapes and their properties.
Use concrete examples to demonstrate, such as gift or packing boxes flattened out.
Use technology to show how 2-D representations can be converted into 3-D reality in
television/films.
Provide tactile practice by using solid shapes to match to pictures.

Use rods or tactile guides. Think of examples of parallel lines in real life, e.g. railway
lines.
301
Handling Data
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Page 302
The
Adult
Access
for Basic
All Skills Core
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
written material
Data
1
extract simple information from

lists

generate results
checking procedures
purpose
HD1/E1
Learners with sequencing and shortterm memory difficulties including
dyslexic learners and those with
learning difficulties, neurological
impairment or reading difficulties may
find the extraction of information difficult.
Those with visual, sequencing and

short-term memory difficulties will find
it difficult to remember the order of the
alphabet. When second and third letters
are used to decide order, it can become
particularly confusing.
present and explain

results
Lists are often difficult to read for

learners with visual impairments.
2
sort and classify objects using a

single criterion
Colour-blind or partially sighted learners

may not be able to classify by colour. Other
criteria mentioned in the sample activities,
on p75 of the Adult Numeracy Core
Curriculum, such as size labels in clothes,
capacity on drinks or paint cans, can be in
print which is too small to read.
construct simple representations

or diagrams, using knowledge of
numbers, measures or shape and
space
Learners with partial sight, and those

with learning, sequencing, or
perceptual difficulties may find this
hard.
Learners with partial sight may also
have difficulties in relating pictures or
representations to what they represent.
People with poor motor control may
have problems producing accurate, tidy
diagrams, despite knowing what to do.
Learners with reading difficulties will
find the example and some of the sample
activities on pp745 of the Adult
Numeracy Core Curriculum difficult.
302
Handling Data
25/2/02
11:37 am
Page 303
Handling data
Entry 1

Recognise that these tasks may be slower for these learners.
12
23
Use an L-shaped mask to work down the page so that only relevant information is
exposed at one time.
Give learners cards with the required information on them, which they match with an
enlarged list.
Use highlighter pen on a printed list of words or pictures.
Check that learners know the alphabet.
Provide alphabet cards with a list of letters in alphabetical order as a guide. Have the
alphabet handy when using the phone book, etc.
Use a tactile alphabet, e.g. make an alphabet from clay to help reinforce order.
Use lists that learners will find useful to access, and link them to other skills, for
example:
Find three three-letter words
Find all the A words
Find a number starting with
Find matching shapes
Enlarge lists, using learners preferred methods.
Use a plain card to track lines. The learner may need to cover information.
Ensure all learners can work with the criteria you are using for classifications. Enlarge
and provide alternatives where necessary, e.g. sort bottles by size or shape.
Keep referring back to other areas of the curriculum to reinforce connections.
(See guidance on Spatial representation and partially sighted learners pp21617.)
Ensure that learners use a thick felt-tip pen or sharp pencil so that they can read back
what they have written.
Spend time looking at where to start a diagram or how to organise a page.
Use IT packages to produce diagrams where those with poor motor control skills can
retain more control over accuracy using a tracker ball mouse.
Use learners experiences and real-life situations to make diagrams/lists.
In the example, Write a shopping list with multiple items, on p74 of the Adult
Numeracy Core Curriculum, use a computer to generate pictures or symbols for those
who cannot read or write text.
303
Handling Data
25/2/02
11:37 am
Page 304
The
Adult
Access
for Basic
All Skills Core
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
written material
Data
1

HD1/E2
extract information from lists,

tables, simple diagrams and block
graphs
(See HD1/E1
understand that tables are arranged in

rows and columns

those with directional difficulties may
have problems reading information both
vertically and horizontally, as they find
this confusing.
generate results
purpose
and HD1/E1
.)
(See guidance on Spatial representation

and partially sighted learners pp 216217.)
Some learners with spatial awareness

problems may have trouble in visualising
information, such as room layout or floor
plans (as suggested in the sample
activities).
present and explain

results
and symbols
Extracting information is dependent on

reading ability. Dyslexic learners and
those with learning difficulties, or
other reading problems will have
difficulty in accessing information.
make numerical comparisons from

block graphs
(See issues listed under HD1/E1
.)
understand that the height of the bar

indicates the numerical value in that
category, and so values are compared
through the heights of bars
sort and classify objects using two

criteria
(See HD1/E1
.)

injury may have difficulties classifying
data.
A weakness in short-term memory can
make retaining several criteria difficult,
and difficulties in organisation can make
sorting problematic, especially as tasks
become more complex.
Blind learners have problems with
criteria, such as colour.
304
Handling Data
25/2/02
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Page 305
Handling data
Entry 2
Enlarge material where this helps learners to see it more clearly.

