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http://www.archive.org/details/socialpsychologyOOfarn
The Dryden
Press
Publications in Psychology
GENERAL EDITOR
THEODORE
M.
NEWCOMB
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
THE
SOCIAL
PSYCHOLOGY
OF
MUSIC
Paul R. Farnsworth
PROFESSOR OF PSYCHOLOGY
STANFORD UNIVERSITY
316131
Copyright
The Drjden
Press, Inc.,
Press, Inc.
Street,
New
Number ^711^72
TO
Max
F.
Meyer
n'^ l/iW;^
Preface
While
all
scientific scrutiny,
scientists.
traditionally
physicists, but a
number of
psychologists have studied the auditory sense organs to learn the nature
musician does
he possesses.
Still
to find
what
tonal sensitivities
some extent
One
in the textbooks
overlap.
as to
So
far,
may stress laboratory data and do a minimum of theorizing, another may present fewer
"facts" but be far more philosophical in approach. One may treat of
music
as if the cultural
activities.
Of course no book
been
text
said to
can include
all
that at
All that
PREFACE
can properly be asked of an author
as
is
that
phenomena of the
field,
major
its
is
in the past
two decades. The year 1937 saw the publicaA Psychology of Music and Mursell's The
interpreted research
The
ecstasy.
Mursell's advice to
and
other treatises.
Seashore's Psychology of Music was issued in 1938,
With no interest in
bound
studies of his
broaden
later to
In Search
his
own
laboratories.
coverage of the
of Beauty in Music.
field
He attempted some
years
In 1940
Built
on
Max
his earlier
Beautiful in
work
No new
known
work, The
later,
more
when
Revesz's well-
philo-
year
PREFACE
later
it
was issued
in the
in
title Introduction to
European findings
lightly
on
absolutistic
and hereditarian.
Lundin's An Objective Tsychology of Music was also published in 19^3.
in thirteen years,
it
had the
Two
music.
One was
which was
a series of
Its
author,
is
the
Indeed,
field.
first
Max Meyer,
dedicated,
it
rather frightening
to
whom
brilliant theorists
title
The Musician
book
is
and experimenters
in
the present
treatise
which
it
is
admittedly
difficult to
become
as
well
as
read and
slow growth of scientific neurology and has occupied himself less and
less
lines suggested
by Meyer, he
still
Arithmetic,
Meyer's early
and
careful attention.
articles,
first
a host of research
PREFACE
finally
adopted a
relativistic, culturally
first
course,
may never be
least tentative
He
begun
Many problems,
good number already have
aesthetics.
resolved. Yet a
of
at
chapters to follow.
little
experimental
work
less serious
forms of Occidental
To write
task.
Yet
for
book attempts
this
to interest these
that
which any
intelligent
more
psychological
beyond the
title
of this book.
To
It is
sive.
a difficult
two audiences.
knowledge than
is
who
a glossary
more
desires
is
detailed
knowledge
o of the research
is
to
which once
Art Criticism,
which
interest
Abstracts.
referred to
Allied Fields
volumes
Vlll
is
and
in
as
PREFACE
Attention should also be directed to A. R.
Learned Societies).
N.
University
Barnhart,
Aesthetics,
Studies,
[1933]);
Bibliography
to
A.
R.
of Psychological
Chandler and
and Experimental
1938); and to
igoo
to
Green, 1934)-
The author
is
indebted to
An
know
name them
publishing houses.
This material
him
to take over
of Chapters 6 and
7.
P.R.F.
Stanford, California
July 1957
IX
Contents
Chapter One
Music
to
Alternative Hypotheses, 4
musical Investigations, 6
in
Limitations of Psycho-
Absolutes,
Chapter Two
17
Scales of Ancient
Number
17
Scale w^ith
7, 23
'
Chapter Three
The Interval
36
Distinctive Quale, 36
37
Apparent Pitch of
Minor
Effect,
lutions,
44
sonance, 47
40
Intervals,
38
Finality Effects, 41
Tonality,
4^
The Major-
Interval Reso-
Summary, o
XI
CONTENTS
Chapter Four
Melody
gg
Melody and
Melody and Loudness, 6i Melody
and Timbre, 64 Melody and Sonance, 66 Melody
and Noise, 67 Melody and Tempo, 69 Melody and
Rhythm, 70 Harmony, j Summary, 77
Principles of Attention and Learning, gy
Pitch Level, ^8
Chapter Five
84
Grammar, 8g
Desire for Communication, 84
Alleged Key Effects, 86
Major and
Meaning, 8g
Color-Tone Linkage, 90
Minor Modes, 88
"The
Adjective Lists for
Language of the Emotions," 93
Classifying Music, 9^ Variables Which Give Meaning
to Music, 99
The Expression of Tensions, 102
Music as a Universal Language, 106 Psychoanalytic
Symbolism, 108 Summary, 109
Chapter Six
116
Enjoyment,
129- Know^ledge of Composers, 1 3 1 Programs, 132*
Individual and Group
Space Allocations, 136
Differences, 138
Criteria and Conditioners of
Taste, 142
Summary, 1^2
Chapter Seven
Variety of Measures,
^8
i^'S
Auditory Tests,
5^9
xii
Bore-
CONTENTS
Chapter Eight
an
178
178
The
184
Abilities
Chapter Nine
226
Musical
231
Skills,
230
Tests of Nonverbal
Battery,
235^
Aptitude,
Tilson-
237
1939
Edition of the Seashore Measures of Musical Talents,
Tests, 248
Chapter Ten
2^4
Xlll
CONTENTS
Epilogue
273
Appendix
lj
1.
2.
ations,
XIV
286
Subject Index
291
Name
299
Index
CHAPTER ONE
JLiKE most
discussions
area of study
is
which attempt
show
a science,
to
that
all
particular
Some
or nothing.
little
to include almost
some
Music
definitions
systematic investigation,
while others would restrict the term to the older and betterestablished disciplines of the natural sciences. Yet
that
the
psychologists
aesthetics of
who
music aim to be
have
interested
scientists.
They
it
themselves
try to
in
the
statistical
when
sophistication.
reality.
test innate
ment
who had
devoted their
lives to the
irri-
improve-
But, as
more
(p. i86).
careful to
work
Nowadays, psycho-
in a musical context.
and the natural sciences. With the passage of time, however, the
social sciences
until, at present,
many
psychology
sciences
its
retention of
its
(if
members of
This growth of
is
reflected in the
its
newer
development
notably
tended to be
It is
who
deal
primarily with the biological aspects of music should feel that the
major experi-
orientation
is
Believing as
ignoring
its
the picture a
to
some
to
little
more
to balance.
No
become
clearer as the
book
is
read.
Its
side.
But whatever
obvious,
v^^hat
He
less likely
is
much
"common
sense," for
he has
found that he and others "know" many things that are simply not
true.
Let us take
as
when
more
support to the idea.^ In this area, alertness and the feeling of alertness are not closely related.
Or
more
let us
sensitive to tone
Large numbers
and
No
striking
memory
loudness, time,
ever been demonstrated. In the several studies in this area the racial
differences that do
emerge are
so slight that
But
Common
and make
if
impressive,
all
itself
imme-
it
unmistakably apparent.^
some humans
embarrassed by the
sense typically
sense.
that most,
not
all,
abilities
biological dis-
who
difficulties in
dislike
is
an activity for
are usually
most
that
sissies,
early period
easily learned.
Later in
they will find that with great effort they can master the concept
of pitch but that they must have considerable aid from psychologists
more example.
common
illustrations
measure seem to be
common
Man
sense.
when asked
Yet
if this
were
the lack should be general and not limited to a few culture areas.
psychologist
so,
The
of North Africa
four as
his
we are with
were almost
with the
as skillful
it
Later,
five-
on
and seven-
his return to
to tap out the five- and seven-four with great accuracy. 4 These
young
activities.
scientist
is
It
looks reasonable,
for example, to assume that the true beat in music5 has a rate
is
many
matter to
test in
which
and for
between body
as a fact.
other deterininants.^ Although he did not find what these latter were,
During 1939
many performances
of the
association.
this
100 pulsations
little
a far cry
all
several
the
symphony
way from 40
to
gives each
minute.
The search
accept
as
creating
that
if it
new
makes the
into print.
scientist loath to
In the process of
say about
some phenomenon
is
no longer true
ever was. Thus, long ago the notion was written into at least
few textbooks
tones.
but rarely. In
Avonder that anyone ever did hold to the purity idea, for
listen to a relatively
music
now
steady
deals.
And
it is
there
Other almost
be found
in
relative
rest
at
the
beat-instants.
He attached
a tiny
light
dimmed
By photographing the
The
respective beats.
fastest,
at
the beat-instants
On
misinformation
printed
occasion,
As an
been
has
retained
for
studies.
certain
advertising that
it
two chief
rivals.
as
its
hammer
many
as the
on the music
intensity holes
roll
its
of
its rivals'
went on unchanged.
The psychologist
organized whole.
pieces
But why
does he choose to
it
work on
would seem,
is
certain
to
some
The
first
of these conditioners
human
6
is
common
Unless he
is
to
almost
all
the
who must
He commonly
he might desire to
answer
test,
his questions
without
who do
all
those
"cooperate"
may
sufficient care.
The second
factor
which
whenever
analyses are to
Causal relations
in question
not disturbed. Otherwise, the data resulting from the analyses will
many
that
fascinating musical
In
logist.
He
many
areas
cannot get his teeth into the meaty center of the problem.
The
Psychological
what
Possibilities
is
function.
it
has a descriptive
criteria
for
all
work
by which
artistic
But no science
offers
all
To
illustrate
the
first,
or
Careful research in
been found
to occur. For both violin and voice the tone pulsates about 6* g times
a second.
pitch range)
is
is
twice
this value
(in the
middle
somewhat smaller
(a fifth
of a
tone). Both the musically trained and the relatively unmusical prefer
all
others.
The
wobble of about
typical vibratos of a
measured. Hence,
it is
number of
now
whole tone.
a tenth of a
with that of
his
young singer or
model by performing
own
visual stimuli.
* C.
Average Extent in
per Second
Whole Tones
Schumann- Heink
7-6
38
Galli-Curci
7-3
44
Caruso
7-1
47
Rethberg
7-0
49
Ponselle
6-9
48
Chaliapin
6-8
54
Jeritza
6-8
53
Tetrazzinl
6-8
37
Talley
6-7
54
Tibbett
6-6
55
Gigli
6-5
57
Hackett
5-9
47
Homer
5-9
51
E. Seashore,
mission).
Average Rate
McGraw-Hill, 1938,
p.
43 (with per-
or
causal,
of a large
number
first
to be
preferences and the second with the reasons for the high regard in
Tempo
to
but
is
no doubt due
to a
number
of
at least
which
activity
proceeds
came
seems
it
a fast allegro
clear, so
faster
bordering on presto.
conditioned these
girls that
they
And now for our second illustration of psychology's causal function. With the passage of time, the sales values of the violins built by
the old masters of Cremona have grown enormously. The know-how
of making great instruments has been lost and
are
weak
imitations,
Stradivarius or
its
some
it
modem
reproductions
is
other old
physical construction?
violin-making supremacy?
The
is
that
instruments differed
on
from
all
its
modern copy
to
less
make an
His sur-
than
work required
tests
modem
it
Cremona
violins
wood and
the orchestra. ^4
this
differences emerged.
There
particular instrument
feel that the
tone
is
was made by
a great
modern
to pay
more
for
it
All that
is
is
to arrange a psycho-
logical
The
results
marvelous
violins.
number of times
in
tions
him
validity
violin.
some
that a
order.
The awareness
is,
it
random
who
would seem,
can
built
To
or
suggestion
affected
we might
by an experimenter
subjects' likes
and
dislikes.
^^
of the principles of
if
he
That such
effects
could be
in a romantic
light.
No
led to regard
special psychological
The
last
with Hitler and the Nazi movement. The proof that the three
different "atmospheres" elicited three different degrees of acceptance
was shown
lo
in the three
mean preference
scores.
When
thought of as
When
greatest.
that to
many laymen
the
word
the
"classical"
"Classical
title
style of
that the
It
after the
changed
in the fact
titling. ^7
liked
if
the listener
is
who
if
believe the
composer
composer
is
were composed by
Bach's Concerto
to
far less
in
Minor
is
man
of
played to lay
if
Similar suggestive
the pictorial
arts.
These
critical
levels
have been
They
below these
time of graduation.
Music, found a
almost certainly
fail
are,
making
before the
critical level
college aptitude test, and a battery of music aptitude tests (Chap. 9),
is
all
all
time."
To him
the fact that the musically elite currently prefer a rate identical with
like v\^hat
it is
he knows
that
what
is
is
deemed proper
in
scientist, for
in this
book, the
belief that scientific research does not yield absolutes and final ansvv^ers,
is
This
work
is
is
by present day
improved
is
is
if
It
it
were made
repeated
may
No
esthetic value
may be araued
artists is a fad
eliminated. This
study
It
ultimately beautiful.
type of
judgment
is
less
fifty
this
artists
Perhaps
if this
one
now employed.
artistry
have changed,
time to time.
taste
nor to
.No
justify
as all esthetic
atteiTipt is
made
mean
that standards of
esthetic principles. ^^
is,
for
"That music
it:
is
all
and socially
i.e.,
felt to possess
Since the
first,
a piece of music
and
4.
is,
"What
medium
fifth
of communication.
meaning of a composition
is
seemed
And
clearly
as a
language chapter
it
its
taste,
composer, the
The
(Chaps.
and 9) might
suppose
abilities.
however.
is
all
inhibitory.
propitious.
own and
justifiably
it.
measurement
and
this taste
if
in the context of a
man's
13
taste
book, after
what he
is
final
ledge he should
With
as it has in this
been considered.
taste has
make
all
know-
he can about
to apply.
this brief
us examine next the musical scale, the totality of those fixed (but
relatively placed) pitch positions
uses in his
Notes
i]
as
M. Mezzrow and
2]
One
by G.
of the
B.
B.
Wolfe, Really
Publ.
the Blues,
studies
Hlth
N.Y.,
Rep.,
Compound on
Random
59 (1944):
House, 1946.
431-433;
Musical Talent
Wash.,
fifth
J.,
the Seashore Measures of Musical Talent he states: "It becomes evident that the only
is
that
! (1928):
no
significant differences
fair
between
whites and Negroes on those basic musical sensibilities measured by the Seashore tests."
3]
M. Ramm,
K.
"Personality Maladjustment
among Monotones,"
M.
F.
of time signatures or
6]
M. W. Lund, "An
is
the Other-one,
number
1939. In a somewhat similar analysis of the true beat of phonograph recordings, Hodgson
found that
measures
fell
may be
causally
Hodgson now admits the impossibility of proving a causal relationWalter Hodgson, "Absolute Tempo," Mus. Teach. Nat. Assoc. Proc. 1949> 43 Ser.,
19^1: 158-169.
7]
W.
F.
when
34^
Giese 's data show some similarity in the pattern of conducting (a) the different works of
14
Epoch
in
Ges.
und
Psychol.,
go
(1934): 380-426).
8]
See the U. of
Mus., vol.
M. Metfessel, R. S.
Wagner; an earlier
Miller, S.
230-259.
F. E. Linder, J. Tififin,
Excellent
work
M. Schoen, "An
Psychol. Monog., 31
(1922):
(193
i).
See also
W.
E.
Kock,
"On
the Principle of Uncertainty in Sound, "J. Acoust. Soc. Amer., 7 (1935'): 5^6-58; "Certain
Subjective
23-25-; A.
Stud.
the Viewpoint of Frequency and Amplitude Modulation," J. Acoust. Soc. Amer., 7 (1935):
2936; L. Sjostrom, "Experimentellphonetische Untersuchungen des Vibratophanomens
J. F.
Psjchol.,
10]
Corso and D. Lewis, "Preferred Rate and Extent of Frequency Vibrato, "y. Appl.
34 (1950): 206-212.
A phenomenon
"description."
variables to
which
it
is
popularly referred to as
11]
J.
P. Foley, Jr.,
J. Soc. Psychol., 12
I
2]
This "loss of
related.
its
is,
in a sense,
to be explained
Where
is
"causes."
(1940):
21-129.
know-how"
A. Saunders, "The Mechanical Action of Violins, "J. Acoust. Soc. Amer., 9 (1937):
13]
81-98. A. Small has shown that the "better" stringed instruments differ from the
F.
"poorer" largely in their emphasis on frequency bands below 2500 d.v. ("The Tone-color
[Timbre] of Stringed Instruments," Mus. Teach. Nat. Assoc, 1940 (1941): 35^4-360). See
also E.
14]
Even the
"lost art" of
making old
5]
Sci.
Month., 81,
Sci.
as
i9i;'5:
no longer.
See
J.
221-223.
1943, p. 988) reports that in London and in several other places there have been similar
failures to discriminate the tones of the older
16]
M. G.
J. Exp. Psychol,
38 (1948): 78-81.
17]
T. Geiger,
It is
conceivable that the long-continued use of the Geiger procedure might increase the
15
of persons
titled "classical."
1
8]
habitually tune in
the
name
of
J.
S.
in the late
Bach that
public,
it is
who
is
is
largely
unknown
all
But
now
(p. 276).
la.
(1935): 1-14020]
Even
number
of the great Schumann-Heink was quite acceptable in her day but causes
who
listen,
on recordings,
to
much
what appear
distress or
to
be her
periodic gasps.
21]
J.
Tiffin,
22]
134.
16
P. E.
Vernon, "Method
and
(1932): 134-165-.
42 (1930): 127-
CHAPTER TWO
The
Social Psychology of
Musical Scales
iVlusic
is
made
sounds are either noisy, with no perceptible pitch, or they are tonal,
all
pitches.
That
scales.
back
as
a scale,
example, of
little
theoretical importance
whether violin
It
is
is,
for
tuned
at
by an
interval's
two
tones.
The absolute
is
of the spans
size
is
generally
8000
much
d.v. has
It is
unchanged,
the notes can be raised or lowered without damage to the tune. Such
another register.
To understand
the
shifts
melody
to
how
ratios
construction.
ratio
pipes, they sound well together, and they are so easily confused
names have
traditionally
The
ratio of
(also
ratio
and those of
known by
goras (approximately ^^^o b.c.) that the diatonic (or seven white-
note) scale of his day was conceived of as being built with the octave
and the
fifth
on the
ratios
and
(or 3:4).
PYTHAGOREAN
with
fifths (2: 3)
Next
down by
or
and counts up
C.
SCALE.
is
musical
if
Proceeding
to
is
next higher
its
64:96:144:216:324:486:729
(six
fifth as
F:C:G:D:A:E:B
i.e.,
as
Scale of Pythagoras
C
96
216
486
384
256
432
288
486
324
64
512
1/1
8/9
64/81
27
Sharp
38
31
310
3/4
1
30(312)
35
144
324
729
192
576
768
384
648
432
729
486
512
2/3
16/27
128/243
1/2
81
729
32
Sharp
39
34
They could,
vs^ritten in
F Sharp
341-3
243
33
Sharp
such.
Sharp
311
3
31
36
in fact, have
this table
flats
3'
have no significance
and D,
fifths
here merely to indicate that there are chromatic scale steps between
and E, F and G,
and A, and
and B.
octaves, that
is,
64
as
is
5:1 2
taken
2 8 is
:
729
as a
one octave,
is
2 8
2 5^6
another,
If
^6
5^ i
the largest
fall
between 729 and the next lower octave, 364*5^, the letter steps are
now located within a single octave span (row 2). It is not customary,
however, to locate
at 384.
rows 2 and 3
magnitude
differ in
row
3.
it at
2^6 cycles
While the
values of
reduced
ratio given in
row
4.
2^6:288, 384:432 or
as
Similarly,
C E
8:9, the
as
It
other C's
vs^ill
the ratios of
row
row
the values in
25-6,
by
2's until
odd numbers
2's.
"tone symbols" by
and
not the
Now
row
is
more
from
Max Meyer. 7
6,
formed
5,
Pythagoras,
his scale
and
it
can
now be
seen from
exclusively.^
35^0 B.C.).
fifths,
is
If
con-
sharp,
point F
2: 3 ratio
sharp,
of the
the octave
fifths
fifth,
3^^.
sharp and
is
requires.
2,
which
make each
so
would have
20
S.
We
shall see
small
enough
fitted
fifth just
intervals to
it
was
finally
and
reached
as the result
It is
Any
3.
relatively
in the rationali-
were not
ance derives from the fact that other theoretically minded musicians
of a later date held similar views.
a
compromise
between
The
scale next to
Pythagorean
the
be considered
conception
and
is
the
Ptolemaic.
What
is
psychology
Pythagorean scale
of Western music
w^as
number
g.
F, C,
is
intonation.
the prime
G, and
scales.
The symbols
for
^, a multiple of
As will be seen
it
is
B and
compara-
particularly
Over the
stress to
fitted
centuries.
number
4.:
ratios of the
1
Pythagorean scale
its
from C to
ratio
was
this
21
scientific,
harmonic usage. In
became
fact,
so
it
It
some
later ones,
scale rationalization
from
all
further change,
accepted.
On
been carved
the contrary, in a
in
quite
number of
"unnatural" ways
been universally
(p.
ig).
Then, too, in
to
it
Sharp
F Sharp
24
27
256
288
30
320
341-3
1/1
8/9
4/S
3/4
27
15
31
X 3)
30
22
Sharp
33
Sharp
(5
32
Sharp
48
36
40
384
426-6
45
480
512
2/3
3/5
8/15
1/2
5
6
45
32
51
(15x3)
31
Number 7
scale
group of musicians. ^^
large
i,
3,
and
g,
7 has
been
it
is
described
16
18
20
21
256
288
320
336
1/1
8/9
4/5
16/21
3(
32
51
5
6
sharp
Sharp
24
27
384
432
2/3
16/27
31
Sharp
F Sharp
21
(7x3;
Sharp
(28)
30
32
480
512
8/15
1/2
27
15
(7)
33
3"
(5x3)
(71)
This scale differs from the others shown so far not only in
the prime 7 but also in the fact that
modulated up
which
a fifth (or
on F
fell
down
its
a fourth).
here
its
use of
That
falls
is,
on C.
9 and 9
number
made
smaller steps of
steps
15^:16.
The just-intoned
and
had three whole
20:21 and
i
smaller steps
clear,
ratios of 8 9
show
scale
:
half-
The
scale
and two
it
is
new
23
one of 9
were
If,
would have
a do to re
10.
to
be
many
that
common
and was
system of sharps,
burdened.
still
cumbersome
flats,
is
flats,
signs, i.e.,
whether
or vice versa.
We have
is
In
intervals.
with such
line
in
the day.
It is
fifths
could actually be
It
fulfilled.
With
flats, e.g.,
sharp and
still
won
flat,
were
as different
notes.
Scale of
C
3
24
Sharp
256
G
3
Mean-Tone Temperament
382-8
Sharp
286-1
Sharp
A
428-0
Sharp
320
342-4
478-6
512
F Sharp
temperament
in
dividing the octave into twelve equal semitone steps, i.e., equal
so far as ratios
frequencies.^^
which
The
J.
S.
This
scale
in
temperament
of equal
the one
is
ratio of the
is
for
tuned.
is
i: 1-05^9.
tempered
at
scales also
appears
it
It is
that
equally
Siamese
times divide their octave into seven equal steps and the Javanese
Sharp
Sharp
Sharp
Sharp
430-3
383-5
D
287-3
256
322-5
341-6
483-2
512
F Sharp
measurement
if
as a unit
of
has urged the adoption of the decitone, the centitone and the milli-
the cent,
tempered
which
scale.
^^
is
most general
use,
however,
The octave
in this system of
measurement equals
now on
scales to see
how
perceptually
^5
we must
between
look
at thresholds,
man's
at
ability to discriminate
But
loss of identity.
It is
larger or smaller,
this
is
true, for
how much
Just
more
difficult to
But
agreement.
of the
fifth is
it
human
the
fifth
scales.
it
is
not entirely in
disturbed
more
accom-
be tolerated
this aspect
was kept
at
be thought of
as
approximately
5-00 cents.
On
the Western
all
which might
The fourth was kept at
scale points
fifth.
seventh varied
Careful
is
approximately 20 cents
middle of the tonal range. ^9 This value checks with the findings
between the
fifths
whose student
the seconds.
The
difference
accuracy a
subjects hear
no difference
is
27 cents
(iiio 1083),
is
occasionally
number
26
the threshold
The
scales so far
mathematically different
to
would tend
to
make most
the vibrato,
when present,
204
204
408
498
702
906
1110
1200
Just
386
498 f
702
1088
1200
M.T.T.
193
386
503
697
884
890
1083
1200
E.T.
200
400
500
700
900
1100
1200
C
pjth.
514 686
343
171
Siam.
480
240
Javan.*
"7"
204
It
between the
intervals
Tuning
j-
in a
386
Ganda Harp,"
T. E. Simonton, in
"A
Ganda
Nature,
720
702
471
857
960
P.
1200
906
1200
1029
1088
is
so
1200
New Integral
2S
{^9Sl)' 1167-1170, has devised a chromatic scale with a perfectly symmetrical arrangement of just fourths. He claims that it combines the advantages of the Pythagorean, the
just-intoned, and the equally
scales.
It is
more
tempered
difficulty than
we
PITCH DISCRIMINATION.
compare
is
asked to
comes
is
can be discriminated by
So,
many
far
27
is
still
are theorists
who
just intonation
The author
whenever
possible to do so.^
it is
many
sensitive people.
employ
in the main,
musically
been laymen,
amateur musicians, and teachers of music, and to them he has presented a variety of scales.
scales, the
it is
He
if
just scale
played
is
anyone prefer
it
But
if
is
that
Rarely does
is
harmonic
it,
may
much
better, etc.
its
When
the scales have not been identified, the typical listener appears to feel
He
where
violinists
reverted to just intonation whenever their playing was unaccompanied.^^ These observations
modern
valid.
But
violinists. ^^
As might have
But the mean value of each interval was closer to what was advocated
Later
work by
28
results. ^3
far
notes.
we
While
it is
One
sharp, and
steps.
this scale
Even
five
at a
it is
when
time
today,
semitones,
2,
it
was allowable
to
make
more
When
The
adhered to
D, E, F sharp,
e.g., C,
is
sharp,
many
sharp, C.
people,
in
It
who
which of course
finally 2
as
rise of atonal
must be minor
rigidly
whole-tone music,
it
sharp,
The
and
modern piano,
more and more
sharp,
if
as well.
were thought
the
is
semitone
than
sharp,
of these'
whose
it is
not
(p. 89).
steps are C,
D, E, F sharp, A,
made up
still
as their
personal idiom.
one time or another. One of the most bizarre was that of the
century Chinese, Chien Lohtze,
who proposed
fifth-
360-note scale to
year.
It is
quite clear
perception.
29
able to do this, he
Our
interest
would
But even
is
on
A number
he
if
is
A number
as
the next
now
operates
approximately 20 cents.
But
this
is
To be
the time.
all
The value
for the
the time Pratt has found to be about ^o cents, the span of the
But no interval
much
An
to play
one octave
A common
played.
answer
Most persons
intervals pleasing.
is
in quarter-tones
is
two octaves
to a tone
of the seconds or
30
has been
music. In
is
sevenths. ^7
in
Siamese
Summary
In this chapter
we
has been for centuries the seven-note diatonic, w^hose precise ratios
have varied from time to time. The Pythagoreans had held that a
succession oftwelve musical fifths of ratio
seven octaves,
i.e.,
there
would be
and
some
fifths
were
a trifle
too large to squeeze into seven octaves, and again and again there arose
The
the hope that other primes might be used in the scale ratios.
first
to be accepted
just intonation.
was the
g,
The addition of
ratios facilitated
which appeared
work
this
in
Since the
in
new
scale
a school
of
It w^as
series.
man had
Such
his
on the Deity
for
call
support of His scale and led early scientists to regard the just scale
"natural."
The
scale
became
so
honored that
all efl^orts
to alter
it
met
its
"naturalness"
the
more
equal temperament.
were
in
as
its
invalid.
and
a limited
modulation possible,
through
octave
is
all
keys.
In equal
temperament,
as the
tempered
measurement,
is
it
o cents in
magnitude they
little difficulty
do
exist,
tell that
There
is
no evidence
that
we
and
in
temperament
allows modulation,
tion.
the
really prefer to
it
"natural"
violinists
scale
temperament
their
Mursell
menon
says,
of
"Any
is
of equal temperament
Western music's
is
scale
is
final scale
The
and
pheno-
rivals
circles
is
more
now
intervals
as
some
as
Quarter-tone spans of
in
many
scale
For
form.
mind,
On
much
unique by the typical listener and hence are not functional for
music.
A number
of scale properties
still
interval,
in
particular
3^
its
to
remain to be described.
more
the
But
role
the
interval plays in
i]
The
2]
Stevens,
S.
S.
ed.,
igi'i.
value 435- d.v. (double vibrations), or 435- cycles, indicates that the sound-giving
body, be
it
a string, a fork, or a
column of
air, is
For the sake of convenience, the names given the intervals in Western music will be
3]
employed here even though the terms have proved to be definitely misleading to the
The octave, so called because it makes use of eight w^hite notes on the
unsophisticated.
piano,
is
named
fifth,
which involves
five
white
semitones; etc.
who was
C. Stumpf, a psychologist
4]
perhaps the
to
first
show
The fourth
6]
is
was
In A.D.
g]
is
some power of
(or to
i.e.,
fifth,
all
tones the
2).
12 semitones
minus
7 equals
semitones.
7]
M.
