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CHAPTER

20

SUMMARY

Reversible and irreversible processes: A reversible process is one whose direction can be reversed
by an innitesimal change in the conditions of the process, and in which the system is always in or
very close to thermal equilibrium. All other thermodynamic processes are irreversible.

Irreversible:
Metal,
70C

Ice at
0C

Reversible:
Metal,
0C

Ice at
0C

QC
QC
W
=1+
=1-`
` (20.4)
QH
QH
QH

Heat engines: A heat engine takes heat Q H from a source,


converts part of it to work W, and discards the remainder
Q C at a lower temperature. The thermal efciency e of a
heat engine measures how much of the absorbed heat is
converted to work. (See Example 20.1.)

e=

The Otto cycle: A gasoline engine operating on the Otto


cycle has a theoretical maximum thermal efciency e
that depends on the compression ratio r and the ratio of
heat capacities g of the working substance.

e = 1 -

QH

c
QH

678

Otto cycle

b
W

K =

QC
QC
=
W
QH - QC

(20.9)

QH

eCarnot = 1 -

TC
TH - TC
=
TH
TH

Outside air, TH
Refrigerator

Inside of refrigerator, TC

TH

QH 2 QC

100%-efficient engine

Impossible

p
a

(20.14)

Carnot cycle
QH

TC
TH - TC

(20.15)

dQ
L1 T
(reversible process)
S =

W
TC

W b
d
QC

K Carnot =

d
Q
a C
V
rV

The second law of thermodynamics: The second law of thermodynamics describes the directionality
of natural thermodynamic processes. It can be stated in several equivalent forms. The engine statement is that no cyclic process can convert heat completely into work. The refrigerator statement is
that no cyclic process can transfer heat from a colder place to a hotter place with no input of
mechanical work.

Entropy: Entropy is a quantitative measure of the disorder of a system. The entropy change in any reversible
process depends on the amount of heat ow and the
absolute temperature T. Entropy depends only on the
state of the system, and the change in entropy between
given initial and nal states is the same for all processes
leading from one state to the other. This fact can be used
to nd the entropy change in an irreversible process.
(See Examples 20.520.10.)

Water,
0C

(20.6)

g-1

QC

The Carnot cycle: The Carnot cycle operates between


two heat reservoirs at temperatures TH and TC and uses
only reversible processes. Its thermal efciency depends
only on TH and TC . An additional equivalent statement
of the second law is that no engine operating between
the same two temperatures can be more efcient than a
Carnot engine. (See Examples 20.2 and 20.3.)
A Carnot engine run backward is a Carnot refrigerator. Its coefcient of performance depends only on TH
and TC . Another form of the second law states that no
refrigerator operating between the same two temperatures can have a larger coefcient of performance than a
Carnot refrigerator. (See Example 20.4.)

0C

W W 5 QH 1 QC
5 QH 2 QC
Cold reservoir, TC

Refrigerators: A refrigerator takes heat Q C from a


colder place, has a work input W , and discards heat
Q H at a warmer place. The effectiveness of the refrigerator is given by its coefcient of performance K.

Water,
40C

Hot reservoir, TH
Engine

QC

40C

(20.19)

TH
TC
V

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