Use a plain card to cover the lower part of the table or clear transparent guide to track
information, so you can see through it.
Discuss most relevant form of chart/table for various information.
Rather than describing the layout of room from a plan, ask learners to draw a plan of
the rooms, either where they are learning or at home. This will give them a concrete
example they can move around.
Analyse the reading requirements of materials you use and ensure these do not create
unnecessary barriers in accessing data.
Wherever possible, minimise reading when developing data collection skills.
Use group activites in which teams complete columns and rows.
Use concrete, multisensory examples, such as graphs made with 3-dimensional cubes
(e.g. Unifix.)
Cut out blocks and stick on a chart or the wall.
Make graphs based on a survey related to learners interests.
Give structured practice and use concrete examples using relevant data.
Increase the number of objects in stages, consolidating before moving on.
Make use of criteria that can be felt, e.g. shape, size and texture.
305
Handling Data
25/2/02
11:37 am
Page 306
The
Adult
Access
for Basic
All Skills Core
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
written material
generate results
purpose
present and explain
results
and symbols
Data
4
collect simple numerical

information
understand that information can be
recorded in different ways
HD1/E2 (continued)
and those with autistic spectrum
disorders may find it difficult to
understand that the same information can
be recorded in different ways.
Numeracy Core Curriculum will be
problematic for blind learners, some
dyslexic learners and others with
perceptual difficulties. Checking a list
of data requires learners to work both
vertically and horizontally, and this can
result in confusion.
These learners can also forget how to use
a cross stroke every fifth count when
using a gate measure, i.e.
Learners may have difficulty reporting

back if there has been a time delay and
data has been recorded in an erratic
manner.
Dyslexic learners or those with autistic

difficulties with language may find
organising the questions required to collect
data difficult, and may not be able to
clarify the details required.
Some learners will be unable to collect
data in an acceptable manner, and to
organise it.
306
Handling Data
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11:37 am
Page 307
Handling data
Level 1

Use practical examples and help learners to compare and practise different ways of
recording the same thing, e.g. look at different ways of presenting the temperature in
newspapers and on the internet.
Use PC-based options for blind learners.

Practise making simple tallies and remember that these learners will need more time.
Tally with objects such as coins, stones, matchsticks.
When using tally charts, get learners to record information in one direction only,
e.g. left to right.
Use a tally counter to count, rather than mental or written tallying.
For written tallying, provide a clipboard for a firm writing surface.
Use large, clearly labelled data collection sheets.

Do not expect learners to tally too many things at once counting cars passing a point
may be manageable, but counting cars, lorries and motorbikes might not.
Use matchsticks or rods as tallies.
Use the scaffolding approach (see guidance on Scaffolding approach on p77 in
Speaking and Listening).
Plan group roles/activities carefully.
Colour code the results using a key.
Use the gate method of counting to five and keep reviewing it.
Provide squared paper, charts or repeated symbols or pictures to mark off.
307
Handling Data
25/2/02
11:37 am
Page 308
The
Adult
Access
for Basic
All Skills Core
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
written material
generate results
purpose
present and explain
results
and symbols
308
Data
5
represent information so that it

makes sense to others (e.g. in
lists, tables and diagrams)
understand that information can be
represented in different ways,
e.g. a list, a table, a diagram
HD1/E2 (continued)
(See above HD1/E2
.)
Dyslexic learners or those with visual

impairments and learning difficulties
may find it very slow and arduous to
create representations by hand.
The example on p76 of the Adult
Numeracy Core Curriculum, Represent the
results of a survey. . . in the form of a
table or as a simple bar chart, can
present difficulties (see HD1/E2 1 and
HD1/E2 2 ).
Learners with visual impairments will
have difficulties reading information in a
small typeface from the axis.
Handling Data
25/2/02
11:37 am
Page 309
Handling data
Entry 2

(See guidance on Spatial representation and blind and partially sighted learners
p21617.)
Teach data-recording skills through graphics programmes where this helps.
Use concrete material for preliminary exercises before transferring to PC-based
recording.
Use the same information displayed in different ways; discuss with learners which is
the most appropriate.
Enlarge numbers where this helps the learner.

Make a large group wall chart which uses large figures.
309
Handling Data
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Page 310
The
Adult
Access
for Basic
All Skills Core
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
Data
1
extract numerical information from

lists, tables, diagrams and simple
charts
present and explain

results
and symbols

(See HD1/E1
and HD1/E2
.)
use a scale to extract numerical values
Scale and reading from maps is difficult

for dyslexic learners with directional
and visual difficulties.
make numerical comparisons from

bar charts and pictograms
Reading and deciding on an appropriate

scale for charts is a difficult concept.

generate results
specified purpose
HD1/E3
(See HD1/E2 4 .)
make observations and record

numerical information using a tally
know that tally marks have to be
counted up to give a frequency
(See all issues listed in HD1/E2
.)
The sample activity, Translate the tally

chart into a frequency table, on p79 of the
Adult Numeracy Core Curriculum will
present difficulties for blind learners,
some dyslexic learners and others with
perceptual or learning difficulties.
As the level of complexity of translating
one representation of data to another
increases, those learners listed above with
specific difficulties may find the complexity
increases their difficulties.
The demands on short-term memory also
increase for those with poor short-term
memories, which adds to difficulties.
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Handling data
Entry 3

Use local maps, and encourage learners to actually walk their directions. Scale will
need a lot of reinforcing, using familiar journeys.
Remember to supply keys, simplified as appropriate.
Use lots of everyday examples.

Use different colours for the X and the Y axis.
Pace work.
Ensure you understand where the difficulty lies.
Where appropriate, use a PC-based package to produce charts in different formats.
Break down complex tables into manageable steps.