8]
Since F
^0
Qj-
9]
F.
above
sharp,
vibrating body, be
it
a string or a
own
pitch(octave plus a
column of air,
fifth), etc.
its
can be either
A somewhat
whole but
also
The
it
it
^12
as
2,
1:3, 1:4,
ratios of the
^, etc.
was held, man was somehow psychobiologically in tune with the root squares, the
much by
classical period.
1
1]
and
I
2]
The experimental
aesthetician
M.
F.
7 in a neurological interpretation of
It is
has
made
below, before,
God
after, right,
in His
Wisdom had
and
the number
left
in the series
to
5^.
The reason
had metaphysical
classical
f,
a larger
Meyer
above,
significance.
Chinese had
up,
To
use
a similar
down, before,
and center.
33
13]
note
14]
scale
W.
developed by H.
Meyer
reference,
1).
is
contact with alien intervals, and one such claim has been checked.
Several anthro-
make poorer
to be carelessly tuned,
scores on pitch discrimination tests than do the coastal and American-born Chinese, for
whom
exact tuning
is
more
R. Farnsworth,
"An
Critical,
Historical,
Genet. Psychol.
16]
Bachtagung der
Wissenschaftliche
O.
Gesellschaft
Bericht iiber
23.
bis
Jacobsen defends the idea that the tempered and the "natural" scale each has
I.
Tempered
("Harmonic Blending
26.
J.
Another unit of
ratio
measurement
its
126132.)
17]
Leipzig,
389-404.
8]
fur Musikforschung,
is
Amer.
cents.
19]
from musical,
i.e.,
Hence,
observers.
y. genet. Psychol.,
35 (1928): 286-293.
20 cents.
terms which are negatively related. Where the listener's threshold is low,
where he perceives the interval quality as changed after very little expansion or
sensitivity,
i.e.,
Other
theorists
H.
L. F.
is
said to
be highly
sensitive.
worry because much highly rated music was composed with mean-
Helmholtz, On
now
is
p.
486.
See also A. C. Roncalio, "Just and Equal Temperament," J. Musical., 3 (1941): 120122.
22]
23]
F.
Melody,"
24]
Max Meyer
{The Musician
(1949): 593-^9^.
Arithmetic)
would be
arranged
34
as are
is
in order.
See also P.
C. C. Pratt, op.
cit.
One
such
new
staff has
staff
J. Franklin Inst.,
2^]
43-44.
An
organ with a 31 -note scale to carry out the harmonic ideas of the seventeenth-
century mathematician Christiaan Huygens has been built by the Dutch physicist, A. D.
Sci.
Month., 81 {i3SS)'-
161-166). The basic interval of approximately 39 cents would appear to be on the very
border of practicality at best.
27]
P. R.
Farnsworth and C.
28]
J. L.
F. Voegelin,
"Dyad Preferences
at Different Intensities,"
148-1^1.
Mursell, "Psychology and the Problem of the Scale," Music. Quart., 32 (1946):
^64-^73-
3?
3-2
CHAPTER THREE
The
In
Interval
it
number
Distinctive Quale
It
distinctive quale,
recognized.
We
own
its
which
fact that,
it
is
physically
major
sixth, for
3,
mention only
But
configurations
sixthness.
within
few.
The major
all
sixth,
like all
A number
of researchers
who
to
common,
major
(p. 26).
The
results have
It is
same terms
36
as will
THEINTERVAL
violin, or a tuba.
to intervals played
a variety of instruments
his
ov^n reactions
and see
if
the
fifth
always sounds dilute, hollow, and harsh; the fourth rich, harsh, and
coarse; the second gritty and grating; the third
as
the
The reader
know
know
If
Ortmann's
he
tests
subjects, 3
much practice he
intervals. He will possibly
more difficult to recognize
that by
relatively
poorer in
his
middle
most used
in music.
But
whether the greater use of the middle range has made recognition
better or better recognition has forced greater usage
is
as
yet
unanswered.
Vibrato, Tremolo,
and
Trill
Although the
intervals.
reacts as
if
violinist or vocalist
whenever he employs
produces
as
as
as
of
a series
He
does not
the performer oscillates his tone over a wider and wider pitch
span.
Whenever
is
more
become
likely to
so
marked
be termed
as to
be quite
tremolo than
37
THE INTERVAL
vibrato, although
the two.
If
no
definite
between three-quarters of
ceases to hear a single
tion
emerges
as qualitatively different
pitches are
at vibrato rate.
He
heard
In
somewhere
a successive interval,
now
still,
The two
even
becomes greater
or
The trill,
trill.
then,
as separate tones
making
a trill the
which may
alternate
he does
relative pitch
which even
pitches,
it
is
an entity and
nai've listeners
as
may
were
single tone.
two boundary
such possesses a
can recognize.
component of an
upper, that
that
it
is,
interval
He
is
of the
much more
obvious
lower
is
so
figuration.
In his experiments
reported that
it
d.v.
more
to be attending
5^20.
first
His audience
interval
which
lower
components.
Stumpf's generalization seems in line with the dictum of the
THE INTERVA L
harmonists
is
who
normal orientation of
a tonal pattern
We
Perhaps
begin a scale
this
it
is
below
in-
again. "7
responsible for
Which
is
more
unlike middle
Which
in pitch?
higher in pitch?
is
IC
-er^
or
w
Unfortunately, the British psychologist Valentine was unable to
verify this principle of
Stumpf 's,
as
more
When
he
which
lay
wholly within
it is
quite
more impressed by
lines,
one
In his
in the early
researches he
how be
in his
training.
It
THE INTERVAL
have had so
upper
tones
much
lines of their
now
To
melody hunting
showed
an important variable
is
The
the
at
altos,
and to some
The
many
Clearly,
then,
melody hunting.
some
is
basses.
more markedly
it is
the
interval.
The Major-Minor
Effect
major
sixth, for
example,
calls forth a
minor
major or joyous
characteristics.
as such,
major and
the small
labels
number
more
minor
interval.
It
each
far
of bolder harmonists
who
characteristics.
40
can easily be
have no major or
composed of
It
affect
is
to
impute to
it
no
special psychological
THE INTERVAL
Finality Effects
simple demonstration of
finality effect
made by running
can be
over a succession of C's and F's on the keyboard and asking the
listeners for an appropriate stopping point.
in Western music there will be
almost invariably be
made on an
with
some have
as the first
seem more
that ordinarily
The
argument.
stop will
this note,
restful,
is
The repeated
scale.
playing of this
more
finished,
not regarded
characteristic of finality
We
listeners steeped
called a
melodies ending on
will
Among
if
F.
little
if it is
more
as at all
final.
it as
all
a bass,
Even an ending
listened to as an ending
on
this
many times. ^^
come back to
an emphasized note.
scale.
flat,
C).
On
is
heard
as
is
and
is
the upper
(F,
A, C; F,
as
far less
Hence,
it is
to vote for a
C which
is
as the
more
41
key of C. Therefore
is
the
more
Just as in
music there
falls
many
lower tone of
This
phenomenon
searchers and
is
that a scale
The
It
is
enhanced by
is
finality.
intervals
is
ended
is
size
of successive
may be
descent.
as a
finality effect. ^3
a succes-
descending melodic
is
is
effects
as restful as
span
is
quite
or even
more
size of
(or broken
2 is
of the perfect
rest.
to
is
fifth,
whose
Thispower-of-2 effect
ratio
is
is
2:3, the
is
or some
in the interval
the point of
more
who
first
worked
in
Much
is
unquestioned,
describes.
w^hich makes
Is
it
there
for the
it
phenomenon
be subsumed under
42
more
was inclined
THE INTERVAL
In fact, in researches
theorists.
he had found
lesser but
with
still
measurable
3,
In these experiments
7.^^
and
still
with
smaller effects
in
and
7.
intonation, i.e., with quite exact tuning. ^7 But this time these lesser
finality effects did
work strengthened
in these primes,
Among
effect
is
those
who
in finality effects.
structure
is
"power
of 2"
former,
she
influential in
suggested
harmony or the
determining
The
More
finalty.^9
Chinese melodies
own
for their
as
more
melodies.
finished
and
restful
Updegraff 's subjects was familiarity, not the pitch relationships of the
endings.
much
Americans.
the coast of China feel the finality effects of our Western music less
where our
interior,
Chinese,
style of
music
Chinese
it
would appear
is
the
effect.
more
It
is
would
may
also
be some
less
^"^
43
THE INTERVAL
Interval Resolutions
Any other
system.
intervals,
such
as
or unresolved effect.
Resolutions
Tonic Sol- Fa System
re to
do
re to
mi
Ja to mi
G
A
to
la to sol
to
to do
to
sol
ti
D to C
D to E
FtoE
to do
C has been
on C,
that
is,
on
do,
finality
symbol
interval
or ascending
return to the
If
tone (9 to
(27
to
3,
or 9 to
to
2).^^
and
15-
to
(It
as
on
It is
interesting to note
it
were, the
tempered
resolution.
scales
all
ending
Thus, the
effect.
fifth
keynote.
sufficiently
ti
a little, anticipating, as
presumably be
described similarly.)
The
44
C major
is
THE INTERVAL
only with
as
two other
E (or mi)
inversion, E, G, C, the
become magnet
Mi
"pulls" re
it
more used
is
weaker than
tones,
and fa to
in
is
and
It
would be
do,
since the
(or
sol).
Hence, mi and
first
Of
inversion with mi as
who had
"pulls" la.
sol
sol,
based on
is
In the first
positions as well.
It is
its
apparently
no resolution.
that since me
(E\} )
mi as the
much-heard
bass of
the chief chord, the ascending major second (remi) and the descending minor second (fami)
there
is little
Tonality
At
this
point
it
how
reasonable to ask
is
interest in atonality
fails
The
why
in his
own
If
the
he
finality
is,
subjective matter.
It is a
The
Oriental, unfamiliar as
as
we,
after a
is
equipped to appreciate
4?
THE INTERVAL
nuances of some of the Eastern systems.
its
neighbors and so
hoped,
on the
of
all
finality.
tonality;
have
it
saturated
at least
led to no feelings
with
themselves
modicum
SchonberCT thought,
is
a relative
Atonality, regardless of
matter after
what
all.
Milhaud and others have for some time been composing polytonal
music. Although to
many
it
Attention to any one melodic line will disclose an obvious tonic. Yet
the lay listener normally focuses his attention on the complex, not on
a single strand, so that to
Although
it is
more
we
him
the music
is
virtually atonal.
we
for
Western
tonality. ^3
Of our own
early
its
gradually
disappeared
until
only
we know
little
music
major and
iTiinor
remained.
Late in the sixteenth century the stage was set for strong
tonality as
we now know
it.
Tonality
is still
46
than
modes
less feeling
or nothing.
such that
We
its
present strength
is
it
with us
in spite of the
anyone's guess.
THE
RVAL
N TE
all
who
little
or
makes the
may know
third. ^4
He may
to the
minor seventh
It
in
is
which almost
fact,
be no
Among
classification, the
According to
Smoothness, then,
is
a similar
It is
remarkable
numerous
how
refutations.
One need
when
all
left
More-
same
is
is
branded
is
he did the
as
dissonant.
47
THE INTERVAL
Stumpf's theory effusion can be objected to on similar grounds, ^^
For when he
which
unitary impression
defies
he
analysis,
is
obviously
quite
Successively
is
as
is
may be moments
of doubt for
many
persons,
those with simple ratios, and the dissonances those with the
complex
ratios.
fifth
most
serious, perhaps,
is
its
failure
8:15:.
difficulties
more
to cover
One
of the
perfect
fifth,
it
be rated
will
larger or smaller
it
interval
has been
as
is
still
recognizable
as,
consonant no matter
in the
say,
the
how much
its
ratio has
become.
The hypothesis of
number
interval,
on the
men
now
Hence,
we
shall
to note that they have both suaaested the possibility that consonance
is
all.
If
48
THE INTERVAL
consonance-dissonance dichotomy, and replace
it
with
continuum.
So
far
we
criteria appear to
first in
which
terms of smooth-
ness,
different sets of
on
all
different, in fact,
whose
directions asked
test subjects
human organism
capable of learning.
is
should
responses in
as
all
Cazden
says:
"The
as
difficulties
soon
as
we
realize that these qualities are not inherent in perception as such but
group. "3^
different
from
major third in
major third
is
on
by
as a
major third
in a
whole-tone composition.
not an abstraction.
It is
own
is
quite
major
person of our
Bach work
is
which may be
49
THE INTERVAL
major third (or of any other interval)
more
were
consonance
is
do no
to
as a
Summary
The music student knows
know
scales.
is
The
in the
He
composite of psychological
effects
harmonic contours
what each
abstraction
What
is
it
in
isolation
of real importance
as
an
has
is
playing, the
its
all
or
is
on the listener.
it is
helps to form
its
some
the interval in
specific musical
context.
When
The
trill differs
still
perceived
as
the
two
first
The
trill,
tones, a
then,
is
trill is
definition,
rapidly
produced.
a successive interval,
while the vibrato and the tremolo are but ornamented single tones.
to
pitch level.
more
its
If
it
is
pitch location.
each interval
will
boundary tone
But
if
is
the listener
THE INTERVAL
Intervals
possess
number
of perceptual
characteristics,
but
them
major or minor
no one
of
only
as
In
displays
Western music
number
Such
effects.
effects
unresolved.
appear
upon
as
it is
is still
explanations
is
minded
main explanatory
unclear.
may be
West
be
restful.
it is
a fact that
Other, more
But
to find
principle.
The
to
fail
human organism
the more restful.
finality.
Even atonal
in time.
its
when
it
No
is
interval
is,
per
se,
unmusical even
must be taught
is
to
some degree
a traditionalist,
But
he
is
in large
5-1
4-2
THE INTER VA L
Notes
i]
A number
of the
phenomena we
shall
well as intervals and could quite logically have been treated in other chapters.
as
The reader
E.
M. Edmunds and M.
E. Smith,
34 (i923):287-29i.
Psychol.
(1926): 1-47.
4]
6]
7]
H.
J.
8]
C.
W.
29,
No.
(1943): 40.
J.,
P. R. Farnsworth,
among School
Brit. J. Psychol.,
Brit. J. Psjchol.,
Psychol.,
J.
No.
5;,
25
3
(1938): S3^~Si910]
11]
P. R. Farnsworth,
"The
L.
on Ending Preferences
in
i.
Melodies,"
16-122.
demonstrates the
finality
effects
of falling inflection
Psychol.,
13]
study which
Effect of Repetition
is
by
that
9 (i95'3): 288-293.
as
Determined
A good
of
M. Meyer, "Elements
4^6-478.
16]
P.
394-400.
17]
the Psychology of
18]
J.
Atlantis Verlag,
if
eine
Einjuhrung in die
in "Studies in
(1934): 40-44.
Tonpsychologie,
ZiJrich,
S2
No.
F,
THE INTERVAL
number
more masculine
the
R. UpdegrafF,
19]
Acad.
suggests the
among
See
"Theory of Tonality,"
2 is
43
I.
J. Gen. Psychol.,
who
formation
as
Ser. (195-1):
movement
Actually 9 to
division by
The
essential nature,
when
"applied to melody
however,
is
23]
Farnsworth and C.
]. Appl. Psychol., 12
H. L.
2^]
191
p. 48.)
22]
24]
more
is
subordinate to the
For the
3J (1947): 169-176.
who
membrane
basilar
His notion
L. Mursell
J.
J.
H. Wunderlich
Since the
comes from
it
rule.
la.
23 (1926): 279-282.
Sci.,
20]
will
identified stability
F.
F.
See D. P.
tonality.
Museum, 19^4.
(1928), 148-151.
Helmholtz, On
2.
When two
26]
tones which are very close to each other in pitch are sounded together,
is
periodically
frequencies are 1000 and looi d.v. will yield one beat per second.
beats
is
over 20, the individual beats are not heard; the effect
When, under
certain conditions,
say,
may be
is
If
the
Until recently
it
made
use of
their instruments.
F.
of
distinctly heard.
number
it
now appears
Krueger,
27]
F.
28]
"
(1903): 20527^.
5"3
THE INTERVAL
29]
T. Lipps, Psychological
Wilkins, 1926.
by D. B.
Irvine
Irvine,
would
Classics,
What might be
"Toward
vol.
regarded
2,
as a variant
is
that
proposed
classify intervals
by families on the
composite wave
scheme, the fourth (3:4) and the major sixth (3: j) would belong to one
family, the major third (4: ^) and the ninth (4:9) to another, etc. In other words, all
intervals whose ratios are as 3 to something would be grouped into one classification, 4
form.
By
this
J.
Peterson and F.
W.
View of Consonance,"
31]
32]
ij,
33]
still
another.
J.
PsjchoL, 42 (1930):
Psjchol. Rev.,
^61-^72;
J.
Peterson,
No.
Psychol.
Monog.,
(1914): 1-68.
34]
"A Functional
32 (192^): 17-33.
E.
S.
Thompson,
J. Gen.
4J (19^2): 71-90.
G. Bugg, "An Experimental Study of Factors Influencing Consonance Judgments,"
No.
(1933);
P. Heinlein,
of the Sea-
(194^): 3-1
37]
R.
W.
1-
y. Psychol.,
28 (1947):
45-4938]
C. C. Pratt,
a formalist
his
physical science rather than a social science bias, his theoretical position
Judgments," J.
54-
Aesth.,
IS [1956]: i-ii).
who
plays
down
book ("The
problems with
Stability of Aesthetic
CHAPTER FOUR
Melody
/vLTHOUGH
usually present a
layman will
somewhat
feel that
music
as
such really
At
exists.
He
one must
air.
what he can
It is
recall
phenomena
as
a series of
and name.
the tune's
what musicians
Melody,
define.
call
like so
The
the melody.
is
in music,
that a
is
very difficult to
melody
is
made up
of
sort of organiza-
optimum
validity;
yet
it
tells
us too
is
Such
little.
In the literature
a tonal
a description
We
still
entirely in terms
and optimum.
the
sequence displaying
is
who
show optimum
variety.
fall
them what
is
proper
S5
M ELODY
Only what
favorite composers.
Brahms regarded
as
Beethoven, or perhaps a
a Bach, a
properly melodic
can
be accepted.
When
These
formalists
would
reminded
its
periods.
they are
change, they either hold firmly to the rules followed by the earlier
elite
shift
But
man must
search
partial
success..
The
hearing
comes
it
it
learning.^
as
it
which brings
changes,
For
all
its
course, will
sanctions change.
But culture
is
never
static.
on
holds that a
As
It
human
social scientists,
much
may
later
variety
be thought of
may
as
eventually take
unity.
Many
Emerson had
concerning them.
subculture.
personal thing,
in
terms of learning.
56
It is
But
at
melody
for
a fraction
some
of the
MELODY
many
nonconformist
will
which the
persist
him
at least, these
these sequences
is
mark of
shown
has
his greatness.
and Learning
Principles of Attention
Ortmann
in
that the
and
First
and
last
prominently. They often become focal centers for the melody and
The
were
low^est notes
highest and
emphasizing
it
Ortmann' s
in
more prominent by
some other way.
can
observations
giving
easily
be
it
more
loudness or
by
verified
made
analyzing
responses to Seashore's Measure of Tonal Memory.^ In this test threeto five-note sequences are played twice,
Now
it
be the
is
remember and
easiest to
the problem
is
not so simple.
For the
difficulty in recall
is
But
in part a
produce
first
a radical
number of
The law
or the
last
may
is
number
of times.
radical
who
is
composing
in
in
is
forced to listen
57
MELODY
to such material
may lament
music
his great-grandfather,
on
some
of what he
now
calls
melodic
first
Repeated hearing over the years has led to acceptance and, with
the feeling that this kind of melody
now possesses
it,
coherence.
to
to
of learning.
is
this
make
lie
in
many,
if
He
culture history.
and
his personal
Now
a small child
who,
complain that
"Mama
his
customary evening
my
same
as
on previous
lullaby, will
nights.
And
so
it
insist that
after hearing
didn't sing
it
was sung
For
440
do
is
pitched
at,
this
is
an
say,
logically different if do
^8
A melody whose
at
is
MELODY
There was
a time
when most
infallible
not quite
as
But the
We now
know
that
him or
number
for tones
best.
It
will, for
It
example, be good
from
a tuning fork or
most used
in music.
It
still
mother's songs
o and to "correct" her when her Jo's were as much
a semitone away from their accustomed pitch level. At this age,
his
as
fine discriminations
years he
showed
great skill
clarinet tones.
Here we
see a
as
with piano
about two
in
piano, and in
growth
violin and
a variety of timbres.
more skill in
minded persons who
more modest
improve their
status
skill.
is
large. ^
Without practice
Those lower
in ability can
Or
if
given
some
^9
MELODY
kinesthetic cue,
if
we
But
definitely
be reacting
in
should be.
point.
We would
In absolute pitch,
writers.
we
no need for
is
more
still
relative pitch,
that the
two
matter of
inheritance.^^
readily be interpreted as
extreme
is a
is
but
abilities,
an individual at
first
makes use of
motor
skill
of cues or crutches. ^4 As
a variety
the skill improves, less and less attention will be paid these cues.
By
the time the person has achieved real mastery over his task, he can
and does
will
its
be
He
quality.
tuitive" fashion.
Some
slow
Thus
it is
his
if
he
if
At
first
he found
After
position.
humming
this
it
note
he behaves
necessary to
as a
many weeks
humming.
Later, this
immediately or the
use them, he
in
an unthinking, "in-
manage, taking
tries to
nizing violin
error.
In fact,
need
own
less
hum
accuracy in recog-
than an eighth-tone
time he
still
also vanished
and the
could be sung
be tuned without
outside reference.
It
While
60
this
many
it is
reasonable to suppose
MELODY
that a person
whose
were confined
tonal experiences
to a do of
all
more
(p. 17)
Many German
in
common
a singable
nearly
name
absolute
frame of reference.
make fewer
children so taught
So
far
we
^5
is
would reserve
it
Seashore
No
It
more
is
almost
a far larger
made
If
one
is
But
as stringent. ^7
margin of error.
made
to find the
ever undertaken
large or small
it is
depending on the
It is safe
who
pitch level or
melody has
its
"proper" key
(p.
its
melody
is
raised or
lowered to
a relatively
unmusical
by
attention to
when
No
to slip
doubt loudness
calls
by unnoticed. The
61
MELODY
below shows
table
a typical set
Note
that,
by and
large,
octave soft
15-5
27-S
tritone loud
tritone soft
15-5
octave
27-S
minor 6th
17
4th
29
minor 7th
soft
18-5
major 7th
30
7-5
major 6th
soft
18-5
31-S
7-5
major
medium
20
Sth
31-S
Sth soft
21-5
major 2nd
34-S
34-S
36
4th soft
major 3rd
13
3rcl
14
soft
soft
medium
25-S
4th loud
2S-S
medium
medium
soft
medium
10
tritone
21-5
octave loud
11
23-5
Sth loud
12
23-5
minor 2nd
If
made
sufficiently
loud,
33
soft
soft
may
minor
third. ^9
its
its
The
tended.
Indeed,
shift in pitch
Much
that
it
is
might lead to
is
invalid has
less
discordance.
number
way
which the
in
others have
little
62
many piano
There
is,
for instance,
shown
that the
made
possible
MELODY
through
hammer
nothing
else.
Most of the
ways are
hammer
and pedal
brought about by
illusory.
a passing acquaintance
at least tw^o,
noises,
allegedly
effects
and, particularly in
soft,
so
it is
Even
as to the
research
in
this
who
Heinlein,
did extensive
area,
performances he examined. ^^ As
matter of
fact,
no performer he
little
earlier.
not do.
It
and employ a
exactly.
They
flat
is
more
extensive.
knowledge of
no wonder
that the
With
intensity-score indicators
more than
it
composer.
Because of terminological inadequacies,
is
it
of looo cycles
is
is
available,
the
how-
be enjoying some
number
of decibels a tone
is
for
to
which appears
equal to the
difficult
The phon
when judged
is
equal in
approximately the
63
MELODY
circumstances.
The
below
table
some
gives
Type of Noise
Phons
120-130
Pneumatic
drill a
few
feet
102
90-100
away
Conversation
60
40
Quiet whisper
20
is
said to inter-
ppp=
p^
2o phons
pp=4o phons
ff= 8g phons
55 phons
mj^6g
phons
1=75
phons
jJJ=^^ phons
minor chord, or
fifth, a
whether played on
violin.
What
melody
marimba,
at
harmonica,
a tuba,
or an old
Cremona
meet outside an
The
air
But orchestral
In
some, certain
more complex;
tones from wood-winds (except the flute), loud male voices, and loud
brass (in this order) are
64
still
MELODY
emphasize the uneven-numbered partials and are usually regarded
hollow and
nasal, ^5
g, p.
as
Melodies in a low
92.)
Many
Scottish, the
fife
or
drum with
male
associate the
may
falsetto
whose
lose
with buffoonery,
falsetto
much
of
a serious
we
often
melody sung
in
its
stage
Because
Bach on
its
One
really prefer
own
that
composer played
modern organ or
orchestra.
their
feel
can only
it.
To
these people
to arrange his
these conservatives
how many
However, there
intellectualizing.
a sin to play
it is
is
are victims of
no question but
that
human
ear
becomes
gradually deafer, especially for tones in the highest registers and the
almost
as
age
likely
is
as
man
years of
fifty
low
But the
as
^^
at this
age-decrement
is
to
compare the
hearing of the several age-groups at one pitch level, say at 8192 d.v.
In the
is
The
is little
testable
loss tends to
grow
more than 40
to approximately
^ decibels
by age
fifty
and to
65
MELODY
relevance to the hearing of the melody's fundamentals, but they bar
the older person from hearing the full richness of the overtone matrix.
Many
pitch reaches. The partials in these areas are lost to the older listeners.
In consideration of these hearing losses
vv^e
should, perhaps, be
When
full
and rich
he
to realize
fails
come
is
We
playing of old
Cremona
one such
or virtuoso
as
for
is
him
more
is
quite
less rich.
What
to leave to his
effects.
some other
what
said to
is
one study
it
An
was
first
is
indeed regarded
his
as
recorded
Szigeti
seemed occasionally
Heifetz coldness
is
was
it
less cold.
It
at least as cold.
that the
posture or lack of
playing looks colder,
facial
we
Since Heifetz's
expression.
imagine that
it
also
Only
stiffer
manner of
sounds colder.
musical treatises.
in
most
66
synonymous terms
sound complex. ^9
MELODY
caption of tone quality must also be considered the progression of the
complex
Sonance,
for
as
the term
is
now
moment
moment.
to
psychological characteristics.
its
area of sonance
is
(Chap.
i).
It
be
will
Sonance
also
much impressed by
as
melody
is
scored.
how
music.
as
its
He
lies
in artistic
is
we must
Sonance,
impurities
then,
we term
"vertical"
timbre.
We
have
seen
characteristics
that
when
it is
melody shows
different
psychological
Noise, too, attaches itself to melody and aids in the creation of most
67
5-2
MELODY
Noise has been defined
musical experiences.
itself. "3^
There
is
no
definite
it
seems only
which
layman
to the
sound either so
as "a
on the fingerboard of
on the piano
fingers
On
at all costs.
is
the contrary,
it is
se,
nor
Contrary to the
is it
to
be avoided
pleasure.
That beating
effects
them
more
than one pipe to each pitch but does not achieve for
precisely the
pipe organ
its
sing pipes
audition.
which
felt as
much
missed
effect of massiveness
they can be
is
are organs
rattlings.
The modern
orchestral
composer often
feels the
He may
which
yields
Henry Cowell,
piano strings.
massage of the
68
con-
in his piano
An
strings.
comes from
a light stroking or
who
in the early
MELODY
1
where the
fist,
fist,
the
flat
simultaneously depresses
the keys
all
it
Cowell 's
can encompass.
melody
is
played
is
slow speed
waltz.
As
a dirge,
we
and
still
an important determinant of
as
major or
Some
as
may
is
its
at
activeness, of whether
fixed in
told to
mind
were
if
The
subjects
at the rate
were
reacted to
The
it is
just
A com-
tempo well
function.
minor.
years ago a
specific
its
another
one
at that
time
as
proper.
approximately 143.
Further research on dance tempo was carried on six years later by
Lund with
a similar
faster speeds
were by
this
Lund noted
that
many
dance-orchestra
the value uncovered in the earlier study, and the so-called concert or
faster style
whose tempo
is
MELODY
The
proper.
tempo
variants, of
which two,
the Charleston and the Black Bottom, had considerable popularity for
a time.
effect.
In
alter the
in order to
Eroica
set at
80.
to
tempo
62,
long
as
own
baton but
as
Confusion abounds in
this
In the
next section
we
its
share of nomenclature
tempo
beat, 35
area
diffi-
as
of melody to
rhythm. The reader should be warned that other authors might have
included portions of the discussion on rhythm in this section on
tempo.
by no means
identical. 3^
is
re,
mi, fa.
To
elicit
rhythm,
some way
to
make
it
its
fellows.
If
the do alone
in
were
made more intense, if it were held longer than any one of the others,
or of it were somehow made qualitatively unique, say given a very
different timbre, then the sequence would possess what has been
termed objective rhythm.
All three of these
simultaneously.
The
modes of emphasis
pianist, in striking
more
strongly the
first
note
of a rhythmic pattern, not only makes the tone louder but auto-
70
MELODY
matically alters
its
timbre in
slight
degree
and
Unwittingly, he
as well.
he
more on timing
listener
by increasing
his perceptual
span,
more
When
readily grasped.
rhythmic emphasis
the
on the
scale, e.g.,
is
By
on the
is
the listener's
which
is
is,
by synco-
more and
gift
rhythm brings
movements too
slight to
is
played. 39
to eliminate
activity-inducing quality of
rhythm
as that
music.
still
heavy loads
music
intensified. 3^
is its
invitation to
stress
to
is
it as
is
The
as
its
far as possible. 4
The
earthy,
well demonstrated in
of unskilled
workmen
work
passing
attention to the
to
more skillful do dance in time with the music and are guided by it.
Combing through the work of the past, Mursell has tentatively
concluded that there are only seven unit groups among the musical
rhythms. 4^
71
MELODY
element in each
case.
much
latter is
illustrates
Lundin
the
single
offers the
beat,
rumba
as
Unit Groups
w
w
v-/
Musical Rhythms
in
accented,
unaccented
Iamb
Trochee
v^
Dactyl
1^
1^
w
'u Ky \j
- I
seems more
Dunlap
is
somber. 43
referring less to
Tremolo
Single Beat
units
Anapest
Amphibrach
that
we
have
rhythm than
tempo, and
to
more
on either
culture
cultural
we do
trochee
its
from those of
take on a
5"
have already
slowly and
single beat
may seem
march
flavor.
Other
illustrations of
would be somewhat
commented on
and
in the
our
different
and
8.
The
existence and
fail
it
specialized, so to speak,
the
our
may well
We
In
in the
West
if
dances or
drills
MELODY
fortunate that the abiUty learned by one set of muscles "crosses
It is
A rhythmic
sets.
is
in actuality learned
left
any
fact,
mobile part of the body, can beat out the rhythm. After the pattern
has been thoroughly mastered
upon
Such
a superimposition
can be superimposed,
it
is
that there
is
siderable
first
do
as
no rhythmic pattern
5^-beat
contact with
rhythm
5^-beat
in
if
is
person
when he knows
unless, of course,
But he
If a
melody
in
is
may
supply his
subjective rhythm.
A number
seemed poor
in
requested even
But
own
were,
and
as it
a sort of telegraphy
More
careful observations
to
later
drummers,
it
patterns, i.e.,
against 3, 3 against 4,
against
in
against g, etc.
Flat.
Certain
in several
Tragic
They can
Sonata
or in
MELODY
rhythmic cycles of three beats on the fundamental rhythm of two or
four beats. 44 But the majority of conservatories and schools of music
offer
no
how
It is
The schools
that
some combination of
of two procedures or
procedure
is
these.
The method
is
also
in his
is
supposedly the
w^ho on being tested by the author some years ago was found to be
very
skillful,
3 against 7,
and 4 against
with
against 3,
less
against 4, 3 against ^,
common multiple
from
through
and
by counting to
is
and
one counts
g,
and with
4,
Other Hand
One Hand
X
4
X
Where
When
playing
counts of the
against ,
first
it
can be
first
fifth
and fourth
counts of the
second group, and on the third count of the third group. The other
hand
74
taps
on the
first
five.
MELODY
O THER Hand
One H AND
X
2
3
4
5
2
3
4
X
X
2
4
5
a third, or Gestalt,
simpler.
The scheme
necessitates
the
in
2-beat
the
middle C's
as readily as
rhythm and
is
made
to offer a succession of
The
learner merely listens and attempts to duplicate the C's and G's at
register.
If
is
employed,
the beginner has additional cues from watching the keys as they are
automatically depressed.
Harmony
Singing in unison
is
undoubtedly
men
as
old as music.
the
men
to sing an octave
below the
others.
75
MELODY
probably adopted for perceptual reasons
as well.
Its
two tones
fuse
all in
less likely to
is
Another early breakaway from unison singing came with the drone
bass.
of the melody.
is
In effect, the
drone becomes
At times the
or dominant,
sol,
bass
is
is
most
it
additionally
employed
as a
drone.
Many
to
harmony.
little.
moving
parallel to the
is
finally
a type of
monotony of
moved
harmonizing,
in opposite directions.
At
first
ones.
came
into vogue.
again dared
It is
where
It
was,
in fact,
employ
a fact of
become
76
both
With
now added,
a fifth above,
little variety.
and fourths
below and
it
rigidly codified.
The
rules take
MELODY
which keep
all
few of the
rules
own
new
won
and gradually
is
several
Although poly-
music
which
in
this
By
to his time.
In fact, a
in
Western music,
it
never
homophonic
which
lines.
In
became the
These
latter
effect
was music
intervals
as
became important
in their
own
right,
it.
The
Chords and
which ones were allowable were heard. But gradually the harmonic
rules changed until, as the reader well
has by
now had
its
day of glory.
Summary
Although in the past
tonal pattern
was taught
that, to
be
proper melody,
the listener.
it
is
It is
all
but
is
it
now appears
literally
read in by
which are
if
It is
this
expectancy,
77
MELODY
then, that characterizes our conception of melody. 47
perceptual
Melodies are
far
more than
principles of learning.
if
Melodies are
may appear
altered ever so
is
To
the few
to change
little.
its
But for
much change
in psychological effect.
Relative and
Since this
listeners.
is
so, it
is
all
is
incredibly poor.
For loudness nuances may make just the difference between the
acceptance of a melody or
its
rejection.
It
will permit
more
exact
of tonal
variety
and
in music.
impurities
timbres,
sonances
now
(e.g.,
For centuries
sources of
modern
The job
largely a
is
But
electronics there
is
re-
all
his radio or
if
his favorite
melodies just
as
he
with the higher registers affected earlier than the lower. Hence, the
elderly miss
as
having a
much
less rich
timbre.
in loudness sensitivity.
78
Deafness, then,
is
more
than a weakness
M ELODY
Tempo and rhythm
have made
little effort
fail
and
it has
experimenting with
in
West
slowly
moved
It
From
finally to
homo-
may proceed
toward an
from
satiation, a goal
we
may
turn back
it
in countless fashions.
its
flesh
and bones.
We
shall
we
shall
emphasize
its
more dynamic
aspects.
Several facets of
Notes
i]
G. D. Birkhoff,
in Aesthetic Measure,
first
glance
sent
him
as the
it
to any
harmony manuals.
79
MELODY
J.
G. Beebe- Center and C. C. Pratt, in "A Test of Birkhoff 's Aesthetic Measure, "J. Gen.
IJ (1937): 339-35^3, have been brave enough to try out the formula with simple
Psychol.
musical materials.
as
of the Birkhoff scheme they have not published further in this area.
How
D + /\-i
differentiated,
is
exp
the
/ is
number
in "The
Mind Works, London, Allen and Unwin, 1933.
the
where D
is
the
number
is
work
the scope of
L. L. Thurstone,
3]
L. E.
426-429.
Stud., 2 (1906):
Psjchol.
H. Werner,
4]
in
"Musical
'Micro-scales'
and
'Micro-melodies'," J.
Psjchol.,
10
(1940): 149-156, has shown that after a sequence has once been accepted as a melody
it
much
all
S]
147.
J. P. Guilford
See also
loss of identity.
were of microtone
Exp. Psjchol.,
6]
J.
P. Guilford
No.
(1926):
as
Compared with
and H. M.
Exp. Psjchol.,
Single Tones,"
20 (1937): 309-335.
J.
Talents,
With an arrangement
Memory
test,
H.
S3 (1940): 579-582) studied the ease of identifying the scale steps, Theja and ti were
re, and la were readily
Melodic Configuration
Memory
in
Tonal
"A
Memory
Test, "J. Genet. Psjchol., 35 (1928), 45-61 and R. Frances' "Recherches Experi-
mentales sur
la
Perception de
la
Melodie,"
J.
Psjchol.
(i9S4):
439-4^78]
For a review of the literature on absolute pitch see D. M. Neu's "A Critical Review of
10]
B. L. Riker,
80
"The
L. A. Petran,
36 (1946), 331-346.
M ELODY
1 1]
work
of
M.
F.
Meyer,
"Is the
Memory
of Absolute Pitch
A. Bachem
12]
pitch
is
Amer.,
is
1 1
of this area
who
is still
W.
J. Acoust. Sac.
13]
men
F.
26 (19^4),
75^1-75^3.)
Even when the cues do not directly benefit the performance their presence may give
M. Brammer found
were no better when they were given the opportunity to tune their own violins
than when the experimenter tuned the instruments for them under their orders. Yet the
violinists
fiddles gave
them increased
their
confidence in their scores. ("Sensory Cues in Pitch Judgment," J. Exp. Psjchol., 41 (1951):
336-340.)
I
16]
17]
A. Bachem, op.
cit.
The tonal intervals were played on a Duo- Art reproducing piano. When the intensity
levers were set at "soft" the intervals termed "soft" were elicited. Other combinations of
the levers yielded the "medium" and "loud" intensities. See P. R. Farnsworth and
C. F. Voegelin, "Dyad Preferences at Different Intensities," J. Appl. Psjchol., 12 (1928):
18]
148 1
19]
5^1
20]
J. S.
Hurley,
"A Study
by the Conn Chromatic Stroboscope," Thesis, Syracuse U., 1940. The picture with bowed
tones is somewhat different. Here professionals tend to flat with increases in bow pressure
but to sharp with each
rise in
O. Ortmann, The
H. C. Hart, M.
Tone,"
W.
Phjsical
Fuller,
Basis
and
W.
of Piano
S.
Touch
192^;
Touch and
(1934): 8094.
J. Gen. Psjchol., 2
MELODY
Individual Differences in Pedal Performance," ].
Ten
Gen.
Psychol.,
(1929): 489-508;
One
C. Revesz's Introduction
to the
But so
far,
Norman, U. of Oklahoma
Psychology of Music,
reality.
See
Press, 1954,
pp. 13-1424]
For an excellent account of the timbre of band and orchestral instruments see
The mounting
of the
a violin
"light" tone
Many men
in life.
life, is
by
a "short"
Vowels on
mouth.
See
Specific Frequencies
1945^.
deafen early while others keep their sensitivity relatively intact until quite late
Age and
Its
29 (1939),
somewhat
Effect
i'o6-5'i3.
28]
Montgomery
the frequencies
"A Study
in Presbycusis:
below 1024
P. R. Farnsworth,
d.v.
"Notes on 'Coldness'
33 (1952):
41-4?.
29]
M.
Metfessel, "Sonance as a
Form
Int.
Congr. Musical.,
Research
men
The
made
student associates for detailed pictures of the portamento and of typical attacks and releases
of vocal tones: D. Lewis,
M. Cowan, and G.
A. Small,
"An Objective Analysis of Artistic Singing," la. Stud. Mus., 4 (1936): 12-157;
"An Objective Analysis of Artistic Violin Performance," la. Stud. Mus., 4 (1936):
172-231
31]
32]
W.
W.
G.
244-259-
Hill,
MELODY
33]
34]
H. A. Block, and
P. R. Farnsworth,
W.
10 (1934): 230-233.
Psychol.,
M. Lund, "An
19393
5^]
36]
37]
M.
psychologists
Mus.,
who
For more
designed camera.
detail
It
its
J.
"A
J.
Gen. Psjchol.,
20
should be noted that the jazz musician syncopates not only with
Possibilite
as well.
de Syncoper en Fonction du
Tempo
S.
Ehrlich,
5S (19?^): 61-65.
Psychol.,
39]
la
specially
4 (1936): 263-280.
Music,
"Note sur
Movement
H. E. Weaver, "Syncopation:
(1939): 409-429.
on
B.
407-409.
40]
Kate Gordon,
Esthetics,
R.
W.
43]
44]
See Kitten on
the Keys
or
Cant
2,
pp. 309313.
45]
46]
47]
This
is
is
W. W. Norton
fortunately, there
is
no brief
treatise
would do well
i.
is
Putnam, 192
profit
Un-
by the
83
6-2
CHAPTER FIVE
VVe
said that
answer
still
is
a language in
question
we must
any
this,
all
agree on what
first
eerie feeling,
But, granting
other impressions.
music
this
an oriental atmosphere,
a restlessness,
municate
It
we
can
it
be
word? To
are going to
who
desire to
communicate
economic, or
a language,
that the
political
music would
world needs
ideologies,
feel
If
qualify, for
their favored
that they
must
An
a share in the
His thoughts, he
they can do
84
is
say.
It
unique way of
insists,
add to or
employ musical
no proof
his
linguistic signs, that they can tell the stories they are
as
so anxious to
tell.
different problem,
The matter of
which
somewhat
success constitutes a
Grammar
A
relations
among
music, with
harmonic
its
signs.
signs.
its
grammar.
But no grammar
is
its
So does
melodic and
all.
The use of
"none are" would have been banned without question by any editor
a
Now
this
viewed
it
support. Thus
it is
with the
as acceptable.
Meaning
Few
grammar of music.
historically
for
It is
much
is
likely to
a
interest in the
be studied by the
composer
to
create or a
do not,
as a rule, excite as
much
problem of
tells.
communica-
monkey may
creati-
hungry
his
While the
monkey may
first
interest the second with his antics, his vocalizations will not tell her
to give
him
food.
So
far as she is
concerned
is
obviously striving to
us
is
communicating and
like the
hungry monkey,
must somehow
with
so.
to see to
in
make them
this
this
tempered
scales,
was
in the
whole
mode
its
in
to
which
modulation and
reflect
the unique
was written.
it
If it
G, A, B,
(as in E, F,
if
the Lydian
used,
the
indulgence.
Lydian
It
mode
There
is
is
is
that of
no doubt
that there
i.e.,
what
in this area as in
effects
many
is
is
his "Ideal
it is
who imagined
effects.
But
it is
also
Man is
not much
he "should" hear.^
another, and
scholars
"meaning,"
clear that
told
from
self-
could
scale.
were ancient
he
is
it
mode
highly suggestible
of a trick to
make
hear.
effects persisted
86
mode was
down
to
two
In fact,
extended to the several keys of the major mode. Thus, the key of
F major was said to be the key of the pastoral
Beethoven's Pastoral Symphony); keys with
nine sharps
made men
idyll (for
seven, eight, or
five, six,
example
not
is
to speculate
difficult
temperament, one key was associated with Heaven, another with the
farm, and
a
still
melody whose do
whose dore
ratio
is
is
as
sound precisely
It
course, there
would come
school of thought.
in
2,
one
simple matter to
like
But whatever
Of
this
F major, the rules would read, and tragic music in F minor or F sharp
And
minor.
effects
"sensitive" people
may
It
who
all
would begin
odd
to "hear" pastoral
composers
same
But
can
exist.
It is
know whether
melody
is
may
if
he
is
may
versed
from the
fact that
blacknote keys.
But such
seems
safe to
from modal)
effects
such
as
effects of
can hardly be
(as
distinguished
as such, are
to intervals of the
as
is
curiosities of nomenclature.
more reason
and
all
structure
what
G; E
flat,
flat,
in
minor chord
with
to elicit
their different
One
is
to i) and to the
There
is
in that the
3
much
(15^
to
flat,
symbol structure of
G, or A, C, E) with
15-
or
its
5^
5^
its
this
But two
5^
or
is
not nearly so
(2)
is
The
The
common as
of
ability
the older
structural difference
sets
g^i 5 has
(i^ to
to i).
more ambiguity
facts
flat
key of
which aroused
positions of the
G, C; and G, C, E
in the
C, E
cast
World War
I,
a particular
chordal or melody
His
subjects,
showed
more
About
much more
Heinlein's
a similar observation. 5
made
extensive research
minor
12
number of compositions
his subjects,
and Anitra
Fifth Sjmphorry,
in a
major
mode
to as major.
from Dvorak's
first
both
in
theme of the
largo
movement
Suite,
written in minor
as bright
own
Caprice Viennois
many
others.
and happy.
group and even her relatively untrained subjects usually did rather
well in separating the major from the minor melodies
(as distin-
is
C,E,
mood
and
classified incorrectlv as
G sharp,
is
not major
relationship.
Modern
can affect the success with which people distinguish major from
minor. These are loudness, pitch, and tempo. Thus, Heinlein noted
that the louder and/or higher-pitched chords
is
tricks
employed
effects.
Flatting and
in the blues
Characteristic of
and
much
thirds and
89
Other
techniques to create a sad atmosphere are found in some jazz compoBeale Street
sitions
Mamma,
for instance
is
from below,
where there
approached
or,
more
at a
is
an avoid-
cadence through
is
We
dir2;e,
if
His
classifica-
now more
likely
major. ^
major melody
far
is
thought.
It is
Western culture
is
by no means
at least,
invariant.
on joyful occasions.
Moreover, the
by
It
effect can
be
Color-Tone Linkage
Music has chromatic
also has timbre,
which
(i.e.,
in
connection
German
is
Klangfarbe, that
in a figurative sense.
But
is
Is
is,
sound-color.
there a further,
there a necessary
interval,
chord,
timbre, key, or melodic sequence on the one hand and some given
color?
Many
scientist
have thought
so.
known
as
90
that there
well have
The
great
is
named
no
his
own
a connection
classification of
number of
colors.
it
has been
Newton might
just
is
number
It
has
of instruments
as well.
associations of
two
slightly.
RiMSKY-KoRSAKOV
Key
SCRIABIN
C
G
major
major
Brownish-gold, bright
Orange-rose
D
A
major
Yellow, sunny
Yellow, brilliant
major
Red
White
Rosy, clear
Green
E major
B major
Bluish-white
F sharp major
Greyish-green
flat
major
Dusky,
flat
major
Greyish-violet
Purple-violet
flat
major
flat
major
Bluish-white
steel
Bright blue
warm
Violet
luster
F major
It is
associations
the
two
of the
Red
Green
which
senses.
members
because of
attests the
There
is
some
among
the associations
much agreement
can be expected
similarity
family experiences.
many
often
common
among
investigations. In
common
has been
shown by
60 per cent reported that they had color-tone associations.^^ Less than
I
by particular tonal
signals. ^3
The behavior of
one can
would appear
that
some
it
the nine-
world through
produced
in
him an
ex-
up
scarlet, the
most frequently
Chromesthesia
fatigue, shock,
The reaction
in persons
is
one-way,
i.e.,
this
does not
is
induced
facilitated
is
by
a tonal
hallucination.
As
brighter colors. ^5
of the peculiarity's
colored hearing
as
first
appearance.
as insensitive individuals
who
who
their potentialities.
So
far as the
he could along
this
line,
that these
added
2000 associations of tone and color (even 3000 for one subject)
became
In
hope
^^
chromesthetic.
either a high or a
subjects
green or
red
were given
light. ^7
Most
of the time the high tone and green light were given together and the
The
red.
subjects
were
depended on
doing well and so were strongly motivated. They kept their eyes
closed until the tones
quickly
that there
92
was
theoretical interest
number
lights
is
and
the fact
of naming errors
at the
But whether
green pairings.
i.e.,
curve indicates
is
problematical.
The reason
persons and
few
its
is still
not known.
^^
Anato-
theory.
the correct
that
For example,
whose brain
it is
is
one
most of
us.
whom some
then,
fact
is
come
to
"mean"
it is
a certain color.
a given
Here,
meaning.
it
is
many
To
who
sees a fundamental
mean that
commotion within
is
is
a subjective
itself.
The confusion
an
arises, thinks
Doe and
is
a certain musical
Both John
or passionate, or sentimental.
it is
mena
two
sets of
pheno-
agitated music
may
one of
affair is
may
somewhat superior
take a
The
formalist
to intrude while
file
he
is
of us are not
has
a sad effect.
music on
mood and
musical character
lies
in the
assumption that
is,
But music's
after all,
composition
effects are
no automaton.
which makes
at least,
He
for
not so
has a
his reactions to
difficult to forecast.
so concerned at
what he
labeled
1 1
"true
mood
"mood." Out of
music. "^'^
Fifteen
5^89
were guaranteed
to
8 to elicit
moods
of wistfulness.
for love,
o for
of tender memory,
spirit,
No
and
for the
mood
and make
it
more
suggestible.
made the homesick person more distraught. And while some of the
more religious-minded no doubt found Schubert's Ave Maria conducive to the peace of mind Edison had guaranteed, it is doubtful if
all
so benefited.
In fact
make
communist
the confirmed
^^
more irascible.
The mood elicited by
^
the music will depend not only on the tonal
itself.
Among
the
more important
there
music
musical
is
in
word-meanings of the
held
libretto
Although
of these
mood
as a
We
moods
mood
in terms of
language of
in
beyond the
possibility of
is little
As might be suspected,
is
with program
A more
more
is
in
listener
music. ^5
It is
relatively
bit of
regards as appropriate.
The
list
It
than any
contains 67
poor for
made
greater
identical.
is
easily identified
in eight clusters.
above the
agreement
words arranged
(if
is
music
is
typically
clock on the supposition that as one proceeds from any given cluster
around the
dial,
opposite cluster
The
utility of the
files
check
list
It
listen to a
more
First
all
Movement
For the
of Franck's Symphony
in
first
different.
For the
measures of the
first
heavy,
gloomy,
26 measures of Debussy's
were from 4
delicate,
graceful,
5^,
3,
and two
96
It
is
List
6
bright
cheerful
happy
joyous
merry
emphatic
agitated
delicate
dramatic
fanciful
exciting
graceful
exhilarated
humorous
impetuous
light
passionate
playful
restless
quaint
sensational
sprightly
soaring
whimsical
triumphant
4
calm
exalting
leisurely
majestic
lyrical
martial
quiet
ponderous
satisfying
robust
serene
vigorous
awe-inspiring
dreamy
dignified
longing
lofty
plaintive
sacred
pleading
serious
sentimental
sober
tender
solemn
spiritual
dark
soothing
tranquil
yearning
yielding
depressing
doleful
frustrated
gloomy
heavy
melancholy
mournful
pathetic
sad
tragic
97
passages
All in
all,
in the
manner
the technique
is
in
which the
a fairly sensitive
mood
be drawn of the
M ODIFIED
A DJECTIVE Check
List
cheerful
fanciful
delicate
dreamy
longing
light
graceful
leisurely
pathetic
happy
quaint
lyrical
sentimental
plaintive
joyous
whimsic al
serene
pleading
bright
soothing
yearning
merry
tender
playful
tranquil
sprightly
quiet
dark
sacred
dramatic
agitated
frustrated
depressing
spiritual
emphatic
exalting
doleful
majestic
exciting
gloomy
triumphant
exhilarated
melancholic
impetuous
mournful
vigorous
pathetic
sad
serious
sober
solemn
tragic
Hevner's check
list
has
mood
new
rearrangement
more
research
it
fit
It
was
found that neither the original Hevner nor the revised clusters could be
placed in exact clock-face arrangement although the
98
new
clusters
came
as
time
will be
list
doubt
improved
Variables
Of
the variables
experiments in
modality
this area,
is
plays the
on numerous
meaning to the
little
tempo
has carried
importance,
less
to music,
who
ance. 3*^
far
According to Hevner,
largest role.
Music
to
are of
ascending or
is
listener.
In other
is
its
tempo
is
appreciably
what he
less strikingly
The
table,
relative
enough
is
saying to him.
is
variables appear to
indicates
as dignified
it is
importance of the
to
variables.
:
music
statistics
table
feels the
how
to interpret the
little
importance.
to
listeners
Out
somewhat
music. ^^
to
He
characterize a considerable
intervals, particu-
number of
larly firsts
and seconds.
99
7-2
intervals.
carried
by woodwinds to be
characterized by terms such as "mournful," "awkward," and "uneasy;" by brasses as "triumphant," and "grotesque;" by the piano as
"delicate," "tranquil," "sentimental,"
as
"glad."
Dignijied
Sad
Factor
Solemn
Heavy
Mode
Tempo
Major
Dreamy
Minor
Slow
Minor
20
Slow
14
Slow
12
Pitch
Low
10
Low
19
Rhythm
Harmony
Firm
18
Firm
Simple
Simple
Melody
Ascending
Complex
Major
16
Slow
High
High
Flowing
Flowing
Simple
20
10
Ascending
Graceful
Happj
Exciting
Vigorous
Factor
Sparkling
Bright
Elated
Majestic
Major
Pitch
High
Rhythm
Harmony
Flowing
Melody
Descending
21
Fast
16
8
Simple
12
Major
24
Fast
20
Low
Flowing
10
Firm
Simple
16
Complex
High Pitch
Pitch
Wide Range
'Narrow Range
21
Fast
High
Fast
Low
13
Firm
10
14
Descending
Pitch, Range,
Fast
12
Musical
Mode
Tempo
Low
Serene
Gentle
Sentimental
Complex
Descending
and Tempo
European
Indian
European
Indian
European
Indian
European
Indian
European
brilliant,
awkward, somber
whimsical,
flippant,
grotesque
Slow
Indian
European
dignified,
somber,
delicate, sentimental
Indi
OO
tranquil,
melancholy,
mournful,
here.
style
tables constructed
in the
music of
variables in European-
number
of American Indian
tribes.
of
Factors
Many Rough
Rhythms
Many Uneven
Rhythms
'
Indian Songs
Musical Phrases
grotesque
victory
uneasy
war march
delicate
disappointment in love
death of lover
sentimental
parting
description
dignified
happy love
song
of,
or
to, love
exalted
somber
Few Uneven
Rhythms
flippant
animated
recitatives
grotesque
victory
victory
brilliant
Many Smooth
Rhythms
Many
Ists
and 2nds
Many
3rds
brilliant
war medicine
lonesome or sad
animated
parting
gay or playful
flippant
death of lover
glad
healing,
happy love
uneasy
war medicine
mournful
death of lover
awkward
healing, recitatives
warpath
absence or parting
triumphant
absence of lover
victory
after killing
sentimental or serious
love
lonesome or sad
warrior
war organization
Many Large
Intervals
glad, exalted
disappointment in love
gay or playful
delicate
lonesome, scout
lonesome or sad
death of lover, war
dirge
From
the
interesting study in
semantics. 33
Relations
comes an
critics.
These were
lOI
voices.
among
three categories
potency, and
termed
one having
a third
with
lump the
to
activity.
as
far
and the
and "thin."
analysis for studying the
meaning-
who had
classic,
and
classic, (b)
romantic, and
(c)
modern
styles.
Two
inde-
melodic and
When Henkin
as a
was deciding on
his ten
find a single
The
example.
on harmony, he
It
was
feels, that
this
kept
skin response.
Musical
style,
this physiological
dynamics,
seemed
to
measure of
affective response.
A number
ings of
of researchers have
music solely
in
felt that to
io2
what music
is
to
signifies
framework of
While granting
resolution of tensions.
nates
universally agreed-upon
specific,
it
(p. 41).^^
fairly
Rogge
is
who
one
has
she
To
terms of human
potentialities.
linguistic
developed
in
experimental design.
clever
earlier, highly
Bloch's
tensions,
Schelomo,
whom
who
first
were
differed
the compositions
the
test
were
somewhat
unfamiliar.
in musical training
and for
Out of
the
and to decide which of Hevner's adjectives most adequately characterized the three
mood
When
patterns. 3^
as
in
mood
only." This
meant
that
Rogge now had four paragraphs for each piece, two "correct" ones
made up from interview material, and two "correct in mood only."
To make the procedure clearer the four for Schelomo are given below. 37
103
He wants to see
He wants to see
remembers
that she
too.
Remembers
the
memory
is
cold.
return.
how much he
him
is
over.
is
He
alone.
how
loves her,
the
Her forehead
He
can't believe
Then
it.
He knows
it
will be strong
enough
to help
him go on
alone.
Correct
He
Why
Forever.
sit
on the
He
is
when he had
pleaded? Had there been one voice to defend his act? No, not
one.
Now,
rail.
Had they
the shoreline
as
lies
been blinded to
all
his love
by their
grips the
own
hate?
he fear
his future
years.
Correct in
The pigeon
flies
she
is
is
mood
only
When
descend and
rest,
home. She passes over another town searching for the building
where she knows her nest lies strong and secure, and as she sees
104
Mood Only
How
on the
would she
Oh,
if
as
still
He
table
steps he
remembered. Twenty
when
He
The
Going up the
she
if
He
lake.
below
years.
She would
heard foot-
As he saw
can't be true.
telling himself
indicates
how
a third
If
chance
RoGGE Data
Description
1
Bloch
**16
Ravel
1
4
*3
**28
*1
*11
*3
3
Stravinsky
**25
10
49
IS
**48
11
27
12
*11
90
90
90
Total
^05
chance
affair
starred positions,
show
single stars
is
descriptions
descriptions.
mood
in
The
only."
Rogge
Naturally, the
be
criticized.
study, like
One wonders,
all
guess
would be
that
It is
for instance,
fallen
compositions.
by her choice of
effects
mood been
probably
safe
to
Rogge experiments,
it
is
may be
of tensions. 39
Of
its
specific
imagery may not be the same for any two persons. But any narrative
with patterns of
music
We
its
"proper"
message only under rather limited circumstances, and that while our
major
scale
affect us in
to Plato,
it
does not
manner,
it
meanings to those
who
have not
which have
dissimilar culture?
Gundlach concluded
section,
similarity in the
there
that
some
least
at
is
slight
chance
is
a question,
made
that had
natives. 4
little
When Dartmouth
psychologists
simple,
clarinet
selections. '^^
Cowles likewise found some agreement among subjects who had been
asked to select a particular picture to match a given musical selec-
And,
tion. 4^
found
reversing
the
experimental procedure,
e.g., a
saw-toothed form. 43
least,
on purely
to expect a
in these
experiments
practical grounds.
mother
It
to scream a lullaby
and other mothers the world over had learned was sleep
inducing.
tempo could
scarcely
(p. 93),
mean "march"
to any
Willmann
Italian
human.
a small
In line
wager
that
were
a Chinese, a
all
Loma Negro,
of the same
107
would be more
draw horizontal
likely to
wavy
ones.