Encourage learners to use computer programs to develop data-collection skills.
Begin with concrete arrangements for blind students before moving on to PC-based
recording.
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The
Adult
Access
for Basic
All Skills Core
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
material
appropriate outcome
Part B: N1.1, N1.2, N1.3
Data and statistical measures


extract and interpret information

(e.g. in tables, diagrams, charts
and line graphs)
(See all issues for HD1/E1

and HD1/E3 1 .)
know how to read the scale on an axis

know how to use a simple scale such
as 1cm to 1m
(See information on scales at HD1/E3
collect, organise and represent

discrete data (e.g. in tables,
charts, diagrams and line graphs)
The sample activity, Identify suitable

methods for collecting and recording
different data on p81 of the Adult
Numeracy Core Curriculum, will be difficult
for blind learners, some dyslexic
learners and others with perceptual or
learning difficulties.
find the arithmetical average

(mean) for a set of data
The ambiguity of the treble meaning of the

word mean may cause difficulty for some
learners.
generate results
checking procedures
purpose
present and explain
results
accuracy
HD1/L1
, HD1/E2
1 .)
Learners with learning difficulties and

dyslexia often get confused with the
difference in meaning between mean and
range.
(See guidance on Language of maths
pp21819.)
Learners with learning difficulties may
find it difficult to understand the concept
of average.
312
find the range for a set of data
(See guidance on Language of maths

pp21819. See HD1/L1 3 above).
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Handling data
Level 1

Charts, graphs and tables should be large and clear.
Use colours to distinguish lines on tables.
Take care in photocopying newspaper articles (enlargement may help for some
learners). Colour is helpful, but colour graphics do not always photocopy well in black
and white.
Use a tally counter to count, rather than mental or written tallying.

For written tallying, provide a clipboard for a firm writing surface.
Use large, clearly labelled data-collection sheets.
Do not expect learners to tally too many things at once counting cars passing a point
may be manageable, but counting cars, lorries and motorbikes might not.
Link to other curriculum areas such as speaking and listening, and use in group work
such as activities on making decisions.
Always use the words average and mean together until learners have grasped the
concept and the word. Dont use a generic word like average when you are wanting the
mean. Use a practical activity with individual counters that provides tactile and
rhythmical reinforcement of the concept of average.
Use real-life experiences cups of coffee/tea per day, occurrence of evenings out,
favourite TV programmes.
Use diagramatic or pictorial representations to explore the concept.

Use concrete examples the range is from one end to the other, smallest to largest.
Use other words such as spread to help learners understand the language.
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The
Adult
Access
for Basic
All Skills Core
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
material
appropriate outcome
generate results
checking procedures
purpose
present and explain
results
accuracy
314
Part B: N1.1, N1.2, N1.3
Probability
1
show that some events are more

likely to occur than others
HD2/L1
estimation or in circumstances where
there are no right or wrong answers will
also have difficulty with probability.
(See N1/E3
express the likelihood of an event

using fractions, decimals and
percentages with the probability
scale of 0 to 1
.)
If learners have had trouble equating

decimals, percentages and fractions, then
switching between methods of writing
probabilities may be difficult.
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Handling data
Level 1

Use concrete examples such as real dice, playing cards, coins, etc.
Percentage is the method people commonly use to talk about probability, especially for
50%, but fractional probability is the clearest to look at, e.g. a one in four chance is
easily shown as 1/4 .
Consolidate the easiest method for the learner before going on to the others.
315
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The
Adult
Access
for Basic
All Skills Core
At this level,
adults can
read and understand
material
Part B: N2.1, N2.2, N2.3
Data and statistical measures


extract discrete and continuous

data from tables, diagrams, charts
and line graphs
See all issues listed earlier in handling

data (HD1/E1 1 , HD1/E1 3 ,
HD1/E3 1 , HD1/L1 1 ).
collect, organise and represent

discrete and continuous data in
tables, charts, diagrams and line
graphs

may have difficulty seeing 1mm squares
on graph paper.
find the mean, median and mode,

and use them as appropriate to
compare two sets of data
Learners with memory difficulties may

lose track of long lists of numbers when
calculating a mean (missing out numbers,
adding them in twice).
generate results
specified purpose
present and explain
results
audience
HD1/L2

learning difficulties often confuse these
terms. They all start with the same letter
and are to do with a similar concept.
Probability
1
identify the range of possible

outcomes of combined events and
record the information using
diagrams or tables
HD2/L2
estimation or in circumstances where
there are no right or wrong answers will
also have difficulty with probability.
The illustration of a tree diagram on p87
of the Adult Numeracy core curriculum,
will be difficult for some learners with
visual impairment, spatial or
perceptual difficulties.
Tree diagrams can be very confusing to
construct and interpret, because they
require complex spatial tracking and
visual sequencing skills. They may
contain a large amount of information
which the learner needs to hold in the
working memory. The diagram can be
tracked in various different directions.
There may be a choice of starting point.
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Handling data
Level 2

Explain that discrete data can be counted, but continuous data must be measured with
an instrument include clock in the list of instruments (it often gets missed out).
Use larger grids on A3 paper or use a spreadsheet if the data is a difficult range.
Experiment with different colours of graph paper. Some colours are friendlier than
others for learners with visual difficulties.
For median problems, try not to give lists of jumbled-up data.