Psychoanalytic Symbolism
The
which
made
universal in
is
its
universality
symbolism
sure,
by the
for
inability of
little
way of
ecstasy. "45
e.g.,
On
signifies
occasion, the
inter-
connection.
Altshuler4^ and Tilly 47 have also suggested that music possesses
sexual symbolism.
are,
to
However, these
some degree
interest in such
at least,
According to them,
"manly" patient
different
personality.
In other
employed therapeutically.
who
is
"feminine. "4^
is
man
of more "feminine"
"masculine" in character
it
seems clear
that, ifforced to
it,
As
in
a result of these
as the originators
of rather feminine
as
in character;
R.
Strauss,
Chopin,
more
classified as writers of
feminine music. By and large, the march, loud music, and the music
of the drums, bass viols, trombones, and trumpets are thought of
as the
more masculine;
phenomena
data appear to
individuals are
as
show
is
in
category headings
there
that,
Rather, the
if
these
that
is
The
with male
soldiers, soft
raters
presumably have
When
queried, the
to use
Summary
Music has
grammar,
a syntax.
109
language.
as
is
Key
extended argument.
objective fashion.
many persons
Nor
is
modern
listener,
exist in any
do not
However,
Chordal
tempo each
its
part in eliciting
number of other
affective
plays
this sort
of categorization seems
none
music are
it is
music
language,
that
then,
is
is
Music
widely shared. To
to distort out of
all
call
proportion the
The paragraph given below illustrates rather well the fallacy in the
thinking of those who would make music a language in the sense that
English or French
of the Boston
a language.
is
the varied
Eroica.
Germany
is
sure that
saw
it is
a knightly festival.
a political revolution.
Marx
ancient
I
lo
is
in
it
it
Moors of
Spain.
An
is
Nohl shakes
Dr. Iken of
his
Bremen
such
as
the
symphony gave
'
a procession in
an old cathedral
more
cheerful person,
The
it
many meanings
North returning
a feast of
Ulibichev
goes so far
as to say that
Beethoven portrayed in
this Finale a
symphony
this
as
who knows
"Stroemkarl" of Sweden,
a friend of the
variations,
one plays
eleven
any
tables
it,
mother, the blind and lame, yea, the children in the cradle,
to dancing.
fall
"The
last
movement
says
Wagner,
We
"is this
school of imagery
(e.g.,
several
listeners
there
If
more commonality
it,
On
their
feel.
to
stamp
however,
in the
is
proper associations.
Such
meaning
if
time
is
taken
specificity of designation,
essence of music
lies in
it
own
personal
III
elicit
Everyone can appreciate the grammar, the melodic and harmonic rules
of the school to v^hich the music of his immediate interest belongs.
But he
is
Notes
i]
One
2]
For an exception to
3]
M.
F.
4]
C.
W.
reminded of the
is
this
Valentine,
'n' roll
during the
of
Intervals
among School
6 (1913): 190-216.
g]
summer
rock
Modes
in Music,"
J.
6]
Psychol.,
Chords," J. Gen.
Comp.
).
03-1
Psychol.,
C. P. Heinlein,
8]
Modes
in Music," Amer. J.
18.
P.
7]
4J (193^):
Psychol., 8
(1928): 377-379.
in Music,"
and
Linguistic Value of Melody," Acta Psychol., 9 (19^3): 288-293, argues that falling intervals
lead to sad affects while rising intervals the size of the fifth are exhilarative.
9]
Note that it is not the blues third per se which yields a minor effect but rather the
melody in which the third is embedded. Intervals as such have no modal charac-
over-all
10]
effect of
tempo
see
M. G.
of Musical Mood," J. Exp. Psychol., 2J (1940): J66-571. Rigg has verified Heinlein's
work on the effect of pitch in "The Effect of Register and Tonality upon Musical Mood,"
]. Musical., 2 (1940),
"sad" music in
No.
1
1]
Taken from
L.
468-48
more
Omwake,
1
Press, 1943.
12
Psychol. Monog., 4,
It
(1942).
Oxford U.
12]
49-61.
to form.
See
W.
Austral. J. Psychol., 5
(1938): 26.
A. McElroy,
(1953): 10-16.
J.
Delay,
et
al.,
(19^1): i-io.
I
The
s]
modalities
is
emphasized by D.
I.
Masson
in "Synesthesia
(195-2): 39-41.
16]
E. L. Kelly,
Biol.,
J. Gen. Psychol., 3
M.
J. Zigler,
Color Hearing,"
"Tone Shapes:
No.
Brit. J.
(1930): 277-287.
i
21]
Aesth., 12,
2o]
Chromesthesia by the
IJ (1934): 315341.
2S (1934): 29-41;
Psychol.,
in
Artificial
34 (1944), 87103.
Human
19]
Produce
Psychol.,
18]
to
J. Exp. Psychol.,
W.
is
Bouwsma
Music and
provided listener agreement (1075 nonmusical students were the listeners) of o per cent
or more when the task was to sort the compositions into six categories.
22]
Thus
S.
and R. L. Fisher,
in
"The
on Reactions to Un-
those
who
ness
23]
M. Schoen and
E. L.
24]
insecurity.
Gatewood, Chapter
Humor
in
M. Schoen,
ed.,
Music," Amer. J.
62 (1949): 560-566.
R. E. Dreher, "The Relationship between Verbal Reports and Galvanic Skin Responses
P.
J.
33 (194^):
237-250.
26]
I.
J. Psychol.,
K.
Check
List
is
Psychological Review
Number
of Responses
P. R. Farnsworth,
List," J. Aesth.,
13 (195^4):
97-103.
29]
of clusters B and
"frustrated" describes a
expressed with
30]
adjectives of cluster
and resembles
I,
little
least the
mood which
mood
is
precision.
pp. 199217.
mood
Assoc. Proc.
1938,
Music," Amer.J. Psjchol., 48 (1936): 246-268; "The Affective Value of Pitch and
in Music," Amer.J. Psjchol.,
Tempo
42
(193J): 186-204.
31]
are
The
Amer.J. Psjchol., 47 (1935^): 624-643; "A Quantitative Analysis of Indian Music," Amer.J.
Psychol., 44 (1932): 133-145-. See also S. DeGrazia's attempted analysis of Shostakovich's
His descriptive categories are intra-opus repetition, short and sym-
Seventh Sjmphonj.
metrical themes, figurative background, simplicity of fugal form, regular chord progressions,
rhythmic
background,
and
correlative
description
("Shostakovich's
Seventh
17 I 22).
32]
Factor analysis
is
method
as
original
complex of
variables.
R.
W. Brown,
33]
34]
R.
43
35^]
I.
161-181
"A Reevaluation of
(195^7):
a Factorial
301-306.
R. V. Fay points out that music tensions are produced by "dissonance and diminution
material with familiar material, enlargement and elaboration of material already presented,
addition of
new harmonies
Development
as Principles in
Musical Composition," J.
36]
37]
G. O. Rogge, "Music
as
Hevner
list
Alusicol.,
5 (1947): 1-12).
was presented.
Its
Role
as
G. O. Rogge, op.
39]
cit.,
p. 76.
114
41]
II.
L.
Omwake,
S.
481.
42]
J.
J. Exp. Psychol.,
43]
Psychol.
44]
18 (1935'): 461-469.
(1944).
45]
46]
I.
M.
Altshuler,
368-
381.
47]
M.
Tilly,
to the Masculine
The ancient
saw sex
qualities in music.
In the Lin
Lun
system of approximately 2700 B.C. in the reign of Emperor Huang-ti there were the lu
Handschin
49]
lui
or feminine.
(p. 5^2).
P. R. Farnsworth,
Musical Phenomena,"
and Femininity
J.
J. MusicoL,
Farnsworth, "The Musical Taste of an American Musical Elite," Hinrichsen Musical Year
Book,
^o]
7 (19^2):
I.
1 1
2-1 16.
Clin. PsjchoL, 9 (1953): 300-302, has made a study of clients who were
plagued by obsessive songs and song lyrics. Interestingly enough, he found that their
Stress," J.
conflicts,
while severe, were largely nonsexual. This was true even though the lyrics of
were
filled
Symbols
on
art
and Freudianism
J. Aesth., 12,
No.
is
i
that
by R. Amheim, "Artistic
(195^3): 93-97.
Other
articles
Thus, persons
who
which
his Fantasia
The
Evidence
age
(J.
calling
is
at
up of imagery
hand that
is
differ
7 (1943): 27-31).
enjoyment of adults.
Aspect
of Musical
Response
in
School
115"
8-2
CHAPTER
SIX
l\ PERUSAL
is
Even Runes's
Dictionary
of Philosophy^
perience."
The second,
artist in his
works of
rules,
His
offers
two
first is
"the
shown by an
art,"
would appear
broadened to include
The
without
as
all
to be acceptable
if
is
to
momentary
Bach aside
as the
mere creator of
tinkly sounds.
Note:
The
as
the
over-all
Taste
Its
is
Farnsworth with the permission of the publishers, Stanford University Press. Copyright
116
up
in
chapter
we
shall
examine
an effort to understand
Whimsej
The
or
form
finality,
has,
the
Law?
may
is
often brushed aside with an airy "What's one man's poison, signor,
is
is
According to
this
low order;
who
Bach; and a
more
still
the
taste."
One's jazz-loving
set of laws.
critics,
have discovered, or
to discovering,
by the man
way
implicit in this
is
possessed
attracted to the
who
are
and unchanging, or
eternal,
relative,
culturally derived, and stable for only limited areas and periods of
time.
to
keep
his students
happened
was
following
the
absolutist's
which
conception
of
musical taste. His colleague was more of a relativist when he said to his
students
"I
much
who
if
can
tell
what
level of regard
117
rules,
For
we
metaphysical approach,
five,
elements
who
were
five,
on the i^rounds
metal,
social
sample of the
and only
that there
wood, water,
fire,
and earth;
five
wife, brothers, friends, and ruler and subjects; and five political
terms
own
Closer to our
The reason
To make
offered, as
above,
we saw
in
below, fore,
Chapter
2,
after, right,
was that
and
left.
to the Will of
God. Even
in
our
inherent in those of us
is
have been born under a propitious sign of the zodiac, but these
astrology-lovers are often a
influential
predetermining
in
answer, however,
For
it
little
it
vague
taste.
as to just
which
Whatever the
sign
is
most
astrological
facts.
is
and the
inartistic
less gifted.
Although
it is
would believe
in
as
still
held by
number
many
some other
theorists.
(p.
21) that
of just intonation
as
We
compromise
in theory at least,
affair,
series,
seem to forget
tempered
scales,
that
farther
Javanese.
condition the early use of the octave, and perhaps a few of the other
with simple
intervals
ratios,
it
seems unjustifiable to
restrict
our
they relate to
Meyer and
42,
_5"3).
So long
as these theories
taste.
much
made about
in
show
his
muscles react.
(p.
for
5"),
and
the relation
do
which man's
ears
without the
seem
social scientists
of taste.
The hypothesis
large measure,
that
contemporary
culturally derived,
taste in
music
is,
at least in
shown
fixed
diatonic scale
tonal
is
It
harmonies,
the
tonic
As
effect,
we saw
and the
earlier, the
abilities
119
commonly reported
mical.
little
harmony
in the
Yet Orientals can learn to love Occidental music and, indeed, with
come
to appreciate
Western musical
auditory differences.
more com-
tuning, the
American slowly
When
and
his
need
well
known
as
who would
racism and believe that the composers of his group alone have
discovered the "true" standards of musical taste will receive no
Some form
that the
among the
whimsey view of
musicians.
matter of
It is
fact,
is
relatively untutored,
taste
is
more
likely to
be found.
As
is
without pattern.
to be found in
We
why we cannot
shall first
Eminence
The most eminent composer
even the
are
is
I20
is
a close one.
eminence,
create that
which
at least near-geniuses,
Only
be called eminent.
is
few
live
not
up to their
all
geniuses can
potentialities,
or
traits
of
moments"
development of their
in the
art.^
We
among men;
a place
elevated status
is
or station above
men
listener, along
lecture hall,
reasonable
number
of composers
who
editor, if
work
written
Similarly,
no one
else,
is
consider a
can receive
critical attention,
and to
with
as
many such
lists
appearing
as
in effect created,
produced out of
national,
measured entity
is
to have
stability,
influences. If eminence as
of individual
decisions
furnishes
just
Fortunately, the
such
balancing
in the choices.
is
is
that the
eminent musicians.
111
to consider a long
to check the
list
to be of greatest importance. 7
I,
two
piles of the
same
2,
first
i,
Thus, with
size,
from the
The
below shows
table
870 and
music appeared
to
identical.
Of
composers who
of the one subgroup were the ninth and tenth of the other.
course,
if
received relatively few votes, the two columns would not resemble
as
much
they do now.
as
For just
as
almost
all
of us
all
as
well on the
Polled in 195^1
Composers Born Since
'k
Order
'Note:
122
1870
Pile
Stravinsky
^Stravinsky
Bartok
(Bartok
Hindemith
Ravel
Ravel
Schonberg
Schonberg
Prokofiev
Prokofiev
Vaughan Williams
Vaughan Williams
Copland
Rachmaninov
Britten
Copland
11
first
Pile
Rachmaninov
Hindemith
Britten
among
the
to scrutinize
lists
of
composers whose birth dates were before 1870. They were to check
the
they
When
First Nine
Rank Order
Pile
Beethoven
Bach
Bach
Haydn
Brahms
Mozart
Mozart
Haydn
Debussy
Schubert
Handel
Debussy
r Schubert
Handel
[ Wagner
Wagner
were
musicians of history
Letters
Brahms
The members of
consulted in
Beethoven
to music. ^
Pile
whom
more
that time to
as
in
into
AMS members
19^1.9
two
sets.
The
list
first
the ten
total of 92
at
they regarded
were
in
this survey.
1944 and,
as
we
ballots received in
have
1944
The
correlation {rho)
195^1
of -96 for those born since 1870 and '98 for those
data yielded
r/70's
born before
this date.
It is
some
judgments of
this
elite are
following
123
say,
however, that
it is
musicologists
were used
from psychology
in
194^ with
students taken
25-0 college
with
split into
composers voted
nearby
105^
as
lists
compiled
most eminent
in
other
all
all
It
is
not
college, senior-high, or
But
it is
logical to believe
fair
agreement among
themselves.
For
illustrative purposes,
number
shown below. ^^
Students Polled
in 195^3-5^4
Pile
1870
Pile 2
Beethoven
Beethoven
Bach
Bach
Chopin
Chopin
Mozart
Mozart
Wagner
Tchaikovsky
Brahms
Brahms
Liszt
Tchaikovsky
Wagner
Handel
Schubert
Liszt
10
124
Handel
10-S
Schubert
patterned and
is
as
eminent
stability also
The next
classics."
in their selections of
showing that
table
appear
when people
of
list
Each
composers and had been told to rank the ten most eminent from
to 10.13
Polled in Summer of 19 ^4
Composers of "Popular Classics"
Rank Order
Pile
George Gershwin
George Gershwin
Cole Porter
Irving Berlin
Jerome Kern
Jerome Kern
Irving Berlin
Richard Rodgers
Richard Rodgers
Cole Porter
Stephen Foster
Stephen Foster
Hoagy Carmichael
S.
Romberg
J.
Strauss
10-5
Sir
CHANGES
folkways
Pile 2
it
IN
1^
Arthur Sullivan
Romberg
S.
(
10
EMINENCE RANKINGS.
Hoagy Carmichael
Sir
J.
Arthur Sullivan
Strauss
If tastc
bchavesas do Other
is
shown by the
fact that
although the
members
in
1944, they correlated only 'S^ with the 92 ranks derived from the
polling of
1938.
1938 poll's
92 eminent names.)
12^
193s
Order
1951
1944
Bach
Bach
Beethoven
Beethoven
Beethoven
Bach
Wagner
Mozart
Brahms
Mozart
Palestrina
Wagner
Haydn
Mozart
6
7
Haydn
Brahms
Monteverdi
Schubert
Handel
Debussy
Handel
Wagner
10
Schubert
10
Debussy
10
Palestrina
11
Handel
25
Monteverdi
IS
Monteverdi
(^
Haydn
Brahms
Palestrina
(^
Schubert
Debussy
a rho
of '81.
1938
i945
i953
Beethoven
Beethoven
Beethoven
Bach
Wagner
Bach
Wagner
Mozart
Chopin
Mozart
Bach
Mozart
Wagner
Brahms
Chopin
Tchaikovsky
Tchaikovsky
Schubert
Brahms
Chopin
Mendelssohn
Liszt
Mendelssohn
Schubert
Schubert
11
10
Liszt
past.
Liszt
One
{
-!
17
Tchaikovsky
Brahms
Mendelssohn
it
be
or contradict these statements are not at hand. Yet data are available
126
at least indirectly
refer,
however,
compositions.
one pertinent study, the time which had elapsed since the birth
In
most eminent
as
in the
1938
carefully tabu-
more
were found
tion
to range
coefficient falling at
zero.
from +*2i
a value
i 5",
'36,
to
time since birth, the values would have been almost precisely the
same, since the two time series correlate '99 one with the other.
The
picture,
over-all
between the
relative
then,
disclosed
no
significant
relationship
eminence was
and then finding the central tendency. The median birth year was
found to
a larger
fall
in the
number
determine the
For
effects of
1 1
list
in their articles
the i8oo's.
still
of 92 composer names
all
as
eminent
the
first
decade of
to
two
Music and
were examined.
For these two large groups the median birth years were in the
late
127
examined, the
to
fall
median.
Another view of the working of the same principles can be obtained by studying the birth dates of the hundred or so
who ranked
persons
who
75^6.
15^,
3;
top 2^,
The
the
first
8 10;
top 100,
818.
The
lists.
analyses
i95"i
survey were
1770; top
1797;
15-,
lower
rank positions.
From
we
is little
or no tendency
to
clear,
eminent, the greater the chance that they will not be of our
In fact, the data
show
that
it is
far
we
own
call
day.
It is
last
century or
later.
it is
The com-
poser of recent years has not had the requisite time to become
familiar to his listeners, to build
of
far
many
centuries ago
removed,
is
up
a school of supporters.
stylistically,
His peer
latter'
become
128
who
refuse to
is
pertinent
varies
of
22
5"
names and
-66,
lower
showing
rho
fair
list
agreement.
It
eminence
falls
listings.
Students Polled in
1^
Order
Pile
195^4
Vile 2
Chopin
Chopin
Beethoven
Beethoven
Tchaikovsky
Brahms
^Tchaikovsky
Mozart
Rimsky-Korsakov
Sousa
Schubert
Brahms
R. Strauss
Debussy
fSousa
[Bach
Mozart
|Foster
10-5
Foster
11-5
Debussy
12-5
Schubert
11-5
Bach
15-5
R. Strauss
15-5
Rimsky-Korsakov
critic
many
lists
he assembled by
^7
129
will
show
similar
members of
Symphony Orchestra in
former symphony player. ^^ The
members
accompanying
order
is
somewhat
names are
members
orchestras.
Boston
Philadelphia
Beethoven
Beethoven
Wagner
Brahms
Bach
Bach
Mozart
Mozart
Brahms
Wagner
Debussy
Schubert
Schubert
Haydn
Haydn
Schumann
Schumann
The enjoyment of
sections
Debussy
is
While there
is
essential
regarded
Some
is
some
agreement
as neutral,
as to
which
which are
making
130
In these experi-
as a
tonal-preference test,
(i.e.,
the
Harmonic
Sensitivity, '99.
Test
Dykema
Test
The corresponding
of Tonal Movement
Here again we
were
for intervals, for simple phrases, and for certain resolutions as well.
Minnesota
Stanford
Major Third
Major Third
Minor Third
Minor Sixth
Minor Third
Minor Sixth
Major Sixth
Fourth
Octave
Tritone
Major Sixth
Fifth
Tritone
Octave
Fifth
Major Second
Major Second
10
Minor Seventh
11
Major Seventh
12
Minor Second
Minor Seventh
Major Seventh
Minor Second
2
3
Fourth
Knowledge of Composers
Like enjoyment, knowledge of composers seems to be a factor in
taste.
The
best
as
two
When
names were
131
9-2
Order
Pile
Chopin
Pile 2
Chopin
Beethoven
Beethoven
Mozart
Schubert
Schubert
Brahms
Tchaikovsky
6
7
Tchaikovsky
Schumann
Bach
Brahms
R. Strauss
Schumann
Bach
(^Mendelssohn
Mendelssohn
10
Mozart
10
R. Strauss
Programs
By
this
many
Why
far the
not discuss
of the
Do
world tend
To
made
to
first
show rank-order
In the table
names are
identical.
132
And
again
we
can
make
In fact,
the
first
1925-1935
Order
1935-1945
Beethoven
Brahms
Wagner
Mozart
Bach
Sibelius
R. Strauss
R. Strauss
Ravel
Ravel
Mozart
Sibelius
1"
Stravinsky
Beethoven
Brahms
Wagner
Stravinsky
Tchaikovsky
10
Tchaikovsky
Bach
10
American symphony
during
a "popularity
1936-41
orchestras. ^5
in
large
part.
pyramid" from
Note
names of their pyramiid appear among the ten played most often by
the Boston
starting in 1935".
Brahms
Mozart
Wagner
Tchaikovsky
it
Sibelius
JR. Strauss
(Bach
|Ravel
10
Thus
Composers
Beethoven
(Schumann
more
verbal side,
which
is
studied
through balloting.
133
learn
also
show
made by
the author of
KYA
from 8.00
until
10.00 P.M. The years 1941, 1942, and 1943 were chosen for study. ^^
number of times
Great consistency was found, shown by the fact that the average of
the intercorrelations of the three ranks was "9^.
radio hours of this type
is
show
similar
If,
then, other
it
some
sort of
lawful pattern.
Company Broadcasts
1942
1941
1943
Beethoven
Beethoven
Tchaikovsky
Tchaikovsky
Brahms
Brahms
Bach
Mozart
Mozart
Mozart
Bach
Sibelius
Brahms
Tchaikovsky
Bach
Sibelius
Wagner
Wagner
Schubert
Wagner
Schumann
Debussy
Sibelius
Schubert
R. Strauss
Debussy
Beethoven
11
R. Strauss
10
Schubert
10
Schumann
37-5
Debussy
11
Schumann
11
R. Strauss
CHANGES
clearly in
IN
PROGRAMS.
program trend
lines.
If taste
were
works of
all
would show
their
programs the
seemed
to be the rule. ^7
flat,
who
Beethoven,
dropped speedily
and
now
had
has leveled
vs^as
falls
show^n to be
It is
Wagner
off.
at first,
is still
then
in this
less rapidly
fallen
lower
level of popularity.
among them an
For
illustrative purposes, it
dropped
until
World War
I,
fairly
fallen slowly
now
is
Fifth
it is still
much
fallen in
rank until
it
lowest in favor.
show
though
The
so,
he finds, do
New York
orchestras, any given position on the curve is reached by the New York
is
much
London or the
We
is
have seen that the relative frequencies with which the works
Symphony Orchestra
The
13^
the resemblances
decades.
The program
present.
The
shifts are
correlation values
this orchestra.
Decade
Starting in 1895
Decade
Starting in 1905
Decade
Starting in 1915
Decade
Starting in 1925
1905
1915
1925
1935
87
82
81
81
92
83
83
98
90
90
...
Space Allocations
Another operational or action aspect of
amounts of space allotted to composers
general and music encyclopedias.
As
taste
in histories of
it
is
music and in
on
siderable length
all
lives
is
to receive.
and works of
in
all
there must be
which
is
history or an encyclopedia?
To throw
early 1900's
on
light
were
It
this
among themselves
is,
they
favored
92
136
show
concern, then,
is
is
not whimsical.
Our next
it.
Allocation of Space
Rank Order
Histories of the
930' s
Histories of the
Wagner
Beethoven
Beethoven
Wagner
Mozart
Mozart
Bach
Bach
Brahms
Haydn
Liszt
Handel
Schumann
Brahms
9
10
Schubert
f
1
Haydn
Liszt
(^Schubert
Schumann
10
Alusic Encyclopedias
oj the 1930'
of the 1940's
Wagner
Bach
Beethoven
Mozart
Schubert
Liszt
Mozart
Bach
Schumann
Schubert
Debussy
Brahms
Mendelssohn
\^
13-5
Liszt
General Encyclopedias
Kank Order
of the ip30's
9 40'
[Handel
Music Encyclopedias
Kank Order
Wagner
Beethoven
Mendelssohn
Schumann
Brahms
Debussy
General Encyclopedias
of the ip40's
Beethoven
Beethoven
Bach
Bach
Mozart
Wagner
Handel
Wagner
Schubert
Mendelssohn
Schubert
Mozart
Schumann
Schumann
Mendelssohn
Handel
Tchaikovsky
J
[Tchaikovsky
137
similar
found,
We
IN SPACE ALLOCATIONS.
from decade
it
to decade.
vs^ith
time.
is
found to be
most
is
shown by the
it
in time. This
in
magnitude from
is
left to right
Intercorrelations
in Space
Allocations
Histories
of the
1920's
1930's
1940's
90
-88
-78
90
-88
90
1920's
1930's
1940's
77
-74
-72
91
^89
95
1920's
1930's
90
-88
-88
94
^91
1940's
93
the differences
among
aesthetic responses
were
we
stressed.
While such
is,
even
if
they are in
realms of
who
human
respond to
passivity
In any social
response.
all
and compliance.
resistant,
and
few
is
necessary
if
trends are to be
established,
this
present, and
may
may
be.
To
avoid
all
possibility of misinterpretation,
To
were presented,
since i860.
late in
might be wise
it
which make up
a typical pool.
1946, with a
list
to rank
on
of 10 to
the names
sheets
labeled
The
alternation into
two equal
and B.
table
The number
who
number
of votes.
at the
number
piles,
show the
etc.
To
five a
number of
votes
the
received by each composer was multiplied by the respective rankvalue, the products
were
totaled,
times
proceeded
8, etc.
Note
as follows:
number
who
of 4-,
3-,
2-,
and
-order votes.
139
enormous
among
individual differences
when
Yet
Pool A
OF Choice
O RDER
10
Sums
Debussy
12
12
364
Kreisler
4
4
120
11
Sibelius
297
Ravel
176
R. Strauss
268
Paderewski
186
132
10
Composer
Prokofiev
Rank
Rachmaninov
12
11
358
Shostakovich
251
Stravinsky
Gershwin
Sums
Schuman,
W.
183
271
60
12
Pool B
O RDER OF Choice
Composer
Debussy
395
134
11
276
260
296
10
16
10
Kreisler
Sibelius
4
4
Ravel
9
R. Strauss
Paderewski
Prokofiev
14
10
Stravinsky
Gershwin
Rachmaninov
Shostakovich
Schuman,
It
W.
shown
229
177
10
393
264
225
334
72
12
Rani
social pressures.
much
as
More-
140
among
orchestras.
In
symphony
of orchestral
study
careful
idiosyncracies,
few
have disclosed. 3^
presented. But this great organization has never, except for a five-
music. Moreover,
prisingly
it
enough when
its
foreign-born personnel
Wagner. And,
is
considered,
it
it
has
has been an
modern period.
sur-
less interest in
New
York
Russian music
But they have indicated more than average interest in German music,
an interest held to throughout
World War
I.
music, on the other hand, have been rather neglected. The program
trends of the sister organization, the
are the
The programs of
this
The programs of
weak
in
German and
in French.
all
British.
There
is
less
than average
Liszt,
to
In contrast,
more than
1936),
these
in
New York
it
is
Criteria
With
C.
E.
deviations from
illustrations of this
phenomenon
are legion in
all
of the
arts. 3^
The
and the
regular
known
violinist
as
make
But
the vibrato.
if
of
little
help.
generation
For what
may not be
a deviation
is
which
will be rejected,
considered an
to
some
he will find
artistic deviation in
so regarded in another.
must be acceptable
To be
one
called artistic,
emotions. 32
comes
Some
to appreciate
develops good
is
fact,
142
the listener
and so eventually
taste.
somehow
of his
senti-
mere
a study
own
In
impulses,
if
unrealistic sort.
hoped
democratic ideals?
Is
we
have with
who
And
as for
Wagner
his earlier
insincere because
it
the cliche,
it
it?
These terms,
se,
it is
need only be
said that
while there
is
may become
music
at
in the
To
lifted.
is
only
now
this
being gradually
acceptable
were popular
later.
ban which
fifths
Thus Howes's
criteria,
In considering the
we
as alluring
it
and
may be regarded
utility
an
as
phenomena which
places, things,
and previously
expressed affective states; the lure of the familiar and the novel; the
stimulation of the imagination; the possibilities of self-expression;
and the pleasures to be derived from the genius and good craftsmanship of composers and performers,
works of these
what
artists,
artists are
from
facts
about the
attempting to express.
33
lives
and
ability to interpret
C. E. Seashore, a pioneer
Why
it
then do
because
it is
built
selves;
it
it
we
love music?
Among
other things
we
love
in
them-
it is self-
it
isolation
humdrum
life
and makes us
live in play
it
the
takes
with the
satisfies
in
of
is
it
the
of emotion,
attitude
artistic
and for
self-
It
is
it
all
which purport
some
still
detail the
some of our
quite unclear.
But sufficient data have already been assembled to prove the great
in the
CULTURAL DERIVATIONS.
If taste is
than innate, one would expect to find the taste of the child approxi-
Such
as
he grows older.
In
one
study in which several groups had been asked to assess the relative
eminence of 92 composers,
only slightly with the
(a rho
of '3 3).
But
the musicologists in
more marked
for
members
judgements
(68), and
still
more
was
for
Musicologists surveyed in
Here we see
the groups
become more
In
a steady
as
and in training.