DAL (Direct Algebraic Logic) calculators show the sequence of operations on their
display screen, so that they can be checked. Encourage learners to tick off numbers as
they are used, or to mask the list as they go through it.
Keep definitions listed in a handy place. e.g. median is middle value, mode means
most.

(See N1/E3
, HD2/L1
and HD2/L1
.)
Space diagrams may be easier to use, and can be masked with an L shaped card.
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Access
Curriculum
Resources
This list of resources is not exhaustive, and inclusion does not imply
recommendation.
Acts of Parliament
Learning and Skills Act 2000
Special Educational Needs and Disability Act 2001.
References and bibliography

Abell S. (2000) Helping Adults to Spell. London:BSA.
ACE Spelling Dictionary (1986), available from Learning Development Aids.
Bartlett D. and Moody S. (2000) Dyslexia in the Workplace. London: Whurr.
Basic Skills Agency (1989) Making Reading Easier. London: BSA .
Bell N. Visualizing and Verbalizing for Language Comprehension and Thinking.
San Luis Obispo, California: Gander Educational Publishing.
Brand V. (1984) Spelling made Easy. Baldock: Egon.
Brooks P.L. and Weeks S.A.J. (1998) A Comparison of the Responses of Dyslexic,
Slow Learning and Control Children to Different Strategies for Teaching
Spellings, Dyslexia, 4:4, 212222.
Brown H. and Brown M. (1992) Use Your Eyes, 2nd edn. Brown & Brown
(available from Avanti).
Buzan T. (1982) Use Your Head. London: BBC Publications.
Buzan T. and Buzan B. (1995) The Mind Map Book: Radiant thinking. London: BBC
Publications.
Carbo M. (1982) Reading Styles: key to preventing reading failure in Koerner T.F.
(ed.) Student Learning Styles and Brain Behaviour. NASSP (National Association
of Secondary School Principals), Reston, VA, USA.
Carbo M., Dunn K. and Dunn R. (1994) Teaching Students to Read through their
Individual Learning Styles. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Chinn S.J. (1998) Sum Hope. Breaking the Numbers Barrier. London: Souvenir
Press.
Chinn S.J. and Ashcroft I.R. (1998) Mathematics for Dyslexics: A teaching
handbook, 2nd edn. London: Whurr.
318
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Resources
Crystal D. (1996) Discover Grammar. Harlow: Longman.

Davis R. (1997) The Gift of Dyslexia, 2nd edn. London: Souvenir Press.
Department for Education and Employment (2000) Freedom to Learn: Basic skills
for learners with learning difficulties and/or disabilities. London: DfEE.
Department for Education and Skills (2001) Adult ESOL Core Curriculum. London:
Basic Skills Agency.
Department for Education and Skills (2001) Adult Literacy Core Curriculum.
London: Basic Skills Agency.
Department for Education and Skills (2001) Adult Numeracy Core Curriculum.
London: Basic Skills Agency.
Department for Education and Skills (2001) Living Our Lives. London: DfES.
Department for Education and Skills (2001) Self-Advocacy Action Pack. London:
DfES.
Department for Education and Skills (2001) Yesterday I Never Stopped Writing.
London: DfES.
Department for Education and Skills (2002) Basic Skills for Adults with Learning
Difficulties and/or Disabilities: A resource pack to support staff development.
London: DfES.
Department for Education and Skills (2002) Adult Pre-entry Curriculum Framework.
London: Learning and Skills Development Agency.
Dewsbury A. (for the Education Department of Western Australia) (1999)
Assessment, Teaching and Learning: A practical guide to first steps. Oxford: Ginn
Heinemann Professional Development.
Evans B. (2001) Dyslexia and Vision. London: Whurr.
Fawcett A.J. and Nicolson R.I. (1999) Dyslexia, the Role of the Cerebellum,
Dyslexia: International Research and Practice, 5: 155177.
Fink R. (1995) Successful Dyslexics: a constructivist study of passionate interest
reading, Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, December 1995/January 1996,
39:4.
Foundation for People with Learning Disabilities (2001) All About Autistic
Spectrum Disorders. London: The Mental Health Foundation.
Further Education Funding Council (1996) Inclusive Learning Report of the
Learning Difficulties and/or Disabilities Committee. London: Further Education
Funding Council.
Henderson A. (1989) Maths and Dyslexics. Llandudno: St Davids College.
Henderson A. (1998) Maths for the Dyslexic: A practical guide. London: David
Fulton Publishers.
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Access
Curriculum
Henderson A. and Miles E. (2001) Basic Topics in Mathematics for Dyslexics.