144
alike in age
He found
by adults w^ere
Another psychologist,
by adolescents.
Dashiell,
also
enjoyed
observed that,
agreements
in preference of children
among
as
the
children of
The Kwalwasser-Dykema
of Melodic Taste, in
Test
which 20 items
employed
yield data
to
which
reflect
showed agreement
i'4.
Similarly,
when
were analyzed,
it
ages
35",
became more
became more
As the
like those of
the experts,
selves. 3^
i.e.
Although
consistency"
is
mentioned data
one writer
feels
that
this
which
show
clearly
that
proceeds
"intra-individual
tempo preferences
Foley,
it
will be
slow pace,
preferred a
e.g.,
power machines,
fast allegro
his typists
14^
played at about the speed they have heard them rendered traditionally.
its
scope,
On
levels.
divided according to
rhythms within rhythms which tend to follow multiples of the sunspot cycle of II'
years. "4^
Whether long or
short, these
rhythms
Phases of
warm weather
being musical taste for (and so creativity in the area of) the serious
opera, the symphony, the sonata, the concerto,
chamber music,
Warm
weather
is
also said to
Cold
somehow put
operas,
be conducive to the
spells,
rise
of
and counterpoint
according
to the
warm nor
However, the
cold, but
were rather
Wheeler holds
that
we
are
now
in a
decade or the
1830; the
146
last
960's.
warm
Our
last
a ten-year
warm
we
will
period in
to study weather cycles to forecast the taste of any future time period.
No
would seem, he
be in universal air-conditioning.
scientist
would dare
some very
if
changes the
vs^orld has
slight validity.
Yet
it
would be
have caused huge changes in aesthetic interests and taste while the
It
is
becoming increasingly
is
indicated by special
Some
would go
"good" causes.
which has
Ordinarily,
good
a
honoring of only
little is
however,
positions
this
doctrine
which are
is
felt to
com-
state's
may be
deluding themselves
or propaganda worth
as to the timeliness
is
it is
healthier to
masses. 44
This
TRAINING.
is
Little
by
little,
come
to
If
only certain
be accepted by the
taste.
which
we
Even the
147
Italian
The
chapters also
airy,
German music
tell
the
com-
and the
light
tie
to certain styles of
For American
when
The
situation
Lincoln
J.
Stone
and
4^
W.
lists
Robinson
war music.
War, the
lists.
at
aspects of
Civil
is
in
of
all
time.
common
traditions and
all
men
soldiers of
they place
common
subjects
war
terrors,
pests,
the enemy, sweethearts and other loved ones, and the desire to return
home.
Gardner and Pickford have demonstrated by experiment what
absolutists have difficulty in understanding: that perceived dissonance
varies
as a
5
(3) the physical composition of the chord.
experiment
L' Histoire
in
du
sophomores.
on enjoyment has
which Beethoven's
Sold at
Fifth
were presented
to
whole,
The
also
as
well as
effect
of the
been shown
When
148
in an
(a
were 73-8
number, and
79-
became
34*5^
Note the
Wiebe found
radio did not appear to increase his student subjects' liking for them.^^
WNYC
have done
much
in a decrease
result
of
to develop an interest in
music among
its
listeners
more
Suchman concluded
to
liability
ment
literature.
is
possible
the develop-
positions
com-
radio station.
A number
54
many times
complete agreement,
seems
safe to say
maximum
acceptance
it
Music with
on the
listener than
made
become
is
larger
"Might
it
what psychologists
on rehearing. 5^
phenomenon may be
As she phrases
it:
maze
that
149
in the case of
to say,
may be
a pleasure gradient
radio listening, in
quality, i.e.,
at
with
present pre-
informal training
is
another to function
when
We
this
type of preference
is
this
phenomenon,
radio, and
when
the listener
told that a wider tonal band yields tones closer to the sounds of
real life. 5^
from the
on the
bass.
Presumably
this
preference arose
the lower tonal ranges but have only recently brought in the very
high frequencies.
As
matter of
fact,
RCA
lovers,
now
an essential for
all
music
extreme
The
fidelity"
some
taste for
an overloaded treble.
its
Long accustomed
While the
hi-fi
is
is
to the
"acoustically naked."
somewhat
at first
Some
can
call
more attuned
more
said to
^'^
Schoen terms
if
there
is
its
this
group into
moods,
the attention
if
own
is
on
real or apparent
if
the
music
itself.
While
listener imputes
these classifications
may
traits,
to
and
activities to the
types,
it is
logies.
They
are, rather,
sort
Ortmann
extreme
We
this
Schoen
"objective,"
sets are
itself.
home
of us learn to pay
associations
to the older
full
if
any
of taste: for the concert stage, for the dance hall, ^3 for church, and for
school
to
it is
difficult to
be
specific
intelligence,
about
all this
since there
If
we
taste
this
through the use oftaste and attitudinal tests, interviews, and operational
methodologies. Care should be taken, however, that the standards
set
For
training
if taste
is
to be directed
enjoyment of music,
it
would seem obvious that a standard of taste which embraces only a few
composers of top eminence will be
less effective
many
than a
styles of
more
catholic
composition.
Summary
The
first thesis
matter of whimsey or
clear
taste
is
it
is
lawful.
It
in
"Is
musical taste a
have
elite
among
shared,
elite
also
and the
as
forming
at least
must be mentioned
And,
if
knowledge of composers
as lawful,
taste,
is
is
knowledge
for a
members
Enjoyment, too,
vs^ith
accepted
is
to
one
to the
Analyses of musicians'
is
not
as
most eminent.
are,
Moreover,
1^2
even
as
if
they
among
may
well be
must be
their importance
And
slight at best.
All
it is
mores
most
taste
fit
Change with
exactly.
'
The teaching of
taste,
are earmarks of
then,
taste,
is
mores and
essentially a process of
somewhat from
Notes
i]
2]
M.
F.
Arithmetic, p.
3]
Ibid., p. 81.
4]
109.
Person.,
6 (1938):
33J-340S]
interesting articles by
is
referred to the
Mathematical Biophysics of
Combinations of Musical Tones," Bull. Math. Biophjsics, 4 (1942): 27-32; "An Alternate
Approach to the Mathematical Biophysics of Perception of Combinations of Musical
Tones," op.
cit.,
pp. 8990.
6]
7]
P.
in Music,
P.
Monog., 24 (1941): 347-381; "Musical Eminence," Sch. and Soc, 0 (1939): 1^8-160.
9]
I
o]
When it is
ments, each
is
U. Press,
is
i9i'o.
two
sets of
may
measure-
vary from
I* 00 (which shows the rank orders to be identically arranged) through o (where there is
no correspondence) to i-oo (where the two rank orders are inversely arranged; the
highest name in one array is lowest in the other). The rho of -97 indicates that the two
1^3
regarded
1
1]
similarly.
it is
to be
list
2]
3]
all
to be
that the 92
names mentioned
in the
of items to be correlated.
are
r/io's
as positive.
For a discussion of
how
first
contemporary performers of
jazz
"All-Star" polls.
14]
P.
107109.
I
j]
When
is
the mode.
16]
is
most
These data were gathered through the courtesy of Dr R. Granneberg, of the San
Alfred
Chronicle,
Frankenstein,
February
1941.
2,
F. Michaelis, the
Francisco
program
manager of the (California) Standard Oil Company's "The Standard Hour," conducted a
survey
among
NBC
who
returned their questionnaires voted Beethoven the most popular composer. The next
few
in
Strauss.
in Blue.
by Tchaikovsky's Nutcracker
18]
E.
Chopin,
Suite
Militaire.
Gershwin,
y. Exp. Psychol.,
16 (1933): 709-724.
upon Them,"
20]
W.
S.
y4mer. J. Psjchol.,
Foster and
SS ('942): iio-iii.
M. A. Tinker,
p. 316.
21]
P.
(1934): 24-30.
See also O.
W.
J. Exp. Psjchol.,
22]
28 (1941): 439-442.
P. R. Farnsworth,
"An
1^4
"A Study
26 (1940): 61962
for Major and Minor Chords,"
Psychol.,
No.
^ (193 i):
291393.
23]
The
24]
subjects
(1934): 50-84.
were asked
to
check
all
number of
votes each
name
received.
J.
Humanity
Ser.,
See also
Press.
No.
J.
Taste,
26]
official
27]
of the company.
J.
op.
cit.
Kaplan, "Telopractice:
A Symphony
Orchestra
as
It
29]
J.
Musical Taste."
in
31]
According
to L. Vernon, pianists play at least one-half of their chords asynchronously ("Synchronization of Chords in Artistic Piano Music," U. of
W.
See also
Fifth," Amer. J.
Psychol.,
68 (1955):
312-315.
32]
F.
33]
E.
Psychology,
2<)
(1928): 9-13.
34]
C. E. Seashore,
35]
C.
W.
and Adults,"
36]
J. F.
Why We
among Children
6 (1913): 190-216.
Harmonies
in
2 (1917): 466-47^37]
1 1
38]
T.
W.
39]
1
1-126.
I.
Memory
for Auditory
Rhythm,"
63-104.
Tempo
and
Its
(1933): 301-313-
^55
Foley
J. P.
41]
K.
Jr.,
12 (1940):
Soc. Psychol.,
F. Schuessler, "Social
33033^. For
Preferential Auditory
Tempo,"
21-129.
J.
Social. Rev.,
13 (1948):
F.
Human
Behavior," in P.
L.
Harriman, ed..
The
in Mus.
43]
An example
number
"advice" given a
432-438.
USSR, February
lo,
official
1948.
pronouncement and the composers' answ^ering statethe American Russian Institute's pamphlet, On Soviet Music, published in
ments appear
May
44]
in
1948, in Hollywood.
The
experiment on the
on musical
M.
J.
Keston and
easier
by
H. T. Moore, "The
Psychol.,
32 (192
1):
1620.
L. E. Tyler,
Psychol.,
M.
made
J. Genet. Psychol.,
46]
I.
is
taste see
is
of Discrimination of
Composer
Style," J. Gen.
34 (1946): 153-163.
47]
48]
J.
Stone,
in the Civil
War,"y. Abn.
Soc. Psychol.,
36
(1941): 543-560.
49]
W.
U. of
50]
Robinson,
Calif. Press,
P. A.
"War
Gardner and R.
W.
effects
J.
Gen.
on appreciation of
Effect of
Psychol.,
Order of
2J (1942):
295-310.
51]
]. Appl. Psychol.,
52]
E. A.
24 (1940): 721-727.
Suchman, "Invitation
to Music:
F. Lazarsfeld
and
New Music
F. Stanton, eds.,
Listeners
N.Y., Duell,
Effect of
(1943), 261-279.
iS6
IJ (1914): 1-68; M.
F.
Washburn
"The
et al.,
Effects of
Psychol. Monog.,
1927, Chap. 10; A. R. Gilliland and H. T. Moore, "The Immediate and Long-time Effects
of Classical and Popular Phonograph Selections," J. Appl. Psjchol., 8 (1924): 309-323;
H. E. Krugman, "Affective Response to Music as a Function of Familiarity," J. Ahn. Soc.
43 (1957): i?5-i62.
S]
M. Verveer,
E.
"Change
et al.,
in Affectivity
with Repetition,"
Arner. J. Psychol.,
45
(1933): 130-134^6]
as it
in Musical
Sj]
This suggestion
acoustic
filter
370376.
is
who found
that
when
was placed between sound and audience the preference was for
an
all-
a full
J. Acoust. Soc.
Broadcast Listeners,"
Inst.
j9]
60]
M. Schoen, "The
Time, 66,
See also P. E. Vernon, "The Phenomena of Attention and Visualization in the Psychology
of Musical Appreciation,"
61]
C.
S.
21 (1930): 50-63.
Brit. J. Psjchol.,
Brit. J.
Psychol.,
13
(1922): 52-71.
62]
Basis
of Music Appreciation," J.
Comp.
Psjchol.,
(1922): 227-256.
63]
J.
E.
571-581.
64]
Classic
J. Gen. Psjchol.,
M.
J.
Keston,
Efficiency
Two Methods
of
(1939): 1-4.
iS7
CHAPTER SEVEN
The Measures
We
siderable stability.
like other social
of Musical Taste
taste,
Moreover,
its
it
has been
shown
ment
in
It is
now
were
as if it
Variety of Measures
Experience has shown that no one measure of musical taste can
hope
to tap the
ensemble or
totality of preferences.
Several pro-
the measures
we
many
Though
different types,
tests, in turn,
can be
The
less
split into
the
standardized
the
phonograph record
1^8
listings.
as
One
record number
A 7^39,
as a test
of taste. 3
However,
from the
test
The record
was dropped
as a
has since
preference
judged
as "better"
measure
of
'65"
is,
by
first.
As the
reliability of the
low
It
neighborhood
its
use should
this
reported for a
The
Test presents
harmonic
"good" or "bad."
awkward rhythms,
failure to
melody or rhythm,
etc.
Authorities
wrong
fifths
and
movement, bad
wide
a range, etc.
with
a value of '40.
for the
i5"9
is
and -21
(adult level),
these
two
With
reliabilities of
must be rated
tests
only
as
of
The
tests
other
from
past.
To
many
of the
tests
The
now
day
later
The
taste.
its tests
two
that
two melodies
latter are to
The
The second
much
test
As
this
suitability as
number
concluding phrases.
of stimuli
is
is
too small to
definitely limited,
mentally a
below
it.
fifth
With
statistically
reliability
K-D
th,e
it is
battery.
There
is
One
this
test
tests,
and the
is
asked to recognize
is
160
how
felt.^
is
moods
the following:
express
is
a correlation of '40
The
must supply
listener
number 747 11
745"8
(Serenade Melancolique)
However,
little reliability.
The
or
seconds of
25^
whether he thinks
test
is
number
that
John
it
may have
a real
function.
in Music.^
basic idea
Another
of tonal-rhythmic configurations,"
is
the
multiple-
tests. Reliabilities
test
3 2
is
a taste
.awareness
Preference Test.^^
jazz.
The
'
Themes from 20
Musical Moods
selected
Test.'^^
The items of
whose answers
No
little relation to
similar
also the
this test,
were prejudged by
more
sets of adjectives
for
music instructors,
the themes.
works are
The
task
is
to
reported for
this test,
which has
measure
is
Test, in
which 120
is
asked to match
In the
a list
of
The
.
a sentimental, a dull,
and
a chaotic version.
subject indicates w^hich are his most and least preferred versions,
as
^^
more than
-^i.
The measure
is
preference judgment, ^^
In
were
Mohler procedure,
critics,
precludes a reliability of
size
now
for
merit by 368
to
Scales
one study he
mood
intended by the
composer.
An
made by
were
factor
to be normal.
this
of interest.
One
factor
structure,
But
if it
many will
have meaning, the data become
(as
rhythmical
emphasis,
fast
tempo,
individual
if it
jazz-like
The
mood,
classical
162
"warmth and
stress a
nature of
The
still
J.
L. Landsbury) can
by
deemed
with
^^
The
Scoring credit
given
is
The
reliability of this
fifth
measure
adults.
and
his
second,
the scoring.
The
been found to
fall
Both of these
tests
tests are
by
Test
for Musical
comprehension of compositions
for
example,
original
as
Sixth
from the
all
in the neigh-
theme;
it is
varied,
however, and
is
is
taken
played in faster
one statement
to do with
which run
Wing
in
mood.
as
high as -Si.
which have
to
recorded tune
is
In each test a
left
hand
in the
"harmony"
test
may
style.
or
The
may not
163
listen for
two
tests of
music
achieved.
(if
is
the
neighborhood of -90
is
in
a reliability in the
ability,
to
Great Britain.
Lowery,"
Schoen's
Tonal
Sequence
supposedly
Test
For
fitness,
Schoen suggests
balance,
criteria:
five
"belonging-
is
Lowery's Cadence
o, 2, 4, or 6 for fitness.
In
must be judged
Drake's
Test of Intuition
is
Test,
more or
less
complete.
ability to supply
endings to
as
The
listener judges
abilities
area of taste.
Practically nothing
is
known about
tests.
among
rather dissimilar,
correlations
164
it
would be
were found
surprising
if all
of the tests to
remembered
Moreover,
variables.
be
should
it
Naturally,
then,
fraction
of the
Paper-and-Pencil Tests
On
and Appreciation.^^
Its
arrangement
is
com-
by orchestral instruments,
The
requires
test
some 40 minutes
by M.
structed
etc.
administration.
its
Its
Stanford students.
for
A more
Young, ^^
form of
difficult
been con-
it
by
is
Semeonofif.^7
a reliability
around '85,
^^
is
is
the Test
asked to
Vernon
On
the
score
is
defined
in
between what the subject records and what the experts have
previously checked as the ideal.
Using
a slight
developed
a Test of Attitude
subject
is
is
it
method
this
measure
is
not,
An example
of an item
whose
toward music
is,
16^
it
on an
may be
placed
attitudinal
be assessed by
this
college students
is
instrument. 3
The
reliability as
reported for
exactly '90.
An
in
im-
is
one
"extreme
left indicates
"strongest
scale
possible
dislike of
interest
in
make me
teachers
and,
(placed
scales,
2 1' 3
music,"
my
the
music only
spend most of
"1
end
at the right
when my
parents or
left)
left
end).
In an assessment of
one of the
check
to
was found
scale.
It
to be 'So,
children to have
more
interest in
latter
admitted to
having.
most eminent
the ordering
list
made by
the
contemporary
is
It
course of time.
attitudes.
taste
members
in the
whose
166
To be
of worth
it
list
must
seem
rivals, for
far,
they
The techniques
"collective" taste.
Polling
This book has already considered at
is
some length
data obtained
tool. 33
was
really
have
all
And
answer.
data.
w^here polling
are, have
taste as
is
own
difficulties
Orchestral Programs
Attention has been called to the fact that the Boston Symphony
It
is
(r/io 35
of -Si in
sophomores
the ones
(rho of '79).
who
are,
by and
large,
167
Boston Symphony
Choice
Orchestra
0951)
Bach
Beethoven
Brahms
Beethoven
Bach
Wagner
Mozart
Brahms
Mozart
R. Strauss
Wagner
Haydn
Mozart
Bach
Brahms
Debussy
Sibehus
Palestrina
Schubert
Tchaikovsky
Handel
Handel
Debussy
Schubert
Wagner
Haydn
11
Haydn
10
Debussy
10
13
Schubert
13
Tchaikovsky
18
R. Strauss
16
Handel
20
R. Strauss
19
Tchaikovsky
66
Palestrina
30-5
Sibelius
30
Sibelius
Note:
first
Musicologists
(1944)
Beethoven
Musicologists
Palestrina
among
the
Hence,
of taste, particularly
if
we
appear to have
at
hand
a fair
barometer
pooled with those from the other leading orchestras of the land. 3^
Broadcasts of Recordings
When
34)
168
it
was found
well (rho of '8^) with the eminence ranks established from the
somewhat
less
The
group of
from the
utility
when
of
inspection of
r/jo's
taste as will
an
AND
1943
Order of
Frequency
Composers
Beethoven
Tchaikovsky
Brahms
Mozart
Bach
Sibehus
Wagner
Schubert
Schumann
Record Listings
The composers favored
in the
Company
broadcasts tend
eminence
ranks obtained from the histories, the music encyclopedias, and the
general encyclopedias of the 1940's, the correlation values were found
to be '87, '88, and -69, respectively.
The
to the
distribution of recordings
mentioned
I.
in
Kolodin's A Guide
to
Recorded
the
number
rho
lists
of approximately -9^.
Incidentally,
The
two
the agreement
between the 1936 and 1942 and between the 1942 and 1948 editions
of the Gramophone Shop Encyclopedia
of magnitude.
well a
number
Here, then,
we
is
Scholarly Texts
Since histories of music and encyclopedia articles on the com-
it is
works
Of course,
not too
much
will follow
the editors of
encyclopedias must usually limit the over-all space, and this necessity
must
in
such publications.
space devoted to the names which do pass the selection will tend to
reflect cultural attitudes.
1
70
than
taste.
The
who composes
perfectionist
may both
short
is
the data of
and the
receive less
vs^hile
life,
may
receive unarticle
may
own
vs^hich at
many
histories
relatively little
deserved space.
But
if
more
eminent
men
method
in an
because no
now
be determined,
Webers and
is
list.
the
first
Of
who
may be guessed
it
to aid in distinguishing
that the
may
or
in his
which of
Hence
list
with
a rating of
).
employed the
were given
initials
in the
Cattell
been
McKeen
he used cannot
list
J.
first
475^.
Beethoven had
Wagner
No
rank
337, Mendels-
other composers
^00.
tell
us very
little.
Hence,
Yet the
fact
is
surely indicative of their relative status during the period just prior
to that of Cattell's researches.
It is
of interest that
all
of these names,
later lists
com171
to this ItaUan
com-
poser has decreased slowly but steadily in both the music and general
source books written in the English language during
this century. 39
survey and received few votes from the 1944 and 195^1 memberships.
Bach, on the other hand, improved in status rapidly and soon became
works published
in
numbered
employed.
five
standard works
the period 1900-19, six for the decade of the 1920's, and five each
for the 1930's
is
number
histories
typically
mention
same composer on
number
in
work on
histories,
Fortunately,
the
is
and the
that of the
number
of page-
(r/70's
4"
determined on the
basis of
Symphony Orchestra
and the Pacific Gas and Electric Company, and to the order of
frequencies secured from record listings.
172
the
scholarly endeavor
of
the
music
devote rather
similar
of music,
histories
1940's
considered,
is
from the music and the general encyclopedias. The ranks secured
The
a rho
of
intercorrelations
as
it
would appear
good picture of
taste at
safe to
as yielding a fairly
Boredom
While no one
taste
its
readers to
It
name
that the
that
in
it
should in
all
would have
its
own
on
Each
in part
by
the too-frequent hearing of certain pieces and by the fact that other
if it is
is
a considerable
i9 5"4,
group of
who would
As the
if
present,
would have
critic
who
are
to honor.
little effect
on basic
173
taste.
Of
listeners
course, most persons tire rather rapidly of jazz pieces and other
examples of
less serious
And Rachmaninov's
music.
Prelude
reasonably in favor.
it
musical
Any school
related to taste.
it is
in favor at
against itself.
w^ith basic
is
it
is
how
Although
modified form,
Here
do
taste.
In a
much
must be
must
it
may
at least in
of collective boredom.
human tendency
new
experience."
was
first
Summaij
In this chapter attention
the fact that, in general, they measure individual taste with relatively
poor
reliability
and
validity.
To
tions
program
among
and examina-
into
scholarly
works 4^ on music
all
internally consistent.
as it exists
collective taste
as it existed
decades ago.
Notes
i]
a relativistic
view which
is
this
No.
A more
(1947): 189195.
Intern. Phil., 31
2]
as a variety
allocations.
3]
The
reliability of a test
is
its
6]
J.
J.
Tests
Kwalwasser and
I
low
Kwalwasser,
1930, p.
7]
one
is
as to
it
90's.
tends to
and Measurements
P.
As
it
is
a test is
become more
in Music,
W. Dykema,
it.
much
reliable.
Manual of
Directions,
K-B
Tests,
N.Y., Fischer,
8.
The authors
poor
reliability
and suggest a
repetition under conditions such that the subjects believe they are hearing a 20-item test.
S.
1922, p.
Tests, Series
M, Music, Detroit,
S.
A. Courtis,
Before the days of formal psychological tests an even earlier attempt to study
J.
Power
in
1933, 306-312.
10]
E. Gaston,
Test
1944.
11]
S.
at
Various Age
and Grade
College Place,
Levels,
L. B.
13]
M.
J.
Bower, "A Factor Analysis of Music Tests," Thesis, Catholic U., 1945.
Keston and
J. Genet. PsjchoL,
14]
M.
J.
M.
01 113.
I.
86 {13 ss):
M. R. Trabue,
An Experimental Approach
to
Its
Measurement,"
Educ. Psychol.,
14 (1923): 545-?6i.
16]
B. Semeonoff,
"A
New
17]
145-161.
J. Soc. PsjchoL,
18]
P. A. T.
I.
37 (19^3): 446-4^4-
Psychol.,
John H. Mueller,
et al.,
(1934): 11J-130.
31-137.
19]
Ibid.,
20]
Monog. Suppl.,
Brit. J. Psychol.,
No. 27 (1948).
21]
M. Schoen,
5 (1925): 3i-?222]
Music,"
in
Brit. J. Psjchol.,
IJ (1926): 11 1-
118.
23]
R.
The
between
difference
a test of taste
slight.
2^]
J.
Kwalwasser,
26]
Tests
and Measurements
in Music,
is
sometimes
9098.
More
this Field of a
Reliable and
B. Semeonoff, op.
28]
P. E.
cit.
Psychol.,
14 (1930):
3^5-362.
29]
John H. Mueller,
30]
The
et al.,
example
just given
is
the most
P.
24S-253.
32]
P. R. Farnsworth,
Musical Taste,"
33]
J. Psjchol.,
as a
Measure of
28 (1949): 421-42^.
Psjchol. Bull.,
43 (1946): 289-374.
34] These values were obtained through a tally of the musical items listed in the "Boston
Symphony Orchestra Programmes" for the seasons 1895-96, 1904-5 through 1907-8,
191 2-1
35]
through
number
Soc. Psjchol.,
"On
the
p.
(in a
123).
mathe-
41 (1946): 25-36.
176
37]
in the
it
proved necessary to
J.
McKeen
3^9-377.
Cattell,
Cattell's data
39]
2 2-
J in Mejers Lexikon.
that Rossini
Siecle, a
encyclopedias.)
When
Stempel combined
From
40]
It
who
(G. H. Stempel,
largest
amount of
was seventh
(Note that
in space allocation.
is
countries.
G. H. Stempel,
allocation
He achieved
of
Tangeman
worth noting
It is
S.
five sets
is
this
can be taken as axiomatic that the greater the variability in the lengths of the
If it is
more
articles
would seem to follow that these massive treatises can supply the most
adequate material for work on eminence. Support for this possibility can be seen in the
rho of -^4 which obtains between the sizes of the encyclopedias and the spread in the
range in length
it
41]
From most
Scheherezade,
were
said to be:
Isolde,
Rimsky-Korsakov's
Parsifal,
Tchaikovsky's
Eijth
Symphony.
show
taste.
that
Beethoven's
taste
than the
His researches
Method
44 (i9S7): 169-173-
177
CHAPTER EIGHT
In
Abilities
employed but
intervals,
to
in
differentiate
To
discriminate between
strain
or
some
sort.
But whether
these capabilities are largely inborn and whether only one general
ability or several
It is
so far
questions
examined.
Ability
In their
work
testers have
employed
as to exact
meanings.
a variety of
To some
area
has
meant
in this
as
test
scores.
The term
is
somewhat
It
The term
power
to act but
inferred potentiality
we
for as
jointly,
and
is
soon
shall
it is
all
of these terms
Hence,
is
Generality of Ability
Almost everyone who has attempted
has
in other areas.
Here
is
some musical
lines
who
memory
a sixth-grader
and of pitch and intensity discrimination but had only chance scores
A monotone
came
overcoming
of mature years
his disability
rhythm
who
was found
tests.
But his
had such
who
of America's great
he abhorred
all
music
which
early led
It
him
in
which the
was
to
his
kettle
drummer
in
one
work with
Cases such
179
as these
bracing one.
Certain of the statistically minded have attempted to answer the
Hence,
indeed.
if it
now
at
They point
tells against
the notion of a
The
more deeply
problem.
factor
into the
analysis
now
available
are
It is
prone to believe
who
are
factors but
when he
memory,
general
music
find several
group
Wing
While
also
rhythm,
pitch,
intelligence.^
tests.
factors,
more commonly
tonal
intensity,
scrutinizing
his
movement, and
own
English-made
total variance.^
analysis
and synthesis, and the other concerned with harmony and melody.
Another Briton, McLeish, who gave both the Wing and the Seashore
music batteries to some
cognitive factor in each. 3
American-built
(p.
237) have
tests
little
to
100 students,
Still
do with music
ability. 4
such
163) which
as
make use of
who
some
Wing,
tests
and
his
own music
ability has
shared by
partly
is
tests
two
aspects,
him
that
music
(e.g.,
on
factors. 7
No
abilities so far
who
manipulations.
memory
still
statistical
musical elements.
undertaken
and
later
also dis-
Bower's
first
memory,
factor
was
do with tonal
nation.
to
Her
nation.
third
rhythm
featured
discrimination
and
tonal
memory.
The reader
analysis
must be quite
tentative.
if
there
on factor
no
test
of tests,
it is
For, after
economy
all,
When two
studies
employ
different sets
is
only a
matrix of correlations.
way
of describing with
some
the measures used, they will be meaningful only as the tests are
181
meaningful.
are
music
Ability in Music
and
abilities.
aptitude and
found that
Interest
taste
tests,
is
Morrow
art
measures. 9
Although Strong
artist
Test correlates
number
of other occupational
-Gi
interests:
which
ability
size
do
ability has to
broad
the arts.
all
largely opposed.
any
We
8 with architect.
interests in
One
small area in
average length of
life
6y
7
2*
5-
over
years. '^
Just
why
artists
182
life
it
certainly no
the
artists is in
years.
slightly
artists
In
is
similar longevities
is
most
commonality of abilities.
component of musical
abiHty.^3
average intelligence.
men
J. S.
At
is
an important
been established
i^'^^.^'^
music
it
tests,
must be
when
argument,
And
on the better-standardized
show
little
It
should also be noted that children of high i.q. tend to yield music
test scores appropriate to their chronological ages
i.Q.'s.^7
Other evidence
some well-developed
who
test
low
in intelligence but
is
who
possess
could barely articulate "papa" and "mama" but was able to sing
over ^o melodies.
earlier to
first
now
believed that
many
fit
schizophrenics.
than had
It is
intelligence, have
relative sense.
still
much
others, admittedly
That
is,
artistic in
low
in
only a
higher in i.q.
in
the special
at least a
183
who come
cases
When
savant.
who
tives
ability.
American
^9
True
number, are
sufficiently
numerous
must
we
have
invariably be
And,
as
seen, the music test data indicate that within the range of school
one
one needs an
^^
relationship
is
hereditarians or environmentalists,
the
the
make
obvious in their
now
It is
a musician.
clear that
Both must be
present before musical and other abilities can emerge. The person
who
as likely to
propitious
environment.
who
They are
as
meaningless
of a particular automobile
the
make of
car, or
attributable to
184
its
is
in
finds himself in a
more
who
achieve in music as
is
as
questions on
due to the
its
a rectangle
width.
is
must be
most
of environment
fertility
to tonal stimuli.
if
Erwin Nyiregyhazi,
not to be
is
prodigy
vs^ho
was
speak and began to improvise during his third year.^^ Yet he has not
But Mozart,
for him.
composed
little
who
more
The
be due,
excellently
formed
for piano
must
environmental pressures.
how
many
tell
difficult
them
who
and when
precisely
what
to play
not their
own
their playing
of unique build on
whom
tonal abilities
Were
The more
was
^3
skills
do the rhythmic. ^'^ With practice, preschool children make spectacular gains in singing tones, intervals, and phrases, but less improve-
ment
in time-keeping.
Greatly enhanced
skill in
the
last
mentioned
then,
is
Some
apparently due to
differences
in
maturational
reassuring to
training.
moved on
the
with pitch training risen from the seventh decile to the third or
growth
fourth. This
was apparent
But
is
the
was not
in sensitivity
at tonal ranges
improvement
where no
training had
I.Q.,
were
valid,
mere
enhanced
upping; of cognitive
is it
scores. ^7
It
we
But, as
tests.
to
Hence,
have already
it
seems
safe
on
if
sensitivity changes
but
been attempted.
If
still
had
be no reason
effective.
is,
in brief, that
environment.
From
these
two
The organism
less
sets
limits
or
Musical
abilities
to a limited extent.
seem
many other
186
so far
or inhibits.
more nor
to
an ability
in general
no
areas.
abilities, it is
should
come
v^ives,
only one of
as
no surprise to
whom
was musical,
his
two
has had
mothers.
man
It
is
mother
fixations or
of biological
disclose. ^9
ability
is
Whether
wholly
training he can be
person
is
wedded
cannot
the analyses
made happy by
If
the
who
whom
from
as
the
musical achievements.
families of
famous
who
can
tell
whether the
milieu which
for those
light
who
But
it
throws no
special abilities.
187
Much
is
logic.
owner
the
is
One
3^
to
an
such
unmusical
wide hand-span
has,
per
se,
or
a thief.
one or more
lip
sorts of
are
wind
instruments.
So
far
to
to musical abilities.
it is
easier to play the violin or the piano if the hands are "properly"
Yet no
constructed.
between
violins, horns,
of
correlations
or clarinets.
moment
measurements and
Although the
pianists
master
ability to
and
violinists of
college age so far examined do have slightly wider than average hands
and longer
younger
pianists
skills
as
at his task
showed these
Apparently a
more
easily achieve.
The
racial
abilities. 35
.Ordinarily Nordic-lovers,
Negroes prominence
Mediterraneans,
in
as
say
about musical
because
to
Most
much
painting,
arts.
unhappy minority
It
to
check on the
places,
there
if
But
is
times and
as to
"racial" group.
at certain
ment
before searching
some one
at
are overcompensa-
facts of race
Jew
status.
a race.
"X
is
that
it
To
musical because he
is
a Slavic
teachers and
especially
little
there
more
than
were excellent
As was mentioned
little
worth
earlier, research in
on
racial difference,
is
be due largely
if
mean
test score.
The most
that can be
racial stock.
difficulty
the higher
mean
tests
cannot be guaranteed to
On
is
less
award
the achieve-
189
side there
almost
all
is
prizes.
In a
man's world
this
is
hardly to be
far
taken
wondered
at,
creative and
is
the
bases for
that
musical
adored
as a
Far
is
is
is
may be
naturally less
the biological
abilities.
claimed:
woman
Carl
more
basic data
will the
a connection
psychiatrist
the normal
amount of
abilities.
sinistrality. '^3
Yet the
more than
also
considered the presence of left-handedness a cue for the prognostication of later musical achievement, in this case success with the
piano. 44
However, there
Sikes's theory
affected
students.
.45
by the
is
left-hand
carry, a fact
little
who
that Sikes
work
of her
to realize.
A more
nearly
this
There
90
is
left-
is
behavior.
It
more
may assume
is
is
system before he can achieve in music. 47 In one study, elementaryschool children were rated by their teachers and music supervisors
for promise in music, handedness, and speech adequacy. 4^
showed
The
data
most musical
way
life
tests.
abilities are in
any
who
with others
made
quite
who
score low. 5
similar
mean
men
looked upon
men
show
with
in
America
as a relatively
is
But even
if
they do
musicians
as
it
enough
is
can be expected to
too early to
scored signi-
findings.
construction
scores
Personality Inventory.
own
work
know whether
to justify
psychoneurotics.
191
It is
known
The
ordinary achievement.
became
that
Demosthenes of antiquity
stuttering
social inferiority
many
And
areas of achievement.
the
was progres-
his affliction
sive,
composed
own
The
at a faster
and
faster rate in an
more dedicated
followers of
granted that
man may be
It
is
new heights.
many wellsprings
mechanism
this
as
it
as
one of the
as the
Jew as possessing
hearing and becoming through
major
a "racial
his over-
compensation to
looked upon
And
as
the deafness
antedating
all
Needless to
Moreover,
it
is
say,
Beethoven
his
is
of the genius
deaf he
declare.
sort.
Gentile. 52
fellow
when
53
far
been but
little
experimentation on
In
1937
169.
The
acuities
were measured
seven pitch levels, for each ear alone, and for both ears together.
Of the
192
as either
1900 d.v.,
more
is,
it
some
years
later. 5^
better acuities.
At
were
this
tested at the
age the
all
other com-
fell at
The
(p.
levels
consistently
who
showed
similar acuities. 55
this
With
and
were
also
The
235").
Except
in the areas of
at
was
that
by Bower. 57 She
states:
"There
is
some
evidence here that those with superior and average hearing did better
in the tests of pitch,
memory
defective hearing."
The
(or "races"
which show
But
this
is
more musical
musical persons
felt
auditory defects.
More
all
may overcompensate
FSP
is
USSR,
since
it
In other words,
characteristics.
it
now
was Jung who gave the world the terms "introvert" and "extro-
vert."
with
The
his
more
introvert
own
is
attitudes
He
introspective.
tends to be preoccupied
a difficult history,
them
Europeans
who
think
more
less
and
But the
often.
less
in
musical although he
may
possess a
less
as well,
were found
between research
findings
measures of extroversion
other.
to be
is
at least in
tested,
still
Such
and
a different
se,
but
marked disagreement
when
the various
with each
now
rarely
more extroverted
musical.
is
America. ^
Thus,
types.
less attention
fields.
194
its
Little
is
described in
as
but in explaining
is
is
not obvious,
basically sexual
mind of
present stage,
may have
all.
the analysand
Such a process, of
therapeutic utility,
it
is
And,
is,
what the
this
its
on
It
must,
if it is
to be accepted,
be taken
faith.
one of the
to
first scientists
But
later
most
more
Von Weber,
in the tactual
for example,
was
One
that
and kines-
musician with
^^
by Agnew
who
many
13-2
The German
use.
scientists, particularly,
almost
as in
who, by reading
tales
have been
book or
a score
and so presumably
Cowell.7
Sistine
as
if
rereading or
Henry
eidetic imagery.
The
may
tonal materials.
The evidence
is
children than
among
adults,
known to be far
many of the latter
Developing Abilities
It is
where the
were sounded
close to
the mother.
when
Unless there
is
anatomical
196
The
first
e.g.,
to
some extent on
Werner
his physiological
according
to
Piatt. 73
agrees that the early cadences are the descending ones but
first. 74
The octave
is less
frequently
attempted and the ascending and other descending cadences are tried
less often.
age employ
them
mean
former with
latter. 75
is
in their
range, approximately
9*5"
semitones,
is
much
strain,
as
if
o*
demanded
7^
g semitones.
and
his
age
Jersild
and Bienstock
seventeen; ages six and seven, twenty-two; and age eight, twentyfour semitones. 7^ These researchers report that with
some practice
number
of
Outstanding musical
age seven.
In fact
Brown ^^ would
begun.
Unusual
where piano
lessons
may be
profitably
skills
197
show
if
typical child
will
minor dichotomy
delights
is
complicated typologies,
in
full
who
has
just
how
like
many
drawn
Continentals
most involved
make
it
Particular trouble
minor, which
pleasant.
His
at first
Only much
later does
it
slightly un-
affect.
C. E. Seashore found
music
In his earlier
it
is
shown by the
fact that
music
testers like
test battery.
for the fifth grade, for the eighth grade, and for adults. ^5 His current
fifth
still
grades, another
^^
Attention has already been called to the peculiarly thin tone of the
preadolescent male soprano, a tone with
to pick
up
this
less
ornamentation
much
earlier than
the male, possibly because she matures faster than he does. ^7 In both
sexes there
is
range at the time of puberty, slight in the female and quite marked in
the male.
It
strain.
Not only
is
his voice
under
He
has
from
this shift in
adults.
Prodigies particularly
198
is
For
it
something
be rated on
else to
a Heifetz or a
Kreisler.
all
learning.
encountered here
as
elsewhere.
Under what
conditions,
sections
example,
for
is
whole
more
learning
area.
it
is
wiser to break
much
it
up into smaller
to
these
smaller
Where
as a
work
method
is
superior. ^9 But
where the
learner's
method and he is not overawed by the length of the score he must learn, the whole method
wins out. 90 The student's aim, then, should be to work with as large
prior habits are not too tied to the part
makes
as
The
in the musical
would appear
In each section of
the Rubin- Rabson study one of three different sorts of incentives was
operative. 9 1
No
verbal
199
In a second, there
of
money payment
if
And
in a third,
improvement became
especially good.
skill
up
to a previously
should be noted that the Rubin-Rabson study does not prove that
What
does demonstrate
it
is
changes must obtain before the slope of the learning curve will be
discriminate pitches.
was
it
knocked from
his
his hat
this
for
its
new
slope.
Any music
somewhat
teacher of long
similar instances
To
as
among
soon
as
come upon.
trial
seems to be
in
most
5^0,
it
did not
who
forced
areas,
more
than
added
effort.
it
200
with the
finding;
it
should not so
is
much more
achieved,
it
original clarity
its
on
of Rubin-Rabson,
at
least
tentatively
accepted.
Although Kovacs,
as early as 1915',
place might not benefit the subsequent learning of the score, his
be drawn. 94 Hence,
Rubin-Rabson
rely again
this area. 95
in brief, (i)
(2) if
as
we must
is
it is,
in
to answer w^ere,
be of value
at
were found
to
both questions.
The best period for mental rehearsal was found to be a time roughly
midway among the keyboard practice sessions. Thus, it would appear
that the ambitious piano student should not only analyze and study
his scores before
he
starts his
skill is
reached to rehearse
generalizations
With
again be
all
to
several sessions?
some
split
for
distributed practice.^^
allocate
employed
is
it
wiser to
all
of the practice
trials,
piano music
in line
fall
trials
vals
far
allocation
is
an interval
set
it
can be
said just
inter-
what
201
Common
he
if
for each
he desires to master.
Repeated again and again, these errors will grow into habits and
become
But
eradicate.
difficult to
is
power of
Would
almost
all
practice
mistakes ? For
The
if
is
it
is
why
skills
at all
it
being
made
as associated
with
practice
still
Why not force the practicer to become acutely aware of his errors?
asks the psychologist Dunlap.97 Why not have the learner single out
his mistakes
Dunlap
contradistinction to the
more
ordinary
form, where the learner does not restrict his practice to his errors
but
drills
himself on a medley
mistakes in the
hope
made up
be eliminated.
contention. 9^
no
report of the use of the beta technique in the entire music area, that
its failure. 99
It
carry out
Perhaps
some
Wakeham and
detail of
performance errors
in
in
both
Or
it
may be
that
202
in organ-playing, tells us
is
no
as yet for
replacing the
the
beta variety.
There
is
less
Evidence from
concomitantly.
becomes
The
number
practically a certainty
phenomenon
of areas suggests
somehow
To
may prove
inhibits the
this principle
how
important
number
of situations.
may be
more
tasks
when two
many
concomitantly while
various degrees.
No
years.
retaining
material
already
learned
to
is
two
details as to
make
is
here,
would be
a bit
generally, they
at this
final
may
or
may not
lower proficiency
its
conclusions
apply to beginners.
level, then,
Further research
it
some
known
hand
extent, also train the left hand, this fact has certainly
led no one to limit his practice to his right hand. Yet certain music
teachers have believed that practice
would
the other
first
was resting
it
practicing than
rested with
are at least
the
it.
two
if it
unilateral.
^^^
However, the
facts
studies available
superiority
The
skill
of the
do not support
this idea.
There
coordinated
student, then,
its
is
technique
as
opposed to the
Proper imagery
is
most important
is
for
The
and "image" of
"feel"
resonance
at 5^00
this area
violinist,
vocalist.
particularly
double stops. ^3 At
longer
guide
as effective a
a single string.
can be effective. ^^
and 2800 cycles are essential for the male singer and
needed by the
For in
as
it
auditory imagery
is
no
on the
single string
he
whenever
it
it
becomes
rely
difficult to
know which
finger to change.
So
now he must
if
This finding follows the basic learning principle which states that,
more
on
the reader.
Although space here allows for but few comments, the serious
student will find an examination of the original articles cited in the
references of the next
fev^^
The exposure of
source of data.
hammers within
^^
He
to single notes
that
is,
when
many persons
at the
expense of occasional
to short phrases.
is
is
akin to attention
behavior typical of
extremely poor readers. By the judicious use of flash cards the reading
of most students can, Bean says, be speeded up appreciably and be made
considerably
more
accurate.
Ortmann
As
known
The arrangement of
the keyboard
need be paid
must become
it.
so well
the great need for sight-reading practice and the early achievement of
that reading
music
is
20^
vertically.
between
staves.
on
fixates
Music reading
areas
is
difficult
because
The work of
Wheelwright, " for example, clearly shows that the spaces between
notes and rests should, for purposes of better reading, be proportional to the represented time values.
found
in
While these
Jacobsen.-^^^
studies
were not
improvement of
extended coverage of
that
all
Only
practice.
this
book
is
few samples
teacher.
start
much
difficult to
lines cause
practice.
often
Music
signs,
Surprising as
more needed by
it
may seem,
practice on reading
words
is
much
later to arpeggios.
Emphasis should be
is
difficult to break.
who
On
is
is
the average,
more
comment
the
it
is
accurate.
the
fast
music
Jacobsen ends
206
No
as
one
from
For
how
M. Terman,
Co well,
stimulated by his
has described in
little
detail
finally getting
imagined
in the traditional
effects
manner.
massage,
many
different timbres,
Later,
He was
imagery. With
he had heard.
his
some
it
when
to elicit
In this fashion
a piano
some
was available to
were born
his
tone clusters,
novelties.
his
listener
no clear-cut musical
message.
in the interests of an
at
the
He found
his auditory
idea.
imagery
During the
is
experiment,
may have
by the
207
who
sent questionnaires to 32
by
were
later
number of
In
centuries.
how
left
one of
his
many
studies
on the problem of
creativity,
made before
problem was
respects Bahle' s
yet
life.
were undertaken.
In
some
about
the studies
Many and
validity of any
facility in
this
the
creations
particular
were shown
the
life
who would
found compositions to
composer's informal
training. ^^^
Musical
community
The
all
in
sociologists Lastrucci"9
lived.
formance which stem from their extremely atypical living habits Dance
.
208
jam
sessions,
as
is
major wellspring of
Max
logist
Graf
artistic inspirations.
as the
which
to
him
is
formation
a mystical
his life-long
not
creativity
is
^^^
if
all
preceded
In
some
what
it
originally
what
is
To make
his
own
unconscious
at this
at least
time
it
serves to lessen
went without
his
normal
sleep. ^^3
his
fantasies.
However,
later
among
composer's
it
his
form memories
life
and
must be admitted
wishes.
Why
some composers
beautiful"
is
good
belong to the surface layers of the mind. The "depth mind" or unconscious, on the other hand,
is
"Gestalt free."
Hence
it is
from the
unconscious that the poor Gestalts, the ugly and the distorted, come.
FSP
modes of
or no
little
But the
with
traffic
fact
that
is
the composer forgets the origins of much of the material he will later
come from
and
is
As time goes on
later
it
will
a variety of sources
it is
how much
which
will
it
not known.
is
in
as
However, the
Haydn
certain composers,
and Schumann, for instance, seem to have done their creative work
without
much
effort.
J. S.
rules.
which composers
fall
with
at the other,
the
with
much
conscious elaboration.
Biographical studies of the great composers usually stress their
personality structures, their psychological abnormalities and sociological uniquenesses, as well as the cultural forces
been
in part responsible
embraced and
style of
as a career. ^^5
and joy of
health,
for
2IO
living,
pressures
out-
from
memory,
past suffering,
work on
to have
composing
vitality
which seem
make
much
others
gains,
genius.
is
as
fascinating w^ork,
at
his
present
many
its
methods are
biographer
and emphasize
this item.
It
too
is all
been
all
him
to
over the years biographer biases will in some degree cancel each
But until that happier day arrives, only hunches and very
other.
material.
It
is
drawn from
this
type of research
^^7
at their best
life
the time
their
maximum
so
many
creativity
areas
and philosophy,
considerable significance.
motor
skill
as
as
much
is
to
Wayne Dennis
somehow
men,
work
maximum
available time.
that
may have
it
^3^
that
creativity
mathematics,
exists in
who
live
And
long
little letup.
deceased musicians, the half-decade from age thirty-five to thirtynine was shown to be the most productive for grand operas, cantatas,
14-2
its
makes
less
meaningful the
from
in
fifty
to fifty-four.
The peak
for
fell
later
peak
in the years
answers sought in
this area
sometimes proved to be
menon
It is
have been
bound
is
they have
as unrealistic as
Rarely
question
is
much
Perhaps
that the
finding;
If
is
pheno-
the process in
We now
know,
it
for
example, that the several sorts of leadership demand different psychological qualities, although for years researchers sought a single set of
would be
typical of
is
all.
Without
causality.
^3^
The
on
similar
from
that
one
man may
be quite
if
he
is
dis-
of a
or from another
culture or age.
Summarj
The layman
is
as
not
at all musical.
implies
art ability
which
2X2
He
number of
music, just
a
most other
as in
abilities
other
arts.
in
academic intelligence of
high order, the correlation in the school years between music test
who
is
slight.
much
In fact a
less stupid in
located
are
idiot-savants.
mean
musical endeavor.
who
who
misfits
But
we
are
all
if
well
numerous
modern
We
It
is
the view of
is
far
lines.
achieved
wide range of
To
psychoneurotic.
who
It is
is,
in
some
circles, to
as
brand him
if
there
one,
is
extremely
whose way of
life
typically encourages
213
on musical
abilities.
was concluded
think so.
ancestral experiences
was dismissed
And
as
What
as
of
little
The Freudian
explanatory aid.
eventual verification.
While
be accepted
as
an act of
all
faith.
natory intensity.
Such imaginal
He might
By and
skill
is
not
a sine
But each
exception.
learning as
more
by proper increases
slighter goadings
214
is
not
as beneficial to
many other
areas,
is
no
music
presumably
Music learning
is
of course
by the
on
fails
errors,
in
And,
in
it is
some
fields
of learning.
come from
common
beyond the
stage of enumerating
up
creativity
at least a
is
is
now
are techniques
all
now
and
consider
problem
Gradually, however,
later yield a clearer
Introspection, retrospec-
available.
statistical
number
those
as special
here
being used.
few
With
as
which
wellspring and
must reach
of basic abilities.
capabilities
at least a
In
we
assumed to be needed,
should not
minimum
of pro-
we
since
shall
their
aesthetician.
Notes
i]
R.
M. Drake,
"Factorial Analysis of
Technique," J. Musical.,
that his early conclusions
to musical ability
were
-music
(1939): 6-16.
in error.
Over the
He now
years,
two important
facets
Tests,
3]
J.
McLeish
U. Press,
Brit. J. Psjchol.,
New
31 (1941): 34i-3i'S'.
i95'3.
4]
P.
Vernon, The
C.
W. Manzer
Structure of
and
S.
Human
Abilities,
p. 93.
21^:
Franklin,
E.
Gumperts
7]
J.
"A
Karlin,
E.
Talent,
Goteborg, Sweden,
Forlag, 195^6.
Factorial Study of Auditory Function," Psjchometrika, 7
J. Musicol., 3
8]
L. B.
9]
R.
Morrow, "An
S.
Mechanical Abilities,"
10]
K. Strong,
E.
J. Psychol., 5
1945'.
(1938): 2^3-263.
Jr.,
Among
(1942):
(1941): 41-5^2.
Interest
Stanford,
Calif.,
12]
13]
M. Schoen,
14]
i^]
C. F. Lehman,
the
16]
W.
(1931): 460-489.
Kwalwasser-Dykema Music
R.
Soc. Psychol., 2
4s (19^2): 5175^22.
No. 10 (1949).
L. S. Hollingworth,
J. Educ. Psychol.,
18]
"The Musical
E.
Sensitivity of Children
Who
Test Above
3^ i.Q.,"
Psychiat.
(19^^): 149-1^419]
D. C. Rife and
S4-7~SS9-
^^^ ^ls
L.
H. Snyder, "Studies
^-
^-
Of
average.
J. Educ. Psychol.,
32 (1941): 636-637.
data
I.Q.
mean
that
se
have
More
and that
not the rule (D. K. Antrim, "Do Musical Talents Have Higher
this superiority is
Intelligence?"
21]
Etude, 63 (194^):
The claim
ability
is
has
been made
plausible
is
were
selective
127-128).
that
it is
To check on
G. Revesz has surveyed both mathematicians and musicians and has found no unduly large
number
the Psychology
oj Music,
Norman, U. of Okl.
Press,
minded musicians
{Introduction to
1925-.
See also
C. Stumpf, "Akustische Versuche mit Pepito Areola," Zsch.f. Ang. Psychol., 2 (1909):
i-ii;
F.
(1932): 473498.
216
It
is
Psychol.,
41
conductors.
most
J.
were
Etude,
now
violin
is
for prodigy
66 (1948): 591-592.
Ability and Musical Interest of Three-, Four-, and Five-year-old Children," U. of la. Stud.
Child Welf., 14 (1938): 83-131 A. T. Jersild and S. Bienstock, "A Study of the Development of Children's Ability to Sing," J. Educ. Psychol., 2S (1934): 481503; M. S. Hattwick
and H. M. Williams, "The Measurement of Musical Development, II," U. of la. Stud.
Child Welf., 11 (1935): i-ioo; G. E. Moorhead and D. Pond, "Music of Young Children,"
Pillsburj Found. Stud., 1941, 1942; E. N. Drexler, "A Study of the Development of the
Ability to Carry a Melody at the Preschool Level," Child Bevel., 9 (1938): 319-332.
;
24]
S.
Bienstock, "Development of
Rhythm
in
Young Children,"
Interval Discrimination," J.
M. Wolner and W.
M. Whipple,
"Studies in Pitch
Psychol.,
26 (1942): 19-33.
26]
27]
See L.
135 i.Q."
28] H.
S.
J. Educ. Psychol.,
Koch and
F.
Who
Test above
ly (1926): 95109.
Psychol., 121
(193 i):
Psychol. Monog.,
31 (1922): 157204; V. Haecker and T. Ziehen, "Beitrag zur Lehre von der Vererbung
u.s.w.," Zsch.J. Psychol., 1931, 121, i 103; R. S. Friend, "Influences of Heredity and
J.
Psjchol.,
Hereditas,
7 (1926): 109-
128; G. Voss, "Die Familie G.," Dtsch. Zsch.J. Nervenhk., 83 (1925): 249-263.
30]
C. Terry, The Origin oj the Family oj Bach Musicians, London, Oxford U. Press, 1929;
is
(p.
118).
There
is
one
folktale
which
bom
says that
musicians do not enjoy normal longevity and another which states that they live beyond
217
who
W.
Schweisheimer,
"Do Musicians
less
Some
is
not
Differences
Physiological
whose
is
slightly
life-span
is
Blood-
Lamp and N.
J.
H. Taylor, "The Relation between Finger Length, Hand Width and Musical
S.
Graf,
20 (1936): 347-3i'2.
E.
Human
Heredity,
1;
R.
Breithaupt, "Pianistic Talent and Race," Etude, 42 (1924): 4^5-4^6; E. Kretschmer, The
Psjchology of
is
that of S.
Men oj
Genius,
Giinther.
Western music,
says he,
is
i.
Dinaric people but lacks the empathic or emotional potential of the latter ("Rassenseelen-
3 (1938):-
^8g-
427). E. Rittershaus maintains that most creative musicians of the nineteenth century had
Rass.- u. Ges.-BioL,
29 (193^): 132-1^2).
36]
Keith
symphony orchestras were of Jewish descent. Ten per cent of American composers were
also Jewish.
Yet ten- and eleven-year-old Jewish and gentile youngsters score similarly
on
37]
tests of pitch
J.,
is (1928):
218
Psychol.,
26 (1942): 19-3340]
M.
Psychol.,
41]
H. D.
Schv^^arz,
"Die Kunst
als
seelische Kraftquelle
fiir
3 (1931): ^2-^342]
C. Seashore,
43]
C. Quinan,
In Search
"A Study of
Sinistrality
Psjchiat.,
Sinistral
M.
45]
P. R. Farnsworth, "Musical Talent and the Left hand," Sch. Mus., 32 (1932): 11.
46]
J.
Kwalwasser, Exploring
47]
M.
E.
the Musical
East, "Insanity
J. P. Foley, Jr.,
J. Gen. Psychol.,
and Genius,"
"A Survey
as better
56-161.
J. Hered.,
of the Literature
2S (1941): 111-142;
on
"II," Annals,
Monog., S^ (1940):
"III,"
neurotic than those of the classical school ("The Personality of the Composer," Music and
11 (1930): 38-48).
Letters,
48]
P.
C. C. Miles and L.
S.
47 (1936): 390-400.
study by R. V. Burton
Zimmerman Temperament
50]
M.
J.
Keston,
testing device
Survey.
"An Experimental
between the
2]
221
53]
Int.
3 I.
P.
(1937): 11-62.
54]
P. R. Farnsworth, "Auditory Acuity and Musical Ability in the First Four Grades,"
J. Psychol.,
6 (1938): 95-98.
219
Her
inartistic children.
findings
it
were contrary
was the
artistic
to
youngster
who
better color vision ("Color Vision in Relation to Artistic Ability," J. Psychol., 8 (1939):
P.
56]
Psychol,
24 (1941): 447-4 i^oBower, "A Factor Analysis of Music Tests," Thesis, Catholic U.,
57]
L. B.
58]
M. Bodkin, "Archetypal
1945^.
(1930):
183-202.
59]
G. Szucharewa and
S.
100
(1926): 489-^26.
60]
B.
sional Musical
61]
M.
J.
Keston and
J. Genet. Psychol.,
62]
A number
I.
M.
Psychol.,
25 (1941): 1^9-170.
sets
Test.
Music
is
used to
of the
J.
A General
Introduction to Psychoanalysis,
N.Y., Liveright,
1935'.
^^^ ^l^o
8 (195^1):
129-163.
U. de
Paris, 19J1.
with the use of the piano, the anal with the trumpet, and the phallic with the
flute.
64] For an attempt to link Mozart's creativity with sublimation see A. H. Esman,
"Mozart, a Study of Genius," Psjchoanal. Quart., 20 (195-1): 603-612.
65]
in the
P. C. Squires,
"The Use of
Brit. J. Psychol.,
Mainwaring, "Kinaesthetic
23 (1932): 284-307.
Pers.,
6 (1938): 203-217.
67]
279-287.
220
Psychol.,
23 (1924):
156-203.
70]
3J (1926): 233-236.
ylmer. J. Psychol.,
H.
72]
M. W.
S.
Haller,
W.
Pets.,
74]
Piatt,
"The Reactions of
Genet. Psychol.,
Infants to
40 (1932): 162-180.
in
Young Children,"
Char, and
2 (1934): 246-251.
Klasse
Phil. -Hist.
For further data on the music of preschool children see M. G. Colby, "Instrumental
Composed
M.
Bull.,
S.
Hattwick, "The Role of Pitch Level and Pitch Range in the Singing of Pre-
Tonal Sequences," U. of
77]
47 (1935): 413430.
A. Wells, "A Comparison of Chord Figures and Scale Progressions in Early School
76]
Genet. Psychol.,
E. Froschels,
la. Stud.
"Untersuchungen
Memory
Kinderstimme,"
Zentralbl.
f.
Physiol.,
34
(1920): 477-484.
78]
A. T. Jersild and
F.
S.
Bienstock,
"A Study
of the
Development of Children's
A. T. Jersild and
S. F.
Re/?ector,
12 (1939):
1-13.