London: Whurr.
Irlen H. (1991) Reading by the Colors: Overcoming dyslexia and other reading
disabilities. New York: Avery Publishing Group.
Jordan R., Jones G. and Murray D. (1998) Educational Interventions for Children
with Autism: A literature review of recent and current research, Research Report
77. London: DfEE.
Klein C. (1993) Diagnosing Dyslexia. London: BSA.
Klein C. and Millar R. (1990) Unscrambling Spelling. London: Hodder and
Stoughton.
Krupska M. and Klein C. (1995) Demystifying Dyslexia: Raising awareness and
developing support for dyslexic young people and adults. London Language and
Literacy Unit.
Lee J. (1999) Adult Dyslexia, a Cloak over your Intelligence: removing the cloak,
in Spotlight on Learning Basic Skills. London: LSDA Publications.
Lee J. (2002, forthcoming) Making the Curriculum Work series Approaches to
supporting adult basic skills learners with dyslexia. London: BSA.
McKissock C. (2002) Adult Dyslexia: A guide for basic skills tutors. London: Adult
Dyslexia Organisation.
McLoughlin D., Fitzgibbon G. and Young V. (1994) Adult Dyslexia: Assessment,
counselling and training. London: Whurr.
Morgan E. and Klein C. (2000) The Dyslexic Adult in a Non-Dyslexic World.
London: Whurr.
Ott P. (1997) How to Detect and Manage Dyslexia. London: Heinemann.
Paulesu E., Frith U., Snowling M., Gallagher A., Morton J., Frackowiak R. and Frith
C. (1996) Is Developmental Dyslexia a Disconnection Syndrome? Evidence from
Pet Scanning Brain pp43157.
Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (2002) The National Standards for Adult
Literacy and Numeracy. London: QCA
Sassoon R. (1993) Computers and Typography. Oxford: Intellect Books.
Shaughnessy M. (1977) Errors and Expectations. Milton Keynes: Open University
Press.
Spiegel M. and Sunderland H. (1999) Writing Works: Using a genre approach in
literacy and ESOL teaching. London Language and Literacy Unit.
Sunderland H., Klein C., Savinson R. and Partridge T. (1997) Dyslexia and the
Bilingual Learner: Assessing and teaching adults and young people who speak
English as an additional language. London Language and Literacy Unit.
320
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Resources
Townend J. and Turner M. (2000). Dyslexia in Practice A guide for teachers.

Kingston upon Thames: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.
Turner M. (1997) Psychological Assessment of Dyslexia. London: Whurr.
Wordpower Dictionary (2000) Oxford University Press.
Graded readers adapted from original classics and popular literature, primarily
aimed at ESL/EFL learners, are available from a wide range of educational
publishers.
For all BSA publications, phone 0870 600 2400
For all DfES publications, phone 0845 60 22260
For all QCA publications, phone 01787 88 4444
Other resources and materials

Dyslexia screening and diagnostic resources
Bangor Dyslexia Test, Learning Development Aids.

Dyslexia Adult Screening Test (DAST), available from the Psychological
Corporation.
Instines v.2.02 The Smart Dyslexia Screening, available from Artificial
Relevance.
Lucid Adult Dyslexia Screening (LADS), available from Lucid Research Ltd.
Quick Scan, available from Interactive Services Ltd.
StudyScan, available from Pico Educational Systems Ltd.
Web site: www.zyworld.com/studyscan/
Hardware and peripherals
Braille n Speak, an electronic note-taking device.

Dictaphone, audio-recording aids.
Franklin Language Master, contains a dictionary, thesaurus, grammar and
spelling corrector.
Franklin Spellmaster, a hand-held spell checker.
Minicom, a text phone with keyboard that can be coupled to a conventional
phone or plugged directly into a phone socket.
Quicktionary Reading Pen, scans and pronounces individual words and
sentences and defines words.
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Curriculum
Typetalk, national BT/RNID relay service sending minicom messages in speech

and voice messages in text. It can send e-mail and fax messages and also has a
mobile version.
Other learning materials
Alphabet arc, available from LDA.

BROGY, available from Taskmaster Ltd.
Edith Norrie Letter Case, available from Helen Arkell Dyslexia Centre.
Guess Who? made by MB games, available from toy stores.
Envelope guides, writing frames, raised-line notepaper, signature guides,
available from RNIB.
Line trackers, available from Taskmaster.
Literacy through Total Communication (LTC), available through Bruce Bond.
Magnetic Poetry, available from major bookstores.
Pizza Party, available from LDA.
Plastic letters, available from LDA.
Tactile clocks and watches and talking clocks, available from RNIB.
Resource databases
Becta
Bectas Educational Software database has a wide range of software products
and details: vtc.ngfl.gov.uk/resource/esr/ Also www.ferl.becta.org.uk
TechDis database
Provides an on-line resource of information about products and suppliers for those
with disabilities, with information on assistive, adaptive and enabling
technologies. www.techdis.ac.uk/resources
Software
BSL CD-ROMs, available from RNID.