See also R. Leibold, "Kind und Metronom," Zsch. Pddag. Psychol., 3J (1936): 317-322;
M. Varro, "The Musical Receptivity of the Child and the Adolescent," Mus. Teach. Nat.
Ass.
81]
M. Cochran,
82]
R.
W. Brown, "The
C.
W.
Brit. J. Psychol.,
among School
Vanderhoeck
u.
Ruprecht, 1927.
221
J.
Talents,
F. J. Hell, "Physiologische
und
musikalische Untersuchungen iiber die Singstimme der Kinder," Arch. Ges. Thonel., 2
(1938): 6^102. Another study which compares the musical productions of children from
preschool to adolescence
is
Ang. Tsychol.,
that
M. Van
still
The
reader
learning
is
Silver Burdett,
195^1.
Music,PaTtl,"
199213.
Brit. J.
Still
work of
J. L.
psychologists.
The
Articles
is
insights of
J.
is
that
"Part
Applied Musicianship,"
II.
by M.
Wilson, How
E.
to
Help
Tsychol.,
90]
R.
Whole Methods
in the
Memorization of Music,"
W.
Brown, "A
Comparison of the
'Whole,'
y. Exp. Psychol.,
11
and
'Part,'
L.
E.
Whole and
Eberly,
Approach,"
Part
"Part versus
the
J.
Whole Method
Educ.
in
Psjchol.,
Memorizing
'Combination'
235-247; G. Rubin-
(1928):
J. Educ.
34 (1943): jf2-^6o.
31
III:
A Comparison
(1940):
Piano
460-476;
Music,"
Thesis,
G. Rubin-Rabson, "Studies
in the
92]
G. Rubin-Rabson, "Studies
A Comparison
in
VI:
Two Forms
J. Educ. Psjchol.,
93]
32 (1941): 688-696.
Rubin-Rabson,
G.
"Mental
and
Keyboard Overlearning
in
Memorizing Piano
95]
S.
(1916): 113-135.
Piano Music, V:
32 (1941
222
):
loi-i
in
96]
98]
J.
McGeoch and
A.
II:
270-284.
Green, 1952.
99] G.
Science,
Law
of Habit Formation',"
100]
The
VIII:
Musical., 5
(1947): ^S-
W. Brown, "The
R.
loi]
Two Methods
Relation between
J. Exp. Psychol.,
J. Educ. Psychol.,
W.
102]
30 (1939): 321-34^.
P. R. Farnsworth,
104]
R.
W. Brown, "A
(1934):
446-4^0.
To
loj]
tie
F.
Medino, Ohio, Lynne, 19^0) suggests the use of note pictures where sketches of the
piano keyboard are placed over the staff and lines are drawn from the piano keys to their
staff notes.
K. L. Bean,
106]
No.
SO,
6 (1938);
It," J.
Musicol.,
in the Transfer of
(1939): i-j;
Musical Notation
in
88-93.
108]
V. Lannert and
Psychol.,
109]
M. Ullman,
s8 (1945): 91-99-
H. Lowry,
"On Reading
Brit. J.
Phjsiol. Opt.,
(1940):
78-88.
1
10]
L. F.
the Perceptibility
College, Columbia
U., 1939.
Ill]
H.
E.
in
(1943): 1-30.
112] K. Van Nuys and H. E. Weaver, "Memory Span and Visual Pauses
Rhythms and Melodies," Psjchol. Monog., SS, No. i (1943): 33-50.
in
Reading
223
O.
I.
Jacobsen,
"An
J. Psychol.,
37 (1926): 233-
236.
115]
E.
number
is
series of articles
which
is
to be
found
116]
J.
117] B. Gross and R. H. Seashore, "Psychological Characteristics of Student and Professional Musical
118]
W.
Composers," J. Appl.
G. Whittaker,
W. O.
20]
Psychol.,
2^ (1941):
Brit. J. Psjchol.,
W.
Hutchison, and R.
59-170.
Pickford,
"Symposium on the
33 (1942): 4057.
H.
S.
Sociol.,
Max
Aesth.,
N.Y.,
J.
Musik," Arch.
123]
L. Loar,
Ges. Psjchol.,
dem
Sinngehalt der
J 8 (1930): 103-184.
"An Adventure
No.
(1940):
15-23.
124]
Anton Ehrenzweig,
The
aj Artistic
Psjcha-analjsis
Vision
and Hearing,
London,
M. L
126]
G. Revesz,
Press,
Stein, "Creativity
Psychol.,
36 (1953): 311-322.
is
a single
homogeneous
much
less
Norman, U. of Oklahoma
composing which
talent for
interpretative talent.
127]
J.
im musikalischen Schajfen, Leipzig, Hirzel, 1939; H. Jancke, "Beitrage zur Psychologie der
465; P. C. Squires, "The Creative Psychology of Carl Maria von Weber," Char, and Pers.,
6 (1938): 203-217; P. E. Vernon, "The Personality of the Composer," Music and Letters,
II (1930): 38-48.
224
128]
vs.
'Physical Peak'
Performance,"
Sci.
Month., 61
(194J): 127-137.
Bjorksten, "The Limitation of Creative Years,"
129]
J.
130]
W.
H. C. Lehman and D.
131]
Sci.
W.
46^-467.
Sci.
Month.,
132]
Most
authorities find
no evidence for
Rev.
J. P. Guilford, "Creative Abilities in the Arts," Psychol.
15
FSP
64 (1957): 110-118.
See
CHAPTER NINE
IVlusiCAL
abilities
For
may be measures
or of nonverbal musical
much
music
is
skills.
For use
broken into
ponent
areas.
its
com-
measures of achieve-
and potential
ability
Tests
of Verbal Knowledge
Music achievement
geared
to
school
tests
performance
and
attempt
to
measure
tell
how
us nothing
Achievement
tests
typically
possess
high
reliability.
The
Standardized Music
Tests,
which cover
abilities.^
and
title is
spmething of
misnomer
as
Beach's
designed to
five parts
Test
as
played by
it
The
la in six different
ment measures. 4
Part
taps
is
rest values,
minor key
time
major and
minor
scales.
as
well
as
early
names
in bass
and treble
clefs,
note values, rest values, and familiar melodies from notation; and
detection of pitch and time errors in a familiar melody.
An
Kwalwasser-Ruch
is
Test,
tests of
takes longer to
227
15-2
Number
Tests
is
measure of tonal
imagery. 7
Norms
recognition."
The Knuth
"silent
test
reading and
"For
subtitle,
to
is
Recognition
of
Rhythmic
Certain
and
Melodic
represent one of the four scores the student has in his hands.
five
first
chord to sound the key and then plays four measures which
strikes a
Knuth
The
The
has three levels, one for grades three and four, another for
and
six,
Soper, but so
is
in Public School
much
by Gildersleeve and
it
takes
session to give.
letter
names, of note
and rest values, meter and key signatures, chromatics, sight and aural
identification of melodies,
A somewhat more
in Music. '^^
Its
limited measure
is
It is
do.
Like most of
its
nine.
lary list
developed by
L.
C. Pressey."
The
mentary words
in italics,
is
so-called "fundamental
fairly
important supple-
in ordinary type.
Tests in
Among
the
more
Tests
syllable,
chromatic
syllable,
one
is
of Achieve-
The
topics
and number
names; time signatures; major and minor keys; note and rest values;
names;
letter
signs
Test.^^
is
is
the
with a printed score and selects for each melody the one measure in
which the
norms are
is
handled differently.
The
sexes separately.
Sets of
with
number of
whose
is
the
Aliferis
Music Achievement
tape recording. ^5 Intended for use at the college freshman level, this
test has
said to correlate
reliable
'^^o's
and
6o's.
It is
is
quite
United
In
States.
5" I
much used
music achievement
test
is
is
it is
not
The
of Nonverbal Musical
Skills
performance
Test,
The
studies for a
The examiner
help or accompaniment.
listens
without
sings
flatted,
Twelve
two
measures
The score
rhythmically
is
correct.
In
0-M
one.
measure
is
1932
intro-
begin on scale steps other than the tonic." The test has high
reliability
(odd-even) and
two examiners
is
on the
ratings
which should be
given.
Watkins's A Performance
a scale
Test
is
Two
at sight,
and the
other after he has had a week's time to practice the material. The
scores are built up from a tabulation of pitch, time, change of tempo,
cornet or trumpet
latter
may be used
An
is
Watkins-Farnum Performance
The
for any
Scale."^^
This
first is
who
have had
230
by the student
reliability
is
good
who
as is also
time to time.^^
A few
of these
owe
construct
test battery,
music achievement
tests
and uncertain
than
there will be
in, say,
more
tests in
Perhaps
at
When
this
test
state of school
music more
some
later date
profit
construction.
still
own
its
from
The
know
We
little
may
yield
more
pertinent
information.
first
In his
work with
memory;
whether
a clang
abilities in musicality: to
a clang,
has developed a
not easily
is
noises.
follovv^ed since it
is
partially
(p.
23^), measures
it.
test
R. H.
how
well a
The "terpo-
battery, the
"hymnometer,"
is
or neutral.
The
in essence a tonal
member of the
memory test. Both
last
make
use of a specially
During
Chord and
and keen
memory were
also
deemed
Prodigy. ^^
do with
fitness for
In
talents, for
more recent
(a) aptitudes
some
talent
The
latter
type
is
subdivided into
have
refer to
Musical
instrumental-
Revesz would
tests
now
of rhythmic
232
feels
which
special field. ^7
theorizing
which he
(h) talents
in The
interpretative.
virtuoso
his
performance and
All
at
and
measurement
of relative pitch,
fantasy,
would
list
^9
ability to
sensitivity to
lists.
latter's
five
most important
abilities
memory seemed
less
them
to
more from
musical respondents.
An
skill, a
skills, e.g.,
motor
ability, to
and
be
little
tests,
it
They found
pitch discrimination.
which
their
a phrase test in
Ortmann
is
to tell
is
in
more complete,
whether or not
members
are: pitch
tests. 35
intervals; tonal
sequence, in which four two-phrase melodies are given with alternative endings; and
somewhat
rhythm may
altered form.
tonal
233
test of considerable
five unfinished
the best
final
promise
is
Franklin's
TMT. Twenty-
of the
TMT
it is
poorer students
Among
aptitude
those
is
than chance. 3^
Madison,
to discriminate intervals. 37
all
By the use
musical perception,
it
would seem
ability.
that
aptitude by
in theory at the
weeks on
basic to
is
3^
ability
instruments,
strings (the
order varied).
were made
for achievement
authors hoped through such ratings to learn which of the three sorts
of instruments was best suited to the aptitudes of each of their pupils.
They appeared
These
ment through
No
(p.
188).
But a record
the market
which show
instrumental attempts.
now on
available. 4^
rhythm
234
A number
points. 4^
subject,
is
on
taps
a telegraph
he hears.
clicks
C. E. Seashore and his students have felt that the ability to imagine
tonal material
is
of testing imagery
will
Naturally, their
adults.
is
images
elicit
The
to present
in
list
subjects,
the
of questions which,
lists
eight
it is
from
way
hoped,
areas.
that appropriate to
on
a seven-point scale.
first really
C. E. Seashore. 44
menon
areas should
make
it
with those having the best acuities being expected to give the
Seashore believed that his tests tapped
influenced by training.
that there
were other
He
capacities he
test battery
was limited,
number of
Many psychologists and musicians have condemned its
and unmusical orientation. 4^ They have emphasized that the
atomistic
What
is
cycle
if his
more
cycles apart?
If
the performer
is
a pianist,
as little as
which are
one
five
or
improved by practice. 47
music
all
testers aw^ay
It
pure
has not
from Seashore's
The
if
proper training
i86).
(p.
and auditory
memory
each
member
made
Norms
who were
it,
for
for
thought to be the
youngest age group which could properly attend to the tonal stimuli
of the
tests.
number
Several have found that the norms, at least for the intensity test,
vary
all
of from less to
Hattwick has
it
test
tests
grades.
were too
items of these
5^
with
Gaw,
difficult for
tests. 5^
These
easy. 53
make
236
tests
memory
difficult
first five
more
to less as in the
to children of the
difficult for
California adult
it
West Coasters
do lowans.54 O'Connor
memory
tonal
test
at least to serve as a
bad luck
records whereas
It is
its
six.
Its reliabilities
same
directions are
Its
its
as Seashore's at the
1^39
now
has
little
oj Musical Talents
Only minor changes
in
this
newer
"talents."
battery. 5^
Musical
is
importance to
become musical
no longer an attempt to
is
replaced by the
Sensitivity to timbre
is
recognized
more
as
of
measure
earlier edition
still
pertain.
Two
Form B was
are
has
"talent"
now
later
withdrawn from
available for
Form A
sale.
more
Three
and B, were
difficult series,
sets
but
of centile norms
the sixth, seventh, and eighth, and for grades nine through sixteen.
237
The
subject's task
17 cycles,
finally to
moves
2
The
first.
to differences of
The
cycles.
differ only in
to state
is
Each of
test
cycles, then to 8, g, 4, 3,
and
by Spearman-
Here
arranged in pairs.
the subject must decide whether the second tone of each pair
in the
first.
to a half-decibel.
The
is
more
The time
is
first.
test
differences
reliabilities
is
and
finally 'o^^
second.
test consists in
the poorest of
is
is
all at
second lowest
at the
more
To change
test.
of the tone's fourth partial was increased and that of the third partial
w^as
constant. In the
The changes
^5-,
and
first fifth
in the
finally
more
of 4-0 decibels.
Hence,
items are
The
first
of
is
of i o decibels.
8' g,
reliability ranges
then of 7*0,
its reliability is
Short
series of tones are given and then repeated with one of the tones of
238
sequences, another third are four-tone, and the remaining third are
five-tone.
tests
the
are,
tonal
in the main,
memory
test
relatively
correlates
tests
Where
and 'yo's
memory and
In
one of the
few studies of the 1939 tests. Manor found that fourth-grade work
instrumental music could be forecast by the pitch test with
coefficient of correlation of -49
in
memory
more
more the classes are tonally conducted, e.g., classes in
harmony. ^3 Members of musical organizations make, in the main,
higher than average Seashore scores. ^4 High scorers show a greater
value the
preference for "classical" music than do the lower scorers says one
study, ^5 while, a.ccording to another, their preferences l5an
who
classical" (as
regard themselves as
opposed to
more
"light classical"). ^^
average tend to
as
average. ^7
239
the discussion so
at
least
some
far, it is
vaUdity.
tests
were added
to a
gence, a case history, and a test of tonal imagery, and the combined
scores w^ere used for selection purposes.
studied.
was found
It
as successful.
were
were
5^9
it
fifth
was shown
with Seashore
music
tests are of
some
tests. 7
be employed
in con-
McLeish, a British
Kwalwasser-Dykema Music
The Kwalwasser-Dykema
only serious
It
rival,
Tests
attempts to do
all its
appreciation
Chap.
7).
melodic
taste
memory. There
are
two
tests
of
tests
more musical,
and the directions are easier to follow. But, except for the measures
of tonal
memory and
tonal
movement, the
reliabilities
are very
low. 73 This poor reliability accounts in part for the fact that only the
tonal
memory
The
240
well with
its
Seashore counterpart.
is
as follows.
of tonal
memory
consists of
5^
pairs of patterns
which
range in length from four to nine tones. The patterns are repeated
either in original or in altered form, and the subject responds with
The
particular
instrument.
roll.
tion. Twenty-five
altered
test.
The K-D
repeats
them
at different intensities.
members
seconds, rises or
falls
in pitch
is
of the pairs.
In the pitch-discrimi-
position.
25-
The
tests,
'6 to
5-0
its
original pitch
d.v.
In the pitch-
is
Several persons have been disturbed by the fact that only one set of
norms
is
that
all
who
is
The
sets of
at all familiar
reliabilities of
surprise anyone
testing.
who
K-D
has changed
measures.
memory
Thus,
test
Holmes-modified tonal-
change
241
16
FSP
of each item
is,
if
possible
responses
"equal,"
"different,"
for
the
"different,"
quality-discrimination
as last
The
are
now
test
of intensity discrimination
"different
they are
"same
first.
"different
lighter."
"equal,"
"down," and
"up,"
and
shorter;"
for
the
test
of rhythm
discrimination,
"equal,"
been changed,"
and "different because the accent has been changed;" for the pitchdiscrimination measure, "equal," "different," "different and higher,"
test,
now
There are
employed
training,
"A
better,"
reliability of
number
K-D
and in
courses.
In
some
hood of
whole would
lie in
the neighbor-
lower.
195^3
there appeared a
new Kwalwasser
more
norms
difficult
242
Form B
is
and another
is
one
set of
Form A
(J) loudness."
The pitch
(a) pitch,
differences range
(b) time,
from
5^
rhythm,
to 70 cents, the
(c)
variation
varies
metronomic
from 10 to
The corresponding
40-item Form B are: pitch, 15^70 cents; time, 15^40 per cent; and
loudness, 310 decibels.
changes in pattern.
difficult
to less
made on
his test.
little
test practice
by
In 1932
aptitude
tests. 79
memory),
memory (melody
(memory
for isolated
tests,
one
In 195^4
in the area
musical
rhythm
test has
of musical
an easier
Form A and
or
more
rhythm
all
more
difhcult
B.
The
test
Form
Form B
of the
tests intercorrelate
With reliabilities in
scores. Norms for them
only slightly.
are available for music and non-music students, and for ages 11, 12,
^,
and 16; 17, 18, and 19; 20, 21, and 22; and 23 and
243
16-2
cultural
background are
test
and
be negligible.
said to
racial
made up
is
composed
of especially
The rhythm
key, or note.
sound of
metronome
His score
the
metronome
beat
Drake reports
number and
a coefficient
discrimination.
his
is
own
silent count.
of correlation of only
tests,
at the
test
between
of rhythm
at -^^^
new
tests
have considerable
when
validity.
He draws
his
support from
musical talent, the values are generally above -^8 and have run
high
as
as '91.
more
difficult.
fairly
easy,
melody-recognition portion.
is
chords are given and then are repeated either with precisely the
same structure or
test
pitch
244
at a
is
is
Here
a
a particular
melody of four
is
to count the
Lundin Tests
measure musical behaviors not considered by the
In an effort to
Lundin devised
earlier testers,
of these measures
is
rendition.
is
in
make up
first
Fifty
The responses of
The
this
reliability
The melodic-transposition
test offers 30
by "same." But
response
is
if
simple melodies.
If
on
is
both the key and the melody are altered, the proper
"different."
The
reliability
is
said to
Mode
discrimination
of chords.
is
"same."
"different."
If
the pair
But
if
When
the
is
member
reliability value
is
in the
middle
6o's.
this pattern.
The
fourth
reliability of this
measure
falls
member
in the 70's.
last
of course, that in the latter test rhythms and not melodies are
24^
involved.
is
In
correlation
values
The corresponding
-72.
made by
emerged:
test has a
-Sg.
were employed
melodic
dictation,
harmonic
-70;
sum of
memory measure
(original
Wing Standardized
A British flavor can
ratings, '69.
memory
tests
of Musical Intelligence
be seen in the Wing tests, although the
measures are not so different from the much condemned American
tests as one might guess from a perusal of the Wing monograph. ^3
Tests
low
as
Five-step
as -Gg,
norms
seventeen.
The
Although their
tests.
is
studying
and
who had
at
or so.
reliabilities
a satisfactory '93
analyses.
in a study of
still
He found
that
40 per
percent, respectively.
Wing's chord-analysis
number
test
requires
the
subject
to
In the
count the
measure of
pitch change, chords are played and repeated either with exactly
similar structure or with
The memory
246
If
altered notes.
tell
The
the tune.
except that
fit
it is
The harmony
if
now
altered.
is
must be made
as to the better
of the
two
versions.
aptitude measure
known
is
is
only in part an
Strong's well-
set of questions
men whose
which
on
The
a scale for
scale's reliability
is
-87.
The
largely
their years of
where
validity
validity
rela-
is
musician scale
During 1952, the Music Journal gathered data for four other Strong
musician
scales.
It
men
tested ^00
another 4^0
performer"
men
its
years of
scales
and
scale.
In an
women
years of schooling,
16' g)
years of schooling,
i^''^^).
is
not
as yet
com-
247
would be
music
make
But
it
More
cast
tests,
and
to an
later
still
worked out
sort
their
of compromise of
The music
The progressive
sensory materials.
demned
did
this
little
testers, too,
to
make
tests in this
modicum
behavior.
Musical
memory
has
come
Other
all
testers
ability areas
may or
As was mentioned
needs
which
than does
Music
testers
more
minimum
intensively the
testers
and study
skills.
they can be
personality,
and
248
less
attention
to
It is
taste,
to give a broader
Instead,
the
which persons
minimum
of practice oppor-
tunities.
Notes
i]
A number
interest of uniformity,
2]
F. A.
Hence,
in the
available.
Emporia, Kans.,
Tests,
W.
G. Gildersleeve and
Tests,
Test,
Bloomington,
111.,
J.
Tests
Test,
8]
W.
9]
C.
Tests,
Bloomington,
111.,
J.
Knoxville, Tenn.,
J. E.
Avent.
10]
R. D. Allen,
W.
111.,
12]
C. P.
13]
M.
Wood,
L.
Ear
Tests in
Bloomington,
Tests
Famum, Farnum
Music Notation
14]
S. E.
i^]
Test,
16]
17]
18]
R. M. Mosher, Mosher
Test
Test,
World Book.
Educ, No.
194,
A.
W.
Otterstein and R.
M. Mosher, 0-M
Sight-Singing
Test,
Stanford,
Calif.,
Stanford U. Press.
249
J.
G. Watkins and
J.
S.
E.
Scale,
Winona,
22]
for
Achievement
Tests,
example,
Plymouth
Educational
Tests,
Chicago,
Test,
Indianapolis,
M.
Tests,
Perception of Visual Musical Stimuli," Arch. Psychol., 1^8 (1933); F. S. Salisbury and
H. D. Smith, "Prognosis of Sight Singing Ability of Normal School Students," J. Appl.
(1929): 42^-439; T. G. Stelzer, "Construction, Interpretation, and Use of
Psychol., 13
7 (1938): 35'-43;
S.
into
Fundamental
(1909): i-ii.
24]
J. Psychol.,
2j]
M.
F.
4 (191
):
Brit.
8994.
as
Used
in Missouri; Including a
Demonstration
27]
G. Revesz, Introduction
28]
to the
Psychology of Music,
Norman, U. of Oklahoma
Press,
Ang. Psychol., 9
(1919): 1-76.
29]
T. Billroth, Wer
30]
J.
31]
J.
Psychol.,
32]
ist
musikalisch?
ist
musikalisch?
1926.
Ang.
V. Haecker and T. Ziehen, Zur Vererbung and Entwicklung der musikalischen Begabung,
in
Music,"
Brit. J.
Psychol., IJ
(1926-27):
i-i 18.
34]
O. Ortmann,
Tests
unpublished.
3j]
M. Schoen,
5 (192^): 31-52.
36]
E. Franklin,
Gumperts
2^0
Forlag, 19^6.
Goteborg, Sweden,
Psychol,
38]
C.
J.
Lamp and N.
Musician, 11
(1906):
(1928): 166170; P.
40]
41] O.
I.
Use
The
S5^~SS^-
Kwalwasser, Exploring
J.
Its
the Musical
(1936): 171-190.
42]
9 (1926): 142-199;
"A Study in the Seashore Motor Rhythm Test," Psychol. Monog., 40 (1930):
J.
74-84. For a note on the Sievers rhythm test see H. M. Williams, "A Study in the
Prediction of Motor Rhythmic Performance of School Children," J. Genet. Psychol., 43
T. Nielsen,
(1933): 377-388.
43]
C. E. Seashore,
Chap.
Talent,
Boston, Silver,
Burdett,
19 19,
1.
U., 1947.
44]
H. Lowery,
1-14;
"On
J.
(1947): 83-96.
46]
The
Norton, 1937.
47]
N.Y., Columbia Graphophone, 19 19. For a survey through 1930 of the research articles on
this first set of
"An Historical,
Critical,
and Experi-
Psychol. Monog.,
9 (193
i):
291-393.
49]
E.
M. McGinnis,
F. S. Salisbury
Psychol.,
13 (1929): 42^-439i]
M.
S.
E. A.
Young Children,"
Gaw, "Five
U. of
Welf., 11
a Pitch
Discrimina-
(1935): 69-74.
2^1
^3]
Monog., IS (1934): 4^49; "Further Notes on the Seashore Music Tests, "J. Gen. Psychol.,
18 (1938): 429-431.
M.
^4]
E.
Sch.
J.
Hum. Engng.
L.
56]
M.
Isolation of Tonal
Memory
as a
Mental Element,"
Tilson, The Tilson-Gretscb Musical Aptitude Test, Chicago, Publ. Sch. Music Dept.,
P.
j\
4 (194^): 99-102.
Musical.,
^8]
J.
Talents,
^9]
J.
Musical Talent, Iowa City, U. of Iowa Press, 1940. Several researchers have adapted portions
"A Revision of
Base,
60]
New
F.
S.
the
F.
March, 1944;
London, Conn., 9
Res.
UCDWR
Submarine
(195^0): i-io.
School Students,"
61]
Report,
J. Appl. Psjcbol., 13
Normal
(1929): 42^-439.
J. Educ. Res.,
IJ (1928): 5^0-^6.
62]
63]
P.
R.
More Important
31 jo.
than Intelligence
Tests in the Prediction of Several Types of Music Grades?" J. Appl. Psychol., ig (193^):
347-3^064]
C. H. Lawshe,
Jr.,
and
W.
Wood, "Membership
F.
in
Musical Organizations as a
P.
J.
Fay and
W.
J73-5'83.
J. Musical.,
(1944): i-^.
67] P. R. Farnsworth,
69]
19-122.
W.
S.
140.
Larson, "Practical Experience with Music Tests," Mus. Ed. J., 24 (1938): 31.
See also R. C. Larson, "Finding and Guiding Musical Talent," Mus. Ed.
22-2S.
J.,
42 {13 s):
E.
70]
"A Study
Taylor,
1-28.
71]
J.
Methods,"
72]
J.
(19^0): 129-140.
W. Dykema,
Kwalwasser and P.
Kwalwasser-Bjkema Music
Tests,
N.Y., Fischer,
1930.
73]
Genet. Psjchol.
Chapter
K-D measures
movement
see
7.
Restandardization of the
P. R. Farnsworth, op.
cit.
76] J. A. Holmes, "Increased Reliabilities, New Keys, and Norms for a Modified
Kwalwasser-Dykema Test of Musical Aptitudes," J. Genet. Psychol., 8s (i95'4): 65-73.
77]
M.
T. Whitley,
"A Comparison of
Kwalwasser-Dykema Music
J.
79]
R.
Test,
136-147.
80]
R.
M. Drake, Drake
81]
H.
S.
Calif.
82]
Tests,
R.
W.
Los Angeles,
No. 10 (1949).
Test,
83]
Musical Aptitude
E. K. Strong, Jr.,
Stanford U. Press,
teachers, see
M.
1938.
Kleist, C.
Brit. J. Psjchol.
For
a further
Monog. Suppl.,
M, Stanford,
Calif.,
H. Rittenhouse, and
00-101.
2^3
CHAPTER TEN
and Industry
Increasingly
ill
and
as a
is
as a
become
a sizable
he will recognize
little that
likely
as
worth of music
is
who
offered
More
than
He may be shown
improvement
in
data
adjustment.
a host of
may have
is left
But then he
other therapies
if it
was
really
Physiological Changes
As
a preliminary step
toward getting
it may be well to
human physiology. The
and modify moods needs no further
examine what
thesis that
is
music can
2^4
known
of
its
elicit
power
to affect
man's
respiration rate,
processes?
life
may be
It
markedly
affect the
bodily processes. Yet the effects are not so striking as was once
thought.
It
was believed at one time, for instance, that the heart would,
its
data.^
Of
problem and
collect additional
for synchrony of heartbeat and musical pulse, and even here the
correspondence was so
slight that it
on physiological processes,
Music
increases
its
regularity
increases
or
de-
modes.
stimuli of different
With some
still
metabolism
bodily
be accepted.
It is
matons reacting
in a
is
But
Nor
is all
music
the same, and the effect of one composition does not necessarily
resemble that of another. The idea that music can lower thresholds
(raise acuities) in
experimenters. 3
However,
this
is
visual acuity of
it is
able,
size.
It
many exposures
to light and
He
is,
therefore,
it, is
not
An
well as the
more musical
the
unmusical subjects.
There was
direct
as
while listening to
much weaker
music.
in
is
correspondence
and
Liszt's
were
also
kept
for several minutes before, and for as long as five minutes after, the
in respiration rate
were found
were apparent
at
no respiration change
It is
of interest
therapists.
if
either the
if
quite dis-
From what
is
known
2^6
little
been presented.
of
psychology
And contemporary
experi-
this expectation.
And
epileptic attacks. 9
who
deaf,
can get
little
at the
The
on
composition which
A number
being heard.
is
of variables are of
composition, and the personal associations the music has for the
As Miles and
listener.
change in tempo
composition seems to be a
far
more important
tized.
is
alert
familiar,
is
is
also
toward the
variable.
and while he
is
These
hypno-
How
The
extensive, then,
answ^er
music
is
elicits,
is
music's
power
to affect
body processes?