Co:Writer a predictive word-processing package that can be used to develop
language by encouraging prediction based on units of meaning. Available from
Don Johnston.
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Resources
Draft:Builder, for drafting, outlining and making notes. Available from Don
Johnston.
Dragon Dictate, voice-recognition software. Available from iANSYST Ltd and
Words Worldwide Ltd.
GAMZ Software, interesting ways of practising phonics. Available from GAMZ.
IBM Via Voice, speech-recognition software generally available.
Inclusive Writer, converts words to images and sound, acting as a speech
synthesiser. Available from Inclusive Technology Ltd.
Inspirations, mind-mapping software. Available from Don Johnston.
Jaws, screen-reading, speech-recognition software. Available from Sight and
Sound.
Keystone, speech-output software, used in conjunction with Dragon Dictate.
Available from Words Worldwide Ltd.
Kurzweil 3000 and 1000, optical character recognition software program, used
with a scanner can scan or read text and produce voice output or alternative
formats such as Braille. Available from Sight and Sound.
Naturally Speaking, speech-recognition software. Available from Words
Worldwide Ltd. For local suppliers, go to
www.lhsl.com/naturallyspeaking/locator/
Slideshow Builder, presentations software from Cambridge Training and
Development.
Start-to-Finish Books, books in three formats: computer book, paperback book
and audiocassette, age appropriate to age 18. Available from Don Johnston.
Supernova, a magnification programme. Available from Dolphin.
textHELP! Read and Write, adds speech output, word prediction and spellcheck facility to most Windows programs. Available from textHELP Systems.
Touch-type, Read and Spell. Available from P. Alexandre.
Units of Sound Multimedia, a structured program teaching reading and
spelling, linking visual and auditory patterns. Available from the Dyslexia
Institute.
Widgit, symbol software.
Wordswork, an interactive CD-ROM with both basic and advanced study skills,
based on a learning-styles approach. Available from Alphabetics.
Wordbar, contains word and phrase grids that learner can use to insert text and
hear words.
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Curriculum
Videos and television
Because. . ., produced by Dyspel Video (made by dyslexic offenders), from

London Action Trust.
Dyslexia: Symptoms, a video about dyslexia, Manchester Adult Education
Services. Available from Alpha Training.
Dyslexia series:
Identifying Dyslexia: a diagnostic interview
On Being Dyslexic: adults talking about dyslexia
Spelling to Learn: using a learning-styles approach to spelling with
dyslexic adults, London Language and Literacy Unit. Available from Avanti
See Hear, BBC Education TV magazine programme for deaf people.
Web accessibility information
W3C (World Wide Web Consortium) WAI (Web Accessibility Initiative).

The W3Cs Web Accessibility Initiative, in co-ordination with organisations
around the world, pursues accessibility of the web through five primary areas of
work: technology, guidelines, tools, education and outreach, and research and
development. www.w3.org/WAI
Accessibility of Online Materials Project (Aberdeen University)
Funded by Scottish Enterprise Grampian, this project provides an interpretation of
various web accessibility guidelines into easy-to-understand checklists and tips
www.abdn.ac.uk/diss/ltu/accessibility/
Bobby
The Centre for Applied Special Technology (CAST) has developed Bobby, a tool for
web page authors. It will help to identify changes needed to improve the
accessibility of web pages. www.cast.org/bobby/
How to judge a web sites accessibility level.
TechDis article. www.techdis.ac.uk/articlesdsloan01.htm
Manufacturers and suppliers

Software
P. Alexandre, PO Box 535, Bromley, Kent BR1 2YF.

Alphabetics Ltd, 10 Beacon Hill, London N7 9LY. Tel: 020 7687 1341. Fax: 020
7687 1341. Web site: www.wordswork.co.uk
Crick Software Ltd, 35 Charter Gate, Quarry Park Cloze, Moulton Park,
Northampton NN3 6QB. Tel: 0845 1211691. E-mail: sales@cricksoft.com. Web
site: www.cricksoft.com
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Dolphin Computer Access, Technology House, Blackpole Estate West, Worcester

WR3 8TJ. Tel: 0845 1305353. Fax: 01905 754559. E-mail: info@dolphin.co.uk.
Web site: www.dolphin.co.uk
Don Johnston Inc, 18 Claverdon Court, Calver Road, Winwick Quay, Warrington,
Cheshire WA2 8QB. Tel: 01925 241642. Web site: www.donjohnston.com
Dyslexia Institute, 133 Gresham Road, Staines, TW18 2AJ. Tel: 01784 463851.
Web site: www.dyslexia-inst.org.uk
Edward Marcus Ltd (low-vision aids including CTP Coil VTM for visual dyslexia).
Tel. 01298 871388. E-mail: Specialneeds@marcus.freeserve.co.uk
Web site: www.marcus.freeserve.co.uk
Franklin Electronic Publishers, Windmill Business Village, Brooklands Close,
Sunbury-on-Thames, Middlesex TW16 7DY. Tel: 01932 891025.
Gamz, 25 Albert Park Road, Malvern, Worcestershire WR14 1HW. Tel: 01684
562158. Fax: 01684 562158. E-mail: support@gamzuk.com.
Web site: www.gamzuk.com
iANSYST Ltd (specialist in dyslexia hardware and software), the White House,
72 Fen Road, Cambridge CB4 1UN. Tel. 01223 420101. Web site:
www.dyslexic.com
Inclusive Technology Ltd, Gatehead Business Park, Delph New Road, Delph, Oldham
OL3 5BX. Tel: 01457 819790. Fax: 01457 819799. E-mail: inclusive@inclusive.co.uk.
Web site: www.inclusive.co.uk
Learning Development Aids (LDA), Aware House, Duke Street, Wisbech,
Cambridgeshire, PE13 2AE. Tel: 01945 463441. Web site: www.ldalearning.com
SEMERC (Granada Learning) (also carries lower case alphabetic key caps),
Freepost NW, W565A, Manchester M3 9GX. Tel: 0161 827 2966.
Web site: www.semerc.com
Sight and Sound Technology, Qantel House, Anglia Way, Moulton Park,
Northampton NN3 6JA. Tel: 01604 79807. Web site:
www.sightandsound.co.uk
Techno-Vision Systems, 76 Bunting Road Industrial Estate, Northampton.
Tel. 01604 792777 (also carries large, bold upper-case key pads).
textHELP Systems Ltd., Enkalon Business Centre, 25 Randalstown Road, Antrim,
Co. Antrim BT41 4LJ. Tel: 028 9442 8105. E-mail: info@texthelp.com.
Web site: www.texthelp.com
Widgit, 124 Cambridge Science Park, Milton Road, Cambridge CB4 0ZS. Tel:
01223 425558. Web site: www.widgit.com
Words Worldwide Ltd, Ash House, Bell Villas, Ponteland, Newcastle upon Tyne
NE20 9BE. Tel: 01661 860999. Fax: 01661 822777. E-mail: info@keyspell.com
Web site: www.keyspell.com
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Other materials
Alpha Training, Chorlton Park Centre, Mauldeth Road West, Manchester