By and
may
call
That
is,
a given
the
composition
different changes in
differ
listener.
more
Or
the effects
from these
facts that
on
his changes in
no composition
may
mood.
would follow
It
will be found
associa-
which can be
17
FSP
among
members
the
One
is
not
body change
except perhaps where the effects are elicited through the hearing of
early childhood.
common
of the
less a part
is
It
has,
its
ill
many
we know,
in
it
hospitals.
persons,
It is
in the
way therapy
is
employed
want
Most mental
in
to
mental
improve
safely
and
Under such
pressures, a research
must be
a
at best.
on each patient
in the
hope
of therapies makes
it
impossible to
tell
On
is,
a variety of therapies
that
a cure.
But
which one
this multiplicity
is
mainly respon-
at all
is
that definitive
statements about the medical value of music must await the establish-
ment
some
where
of research-oriented hospitals
years away.
And
until
But
paces.
its
it
this
comes, there
research-heaven
winnow
Music
in Physical
is still
is little
first
at least a
few grains of
fact. ^3
Therapy
Boring indeed are the exercises that the muscle- and joint-injured
if
It is
But
after day.
encouraged.
piano.
if
set
at least
to music,
the exercises
considerably
more endur-
may
call for
is
often
If facial
playing of brass or
who
possesses
For
appropriate.
no musical or dancing
skill,
the foot
pass
cises,
musical therapy
is
Music
in
it
be
also exercising
is
missing.
Mental Therapy
When
will
withdrawn
into a
therapy
is
reality.
talk or take
much
the
in
world of
interest in
25-9
17-2
who
principle.
to
match
patient.
drawn,
The music
is
sometimes respond
as to
mood
chosen so
is
feminine mentality,
and held,
will
stimulation.
^4
it
etc.
a gradual shift in
type of music
is
that the patient's mental and physiological states will also change.
the additional advantage of helping to pass the time, which can drag
frightfully.
between the
fairly
^5
music (or
life,
when we
is
feel
minimum
260
may
patient.
once again
is
While engaged
member
in dancing or
group
of a functioning group.
IcSSOnS
are often given in mental hospitals so that the patient can feel that he
is
achieving a real
skill,
With
skill in
skill a
he
after
a sense of achievement,
work
brings
With
SO
many
physicians
from music,
hospitals
active,
it
and
effects
in
distract
those
The
of the therapists.
is
much
to
the scientist.
more properly
To what
extent the
may be an appreciable
remains,
apprehensive,
less
who
are
The
But
it
fact still
visibly
less
musical therapy.
the"musicopoeia."
music to
261
own
some quarters
furnish the guide for his selection of the compositions he will use.
If
he
is
patients
psychoanalytically oriented, he
on simple
may
"^^
Rhapsody
No.
1,
Mendelssohn's
Suite
Paris;
in
Brown
offers
and "moderns"
Portrait.
like
Don
Mozart's
Elijah,
American
"seem
some 40 pieces
convalescing
start his
Fidelio,
Mississippi
Giovanni,
and Borodin's
and Gershwin's
Khachaturian's Masquerade
^^
Beethoven's
First
Piano
/kfoonii^ Ac Sonata,
Concerto
Brahms's Intermezzo
(Second
Movement),
in
Flat,
in A,
Chopin's
Mendelssohn's
Italian
(Second Movement).
Look Tonight,
Chopin's Waltzes
in
A and
Mj
Hands.
C,
To Arrington
these eight
Movement),
Toreador'' s Song,
Parisienne,
1, Liszt's
Sousa's Military
in
262
in
Sixth
Sonata.
in
and
(Andante),
Minor
Flat
Beethoven's
Moonlight
Bruckner's Mass
of the
in
in
Minor for
Sjmphony No.
3,
among which
Ravel's La
and
Rachmaninov's
Isle
To accompany
Suite.
Valse,
Concerto No. 2 in A,
To
Violin,
Minor, Ives's
Suite,
and
Liszt's
Piano.'^^
Anthiel's
Quartet No. 5,
Bach's
4,
Chopin's Nocturne
mentions
No.
Sonata
Piano
Bach's
in
F To
.
Italian
in
Cantata
Flat,
No.
Milhaud's
21,
Suite Frangaise,
Concerto,
Haydn's
Bartok's
same author
Sjmphony,
Clock
and
Girard
claims
to
reduce
anger with
Bach's
Grofe's Aviation
Minor.
Cantata
Suite,
To overcome
The
lists
literature. ^4
Narcissus,
finds
in
in
No.
2,
Prokofiev's
the
anxiety,
Strauss
.^3
the current
changes both in
mood and
It is
sometimes occurred
Moreover,
venture to another
is
may demonstrate
in therapy.
At
263
it
would seem
morale
that the
many
lift
patients
receive from this kind of treatment amply justifies the effort involved.
And
surely
The
no great harm
Effects
is
likely to
come from
of Music on Achievement
may
facilitate later
work
made
sway of people
who were
life
many
life,
others
v^ill
which
applicable to
attempting to stand
generally. ^5
music
still,
all
increased the
would seem
styles.
Work
at the
to
be
jazz
Stanford
show
is,
It
would seem,
activation of either the ear or the "mind's ear" can lead to slight
size.^^
should be commended.
the present day
it
However, viewed
show the
variety of areas
it
Its
encompassed.
It
if
the rhythm
reduced accuracy
264
in
is
not adapted
in typewriting
an increased
number
and handw^riting.
It
dravs^ing, etc.
activities as type-
employed
Music
in writing,
except in
suggestibility,
produce
is
increased.
a shift in
tendency to
matic impressions, the change being toward the blue end of the
series.
Music
of the
human body
electrical conductivity
psychogalvanic reflex. ^7
no
effect
errors.
and dirges on
on the speed of
is
seemed to have
Dirge
likely
like jazz,
insignificant,
compete
for attention.
might be
fitting to
Music was
And
It
jazz
it
Although
typing. ^^
slightly
The
effects
on the
were
so
at all.
describe here
some experiments
at
Stanford
University in which subjects were engaged in pursuit and codelearning tasks while in the presence of attention-getting noise
level. 3
After a
number
group proceeded
of
trials,
still
at,
one-
booming
in relative quiet.
It is
26^
trials.
organism
is
who
will
learn
and
man
a rather adaptable
is
under
retain
extremely
trying
circumstances.
in the face of
what
a real
detriment to learning.
may be
If
persons
fifty
years of age or
more were
to be tested, the
data might look quite different, for these older persons learned to
read and study without the blaring of radio or phonograph. For them
music
and
is
his colleagues
slightly the
had no
Henderson
harm vocabulary
did not
When
effect
learning at
and that
all,
"classical"
skill,
music
they were
The
fact that
of music and
is
some of
still
more
So
have
modern
is
To
youth.'
centered on music
as a distraction.
It
tomed
True
266
if
had
Hall, too,
a facilitating effect.
studied. 33
made higher
may have
music
on the
on
effect
facilitating
his junior-high-
who
No
rotary
pursuit
performances. 35
The
and study
for
is
still
little
or no effect on reading
habits.
that
heard, the difficulty of the material to be read, and the study and
which account
REPETITIVE WORK.
when
not
recalled that
it is
is
work
speeds to the
lifted
Modern
efficient
work which
them music
it is
played.
For
in industry
has a
is
most music
much
may
is
It
of the mental
Moreover, the
It
life
signify to
him
is
of those engaged
worker
that the
is
allowed
management
267
With
may prove
is
nonrepctitive
quite
worker
worth while.
involved music
work
factory
It
is
may have
less
often beneficial
do with
little to
its
usually in offices,
who
where music
more
is
little
is
workrooms where
without words.
have at one time or another maintained that, by the proper use of music
absenteeism and personnel turnover can be reduced; and physical
health, punctuality and plant safety can
So
far,
effects.
it
who
is
worker be
less
so filled with
to
its
good
will
toward
to quit his
job?
complete agreement
The
268
authorities are
by no means
They do
agree,
lest
if
is,
its
presentation
would
give the
a "going
lead to
Some
much
is
much
less
appreciated.
The
British, as a
its
is
broadcast
higher register
all
is
not so
vocal music
because they have noticed a tendency for the laborer to stop work
lyrics
loom
larger,
Generation
when music
shift
Muzak Corporation,
effect
on
eight-hour workday.
played
v^^as
A common
formula
is
offices
to be favorably
received.
claims
is
that of
worker morale,
worker morale
cerned.
With
so
is
for with
management,
to
all
con-
many workers
calling for
music
in their factories,
it
is
269
this desire,
may
of industrial music
be forthcoming. 39
Notes
D. M. Johnson and M. Trawick, "Influence of Rhythmic Sensory Stimuli upon the
i]
Heart-Rate,"
6 (1938): 303310.
M. Diserens and H.
C.
2]
y. Psychol.,
Fine,
I.
3]
in the Soviet
Union,"
Psychol. Bull.,
51 (i9?4): Si^-S^^-
4]
O.
^]
Lowenstein,
M. Grunewald
Der psychische
RestitutionseJJekt,
Basel,
Schwabe,
See also
1937.
241-2^1.
R. E. Dreher, "The Relationship between Verbal Reports and Galvanic Skin Responses
6]
The
7]
galvanic skin response refers to the fact that the electrical resistance of the skin
is
D.
I.
S. Ellis
M.
produced on
44 (1957): 111-127.
J. Psychol.,
9]
states, perspiration is
"Two
Critchley,
(1942): 182-184;
S.
N.Y.,
28 (1942): 394-39S.
10]
J.
Gazette,
1
1]
4^ (193^): 319-322.
Music therapy
of the therapists
I
2]
F.
3]
now
denotes
American
1
is
is
in its infancy
270
in
which
field
was Michigan
first
until
State University.
four-year
1944.
The
M.
I.
Assoc. Proc,
i^]
W.
C. Middleton,
et al.,
H.
S.
Mus.
Nat.
Teach.
and Pleasantness-Unpleasantness,"
16]
111,"
1939, 15^3-15^7.
J. Psjchol.,
IJ (1944): 299318.
J. Ment. T)ef.,
SI (1947): 397400, maintains that music played over the radio in a hospital for mental
defectives can produce a drastic reduction in the
number
For
further material on music in hospitals for mental defectives see A. Wendelin and T. L.
Engle, "A Survey of Musical Activities in Institutions for the Mentally Deficient," Amer.
J. Ment. Dejic,
17]
B. Simon,
S9
{^9S4-)'-
et al.,
206-209.
G.
W.
Mood
in
Music by Psychotic
468, 480.
19]
M. Brown
L.
13^-138.
20]
G. E. Arrington,
I9j'4,
2^2-287. See
Jr., in
Price,
et al.,
in the
21]
P.
22]
1954,
21-1 29.
23]
J.
195^4,
loi 106.
24]
S.
H. Licht, Music
F. Paperte,
in Medicine,
Music and
Boston,
New
England Conservatory of Music, 1946; D. M. Schullian and M. Schoen, eds., Music and
Medicine, N.Y., Schuman, 1948; D. Soibelman, Therapeutic and Industrial Uses of Music,
N.Y., Columbia U. Press, 1948;
R.
W.
Sway," J. Gen.
26]
W. Van
Ass.
Psychol., 11
(1934): 328-336.
That music can stimulate compensatory movements which can aid one's sense of
W.
Musical Accompaniment on the Sense of Equilibrium," Master's Thesis, Syracuse U., 19^0.
27]
C.
M. Diserens and H.
Fine,
M.
B. Jensen,
"The Influence of Jazz and Dirge Music upon Speed and Accuracy of
271
P. L. Whitely,
J. Gen. Psychol.,
10 (1934):
137-15130]
P. R. Farnsworth,
J. Genet. Psychol.,
31]
P. Fendrick,
Res., 31
32]
M.
traction
33]
SO (1937): 277-282.
J. Educ.
(1937): 264-271.
T. Henderson, A. Crews, and
on Reading
J.
313-317.
J. Educ. Psychol.,
l^]
B.
Mikol and M. R. Denny, "The Effect of Music and Rhythm on Rotary Pursuit
Skills,
According to E. Podolsky
1945^,
5 {i9Ss)'- 3-6.
as
almost any musical rhythm can be employed in factories since the rhythm of the
worker's task
is little
affected by the
hears. This
is
an astonishing
SJ
(i9SS)- 1329-133037]
W. McGehee
Psychol., 2
38]
and
J.
E.
(1949): 405-417-
No. 14 (1947).
For a most optimistic report of British industrial music see L. Kaplan and R. Nettel,
"Music in Industry,"
Biol.
Hum.
Ajfairs,
j.
For a discussion of
272
Epilog ue
called the
it is
highly mathematical
arts,
In
2.
we
no place
a satisfactory
likely to
is
is
no
invariant relationship
since
attitudes
mode
would
altered over the years since Plato banned this arrangement of tones
as
this
scale.
Music
nature.
is
Music
each listener
is
tells
it
what he
fantasy
Thus
this art
medium
own
which
hears.
or a church
It is,
gives
how-
him the
life.
273
18
FSP
EPILOGUE
The
later diminishes.
up and eventually
lead to change.
other times they point back toward what was acceptable at an earlier
time.
If
the
new forms
differ too
apt at first to
is
major
must look
thesis
for
its
this
explanations far
It is
change
L at every
seem undesirable
developed in
to physical science.
book
more
a violation of
is
some
to the conservative.
is
building materials,
ratios.
Man's
But the
on the
basis of sociopsychological
but in the
way
phenomena
are lawful.
number
factors will
be
isolated.
it
seems to be
fairly
274
it.
less,
doubt
in the years
No
of the socio-
phenomenon
the
more
more man
delight he
APPENDIX
1 N Chapter 6
it
of an
Elite'
in
was hoped
in
1944 and
taste
members
it
last
who
tasks.
The
first
vs^orthy to
be
As
all
The
first
frequently chosen
among
Note
25".
the
who were
selected
the most
1870.
a finding gives
The
Such
that the
18-2
ii2 ii6.
1870
Rank Order
29-5
Barber, S.
4S-S
Malipiero, G.
Bartok, B.
36
Martinu, B.
49
Bax, A.
20
Menotti, G.
12
Berg, A.
13
Milhaud, D.
43
Berlin,
I.
23
Piston,
11
Bloch, E.
27
Poulenc, F.
9
40
Britten, B.
Chavez, C.
10
Rachmaninov,
Copland, A.
4
24
M.
Reger, M.
25-5
Respighi, O.
32
Dohnanyi, E.
16
Falla,
14
Gershwin, G.
4S-5
Grainger, P.
M. de
4S-S
5
W.
Prokofiev, S.
Romberg,
S.
Schonberg, A.
W.
29-5
Griffes, C.
49
Schuman,
29-5
Hanson, H.
21
Scriabin, A.
Sessions, R.
2S-S
3
33-S
S.
Ravel,
Harris, R.
29-5
Hindemith, P.
15
Shostakovich, D.
Hoist, G.
49
Sowerby, L.
18
Honegger, A.
40
Ibert, J.
Stravinsky,
I.
45-5
Thompson, R.
42
Varese, E.
17
Ives,
37
Khachaturian, A.
33-5
Kodaly, Z.
19
40
Kreisler, F.
22
Walton,
35
Krenek, E.
38
Webern, A.
C.
Vaughan Williams,
Villa-Lobos, H.
W.
nk Order
88-5
Bach,
J.
Bach,
J. S.
59-5
Britten, B.
41
Bruckner, A.
71
Bach, K. P. E.
52
Buxtehude, D.
16
Bartok, B.
27
Byrd,
Beethoven, L.
72
Berg, A.
21
Berlioz,
55-5
Bizet,
66
Bloch, E.
276
C.
H.
G.
Brahms,
J.
100
W.
Chausson, E.
11
Chopin,
47
43
40
Copland, A.
6-S
F.
Corelli, A.
R,
Rank Order
92
Donizetti, G.
10
Palestrina,
82-5
Dowland,
80
Pergolesi, G.
36
Dufay, G.
78
Dunstable,
38
100
J.
G.
74
Perotinus
88-5
Piston,
Dvorak, A.
34
Prokofiev, S.
Elgar, E.
45-5
Puccini, G.
76
Falla,
61-5
J.
M. de
W.
H.
20
Purcell,
Faure, G.
55-5
Rachmaninov,
97
Foster, S.
49
Rameau,
28-S
Franck, C.
26
Ravel,
S.
J.
M.
53-5
Frescobaldi, G.
85-5
Respighi, O.
45-5
Gabrieli, G.
44
Rimsky-Korsakov, N.
58
Gershwin, G.
59-5
Rossini, G.
85-5
Gesualdo, D.
74
Saint-Saens, C.
66
Gibbons, O.
69
Scarlatti,
A.
28-5
Gluck, C.
35
Scarlatti,
D.
84
Gounod, C.
22
Schonberg, A.
66
48
Grieg, E.
12
Schumann, R.
Handel, G.
31
Schutz, H.
100
Hanson, H.
94-5
Scriabin, A.
Haydn,
57
Shostakovich, D.
F. J.
6-5
Schubert, F.
23
Hindemith, P.
30
Sibelius, J.
80
Honegger, A.
82-5
Smetana, B.
77
Ives, C.
97
Sousa, J
33
51
Strauss, J. Jr.
88-5
Landino, F.
18
Strauss, R.
25
Lasso,
13
Stravinsky,
32
Liszt, F.
92
Sullivan,
O.
74
Lully, J.
66
MacDowell,
42
38
I.
A.
94-5
Sweelinck,
19
Tchaikovsky, P.
Machaut, G.
92
Telemann, G.
Mahler, G.
50
Vaughan Williams, R,
97
Massenet,
14
Verdi, G.
17
Mendelssohn,
61-5
Victoria, T.
80
Menotti, G.
88-5
Villa-Lobos, H.
70
Milhaud, D.
38
Vivaldi, A.
15
Monteverdi, C.
24
Moussorgsky, M.
66
Mozart,
E.
J.
W.
Ockeghem,
F.
J.
53-5
Wagner, R.
Weber, C. M. von
63
Wolf, H.
J.
277
APPENDIX
2.
Glossary'
Skill
ability.
accidental signs.
flats,
flats,
naturals.
arpeggio.
Tones of
atonality.
Absence of key
Throbbing
beats.
is
than lo cents.
chord played
in
in rapid succession.
music.
effect elicited
when two
is,
practiced.
cadence.
compo-
sition.
capacity.
cent.
* This
Tonal span of
stressed.
200 of an octave.
glossary attempts to define psychological terms for the musician and musical terms
It is
278
i/i
is
more
his.
GLOSSARY
chromesthesia
(cf. synesthesia).
of correlation.
sets
decibel.
as to
be equal, under
Tone sometimes
difference tone.
pitch are
in
elicited
simultaneously
when two
sounded;
its
tones separated
frequency
is
the
drone.
body
is
vibrating.
at least for a
though
objects
eidetic imagerj.
extrovert.
person
than to his
factor analysis.
Method of
Span of
fifth.
fourth.
semitones.
Span of g semitones.
fugalform.
round; each
new
Change
states, perspiration
is
produced on
279
GLOSSARY
Change
goal gradient.
harmonics.
Cf. overtones.
Music
homophonj.
idiot
in degree of motivation
in
who
savant.
in step, e.g.,
has
hymn.
above average
interval.
successively.
augmented.
diminished.
Spans of
major.
2, 4, 9,
or
i, 3, 8,
1 1
seventh).
Spans of
minor.
seventh).
parallel.
in different registers.
perfect.
Spans of
g, 7,
or 12 semitones (fourth,
introvert.
own
fifth,
attitudes
or octave).
and mental
processes.
principle.
iso
Notion that
a patient's
mood
mood
kej.
named.
key-note.
leading tone.
up
is
it
leads
to the tonic.
leger lines.
accommodated on the
staff for
staff.
major.
chord.
280
minor
third.
GLOSSARY
Cf. interval.
interval.
Cf. mode.
mode.
Span of
second.
semitones,
Span of 9 semitones.
sixth.
Span of
seventh.
1 1
semitones.
Span of 4 semitones.
third.
massed practice.
little interval
Series of successively
melody.
sounded tones
sessions.
felt to
possess internal
organization.
Scale step smaller than a semitone.
microtone.
minor.
chord.
prising intervals of a
minor third
Cf. mode,
mode.
Span of
second.
Span of
sixth.
Span of
third.
semitone.
semitones.
Span of 10 semitones.
seventh.
semitones.
mode.
Cf. interval,
interval.
mode
possible
semitone
e.g.,
2, 2,
now
has several
1,2,
2,
2,1
only two:
down
to
another key.
monotone.
octave.
Complex
of sounds in
which no
be detected.
Span of 12 semitones.
281
GLOSSARY
Theme with
organum.
moving
overlearning
parallel to
Tone
overtone.
elicited
practice
first
beyond
the
trial
where
the
Cf. overtone,
partial.
phon.
above
it.
Continuing
fifth
when judged
is
is
equal to the
number
polyphony.
simultaneously.
poljtonality
composition.
portamento.
of.
bowed
to note without
arrangement possible.
Pitch level.
register.
reliability.
is
retroactive inhibition.
something very
later learning of
similar.
Type of correlation
rho.
it.
of rank differences,
rhythm
objective.
polyrhjthm.
subjective.
objective rhythm.
282
GLOSSARY
Series of tones arranged in order of pitch and
scale.
employed
as
the
The twelve-semitone
chromatic.
diatonic.
scale of
equally tempered.
just-intoned.
Compromise
mean-tone.
scale
some
with
in ratio.
3
and
^.
which
tempering
Where the
Where each
step
is
primes
and
its
3.
nearest
neighbor.
score.
Sum
mean.
of
all
number
of cases.
Middle value.
median.
modal.
score.
sensations.
Those
kinesthetic.
arising
in
Those
organic.
arising
in the
internal organs.
sensitivity.
very
sonance.
differ
slightly.
Qualitative
effects
due
to
progressive
("horizontal")
pedal.
Placing an accent
accent.
283
LOSSARY
Image of hallucinatory intensity in one sensory area
synesthesia.
aroused by
a stimulus
Cf.
chromesthesia
takt.
talent.
Usually taken to
tempo.
Rate of speed
at
which
allegro.
Lively tempo.
andante.
Slow tempo.
heredity
a musical passage
is
emphasized.
moves.
Quick tempo.
presto.
tests.
achievement.
aptitude.
threshold.
Effect
timbre.
partial
tones present;
"vertical" quality.
Tones
tone clusters.
fist, flat
tone symbol.
elicited
extracted.
Cf. key-note.
tonic.
tonoscope.
instrumental tone.
tremolo.
trill.
as
two
tones.
tritone.
true beat.
Span of
six semitones.
Pulsations
284
in the phrase.
GLOSSARY
validity.
Extent to which a
test
is
measuring what
it
claims to be
measuring.
vibrato.
sometimes
in quality; rate
is
approximately
per second.
whole learning.
Material to be learned
ning to end,
i.e., is
not broken
is
down
which are
to
be
learned separately.
28s
APPENDIX
3.
Key
to Reference Abbreviations
Acta Oto-laryng
Acta Psychologica
Acta Psychol.
American Imago
Amer. Imago
Amer. J. Psychiat.
Amer. J. Psychol.
Amer. J. Sociol.
American Psychologist
Amer. Psychol.
Annals of the
New
Arch. Musikforsch.
Arch. Rass.-
u.
Ges. -Biol.
und
Gesellschajts-Hygiene
Arch. Otolarjngol.
Archives of Psychology
Arch. Psychol.
Austral. J. Psychol.
Beihefte z. Zsch.J.
286
Psychol.
Ang.
Biology and
British
Human
Affairs,
London
Journal of Educational
Hum.
Biol.
Ajfairs
Educ. Psychol.
Brit. J.
Psychology
British
Journal of Psychology
British Journal
of Psychology, General
Brit. J. Psychol.
Brit. J. Psychol.,
Gen. Sec.
Brit. J. Psychol.,
Monog.
Section
British
Journal of Psychology
Monograph Supplement
British Journal oj Psychology, Statis-
Suppl.
Psychol., Stat. Sec.
Brit. J.
tical Section
Math. Biophysics
Bull.
Child Development
Child Devel.
kunde
Dioptric Review and British Journal of
Physiological Optics
Genetic Psychology
Monographs
Genet. Psychol.
Harvard
Human
Human
Biology
Human
Engineering Lahoratorj
Hum. Engng.
Technical Report
Humanity
Institute
Psychol. Stud.
Biol.
Lab., Tech.
Rep.
Series
Monog.
Ser.
Inst.
Int.
Congr. Musicol.
Int.
Psjchologie
J.
Psychology
287
J. Acoust. Soc.
Amer.
America
journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism
J. Aesth.
J. Amer.
Med.
Assoc.
Association
J. Appl. Psychol.
J. Clin. Psychol.
Com p.
J.
J. Educ. Psychol.
J. Educ. Res.
J. Exp. Ed.
Journal
erf
Experimental Psychology
Psychol.
J. Exp. Psychol.
J. Franklin Inst.
Institute
J. Gen. Psychol.
J. Genet. Psychol.
Journal of Gerontology
J. Gerontol.
Journal of Heredity
J. Hered.
Journal of Musicology
J. Musi col.
J. Nerv.
Ment. Dis.
Disease
Journal of Psjchology
J. Psychol.
et
J. Psychol.
Norm. Path.
Pathologique
J. Royal
Service
J. Soc. Psychol.
Kwartalnik Psychologiczny
Kwart. Psjchol.
U.S.
Med.
Res. Lab.
Monographs of
in
Child Development
288
Monog.
Devel.
Mus. Ed. J.
Yearbook
Mus. Superv. J.
Yearbook
Yearb.
Proc.
Musical Quarterly
Office
of
Music. Quart.
Scientific Research
and
OSRD
Report
Development, Report
Veabodj Bulletin
Peabody Bull.
Conservatorj oj Music
Stud.
Pedagogical Seminary
Ped. Sem.
Personnel Psychology
Personnel Psychol.
Philologisch-historische Klasse,
Sitzungsberichte
berichte
and Medizinische
Psychologic, Leipzig
Med.
Psychol.
Psychiatry
Psychiat.
Psychoanalytic Quarterly
Psychoanal. Quart.
Psychoanalytic Review
Psychological Bulletin
Psychol. Bull.
Psychological Monographs
Psychol.
Psychological Record
Psychol. Rec.
Psychological Review
Psychol. Rev.
Psychologische Rundschau
Psychol. Rundschau
Monog.
289
19
School Musician
Sch. Mus.
Sch.
und
ihre
Scientijic
and
Soc.
Anwendungen
Monthly
Sci.
Month.
Social Forces
Soc. Forces
Education
Teachers College Record
Child Welfare
University of Iowa Studies, Studies in the
U. of
Mus.
Psychology of Music
University of Oregon Publication
Zeitschrijt Jiir Experimentelle
und
U. of Oregon Publ.
Angewandte Psychologie
Zeitschrijt JUr Laryngologie, Rhinologie, Otologic,
Zsch.J. Larjngol.
der Sinncsorgane
Zeitschrijt Jiir Psychotherapie
und
Medizinischc Psychologie
Zentralblatt Jiir die gesamte Neurologic
und Psychiatric
Zentralblatt Jiir Physiologic
290
Zentralbl.
f.
Phjsiol.
Subject Index
musical ability
102
biographies, musical,
accidentals, 20, 29
activity,
aesthetics, experimental,
193
in,
iio,
program choices
133, 167168
of,
Test, 161
73,
cadence
119
test,
164
Aliferis
6^
Music Achievement Test, 229
art, vs.
centitone, 2^
child prodigies, 198
2 3
1-2
Chinese melodies,
finality in,
4^46
Mamma, 90
in,
43
120
Beale Street
130,
141
713
90
scale,
chromesthesia, 91-93
Cincinnati College of Music, 240
Clair de Lune, Debussy,
clarinet,
timbre
of,
96
64-65-
"classical music,"
climatic
cycles,
146-
147
college aptitudes, "critical levels" of,
common
communication, desire
for,
8485
291
19-2
SUBJECT INDEX
composers,
ranking
all-time,
of,
276-
277
modulation and, 32
knowledge
of,
originality of,
211
of,
falling inflection,
Minor,
J. S.
Bach,
^-6
264
and drum, 65
fatigue,
fife
Fifth
910, 66
Fifth
interval and, 41
flute,
dissonance, 47-48
dodecuple, 29, 32
dominant, 41, 76
Don Giovanni, Mozart, 262
Ganda
eight-string harp, 27
Dorian mode, 86
bass,
64
drone
36
decitone, 2^
deviation, artistic, 142
tests,
flatting,
Drake
41
Symphonj, Beethoven, 135, 148
Sjmphonj, Dvorak, 89
finality effects, 51
Test, 229
of,
rationalization of,
267-268
42
male, 65
falsetto,
136-138
violins,
713
210
in,
31-136
productive years
Cremona
277
Concerto in
243-244
7679
Music,
Guide
to
Encyclopedia
of Recorded
70
Eastman
Conservatory
of
Music,
240
eminence, musical, and musical
taste,
11,
128
year of birth and, 127, 276-277
eminence rankings, 121 126, 276277
changes in, 125128
emphasis, law
of,
taste and,
292
163, 181
high fidelity, and musical tastes, 150
57
enjoyment, musical
20-
29-1 31
Hindu
scale, 30
SUBJECT INDEX
homophony, 77, 79
"hot jazz," 73-74
key-effects,
alleged,
86-87
imagery, and musical abihty, 19^196
and musical training, 204, 214
industrial music,
267-269
keyless music,
see
atonal music
Klangfarbe, 90
"instinctive" rhythm,
183-184
127
36-ji
apparent pitch of, 38-40
consonance and dissonance
cians,
interval,
in,
47-50
plishment, 227
major-minor
42
and, 41
adjective
effects and,
232
of, 37,
simultaneous, 47-50
size of,
and
finality effects,
stability of,
tonality