M21 25L.
Artificial Relevance, Flat 3, 133a Torrington Park, Finchley London N12 9AN.
Tel:07771 572 5090.
Bruce Bond, Smocklands Farmhouse, Drayton Langport, Somerset TA10 0JS.
Tel: 01458 251640 E-mail: brucebond@smocklands.fsnet.co.uk.
Helen Arkell Dyslexia Centre, Frensham, Farnham, Surrey GU10 3BW.
Tel: 01252 792400.
Interactive Services Ltd., Corporate Education Centre, Phibsboro Place,
Phibsboro Road, Dublin. E-mail: sales@isl.ie. Web site: www.isl.ie
London Action Trust, 88 Clapham Road, London SW9 OJT. Tel: 020 7793 0842.
Lucid Research Ltd., 3 Spencer Street, Beverley, E. Yorkshire HU17 9EG.
Tel: 01482 882121.
Smart Kids (UK) Ltd, has a range of tactile/multisensory resources, several of
which are appropriate for adults. Tel: 01635 44037.
web site: www.smartkidscatalog.com
Taskmaster Ltd, Morris Road, Leicester LE2 6BR.
Useful organisations/contacts
Adult Dyslexia Organisation (ADO), 336 Brixton Road, London SW9 7AA.
Helpline: 020 7924 9559. E-mail: dyslexia.hq@dial.pipex.com.
Web site: www.futurenet.co.uk/charity/ado/index.html
Avanti Books (high-interest reading books, some with tapes), 8 Parsons Green,
Boulton Road, Stevenage SG1 4QS. Web site: www.avantibooks.com
Basic Skills Agency, Commonwealth House, 119 New Oxford Street, London
WC1A 1NU. Tel: 020 7405 4017. www.basic-skills.co.uk
BASIL is a national project to support tutors and others who are helping adults
with learning difficulties and/or disabilities to develop literacy and numeracy
skills. Web site (to 31 March 2002). www.ctad.co.uk/basil/
British Dyslexia Association, 98 London Road, Reading, RG1 5AU. Admin Tel:
0118 966 2677. Fax: 0118 935 1927. E-mail: admin@bda-dyslexia.demon.co.uk.
Helpline: 0118 966 8271. Web site: www.bda-dyslexia.org.uk
British Educational Communications and Technology Agency (Becta),
Milburn Hill Road, Science Park, Coventry CV4 7JJ. Tel. (0247) 641 6994.
Fax (0247) 641 1418. Web site: //vtc.ngfl.gov.uk/resource/esr/
Also: www.ferl.becta.org.uk
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Cambridge Training and Development Ltd, Lincoln House, The Paddocks,

347 Cherry Hinton Road, Cambridge CB1 8DH. Tel: 01223 470480.
Fax: 01223 470481. E-mail: postcentre@ctad.co.uk. Web site: www.ctad.co.uk
Cerium Visual Technologies (for a list of specialist optometrists and a kit of
overlays with instructions for screening) Cerium Technology Park, Tenteren, Kent
TN30 7DE. Tel: 01580 765211. Web site: www.ceriumvistech.co.uk
City Lit Centre for the Deaf, 16 Stukeley Street, London WC2B 5LJ.
Tel: 0207 353 0402. E-mail: citylit.ac.uk.
Davis Dyslexia Association UK, Sherwood Two, 8a Upper High Street,
Winchester, SO23 8UT. Tel: 01962 820005. E-mail: uk@dyslexia.com
Dyslexia Institute, 133 Gresham Rd, Staines TW18 2AJ. Tel: 01784 463851.
Gatehouse Publishing Charity (reading books for dyslexic learners), Hulme
Adult Education Centre, Stretford Road, Manchester M15 5FQ.
International Dyslexia Association. Web site: www.interdys.org
Institute of Optometry, 5662 Newington Causeway, London.
Tel: 020 7407 4183.
Irlen Centres UK. E-mail: enquiries@irlen.co.uk Web site: www.irlen.co.uk
Learning and Skills Development Agency, Regent Arcade House, 1925 Argyll
Street, London W1F 7LS. Tel: 020 7297 9000. Web site: www:LSDA.org.uk
MENCAP, Head Office, 123 Golden Lane, London EC1Y 0RT. Helpline: 0808 808
1111. E-mail: help@mencap.org.uk. Web site: www.mencap.org.uk
Mental Health Foundation, 7th Floor, 83 Victoria Street, London SW1H 0HW.
Information line: 020 7802 0302. E-mail: mhf@mhf.org.uk. Web site:
www.mentalhealth.org.uk
National Institute of Adult Continuing Education, 21 De Montford Street,
Leicester LE1 7GE. Tel: 0116 255 1451. Web site: www.niace.org.uk
National Blind Childrens Society, NBCS House, Market Street, Highbridge,
Somerset, TA9 3BW. Tel: 01278 764 764. Fax: 01278 764 790.
E-mail: enquiries@nbcs.org.uk.
RNIB and the National Library for the Blind, 224 Great Portland Street,
London W1. Tel: 020 7388 1266. www.rnib.org.uk
The Royal National Institute for the Blind (RNIB) provides factsheets on all types
of access technology, and provides web site guidelines, and can help with
assessment of equipment needs. They also have a Brailling Service which can
translate text and also grids and diagrams into Braille. RNIB and the National
Library for the Blind are a source of Braille, Moon and taped books; they also
distribute German film.
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Access
Curriculum
RNID, 1923 Featherstone Street, London EC1Y 8SL. Helpline: 0808 808 0123.
Textphone: 0808 808 9000. Fax: 020 7296 8199.
E-mail: informationline@rnid.org.uk. Web site: www.rnid.org.uk
Skill: National Bureau for Students with Disabilities, Fourth Floor, Chapter
House, 1820 Crucifix Lane, London SE1 3JW. Tel: 0207 450 0620.
Web site: www.skill.org.uk
SCOPE, Cerebal Palsy Helpline, PO Box 833, Milton Keynes, Buckinghamshire
MK12 5NY. Helpline 0808 800 3333. E-mail: cphelpline@scope.org.uk.
Web site: www.scope.org.uk
Other useful web sites
www.abilitynet.co.uk
Accessibility of Online Materials Project (Aberdeen University)
www.abdn.ac.uk/diss/ltu/accessibility/
Becta site
www.becta.org.uk/technology/infosheets/sen.html
has the results of government-funded research on the use of ICT to support
learners with disabilities and learning difficulties.
Bobby
a tool to identify changes needed to improve the accessibility of web pages.
www.cast.org/bobby/ www.inclusive.co.uk/search/search.htm
TechDis
TechDis aims to enhance access for those with learning difficulties and/or
disabilities, through the use of information and communication technologies.
www.techdis.ac.uk
W3C (World Wide Web Consortium) WAI (Web Accessibility Initiative)
www.w3.org/WAI
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Special needs curr. cover
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Page 2
For further copies contact:

LSIS publications
Tel: 0845 270 2238
Fax: 0845 838 1207
Web: www.sflip.org.uk
A1211
ISBN 1 85338 695 2

Access For All: Guidance For Making The Core Curricula Accessible

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Access For All: Guidance For Making The Core Curricula Accessible

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Special needs curr.

Access for all

Access for All

guidance on making the adult literacy

Access for All

The national steering group

Foreword by John Healey MP, Minister for Adult Skills

How to use the manual

Using the curriculum: principles

Working with disabled learners or learners with learning difficulties

Learning styles and learning difficulties and disabilities

Speaking and listening

Access for All

Published outcomes of the national programme

Adult Pre-entry Curriculum Framework for Literacy and Numeracy

Living Our Lives ten readers written by learners for learners

The Self-Advocacy Action Pack

www.ctad.co.uk/basil/ for teachers, trainers and learners

Access for All

national standards for adult literacy and numeracy to ensure

intensive curriculum training for staff who are teaching literacy,

a literacy and numeracy curriculum framework for learners with

national literacy and numeracy tests at Level 1 and Level 2, to measure

a range of new qualifications at Entry level, to measure achievement

new Further Education National Training Organisation (FENTO)

The Adult Basic Skills Core

The basis for Access for All

The national standards for adult literacy and numeracy

speak, listen and respond

Numeracy covers the ability to:

understand and use mathematical information

The purpose of the manual

How to use the manual

a series of sections on speaking and listening, reading, writing and

In using this manual, it is important to bear in mind that:

the introduction gives crucial information about the implications of

not every descriptor (curriculum element) is mentioned in the sections

The Adult Basic Skills Core

Adult Literacy Core Curriculum pp58-59

The curriculum content standards, curriculum sub-section and descriptors (the

Policy and legislative background

The Adult Basic Skills Core

Using the curriculum: principles

Key principles for curriculum delivery

assess what the learner can do and build on previous knowledge

develop the learners skills through what motivates and interests

keep expectations high while giving learners opportunities to

base learning approaches and assessment methodologies on

negotiate and follow the learners priorities

look for alternative approaches and/or methods of support where

make everything explicit and check understanding frequently

remember that most learners will have a spiky profile which

review and monitor learning at each stage with the learner

Who are the learners?

The Adult Basic Skills Core

Two examples of spiky profiles

If basic skills are difficult to acquire, they demand greater effort, so

Many learners with learning difficulties or disabilities, such as those

Working with disabled learners or learners with

Principles for working with learners with learning difficulties

treat people as individuals, not conditions

The Adult Basic Skills Core

Never use the adjective as a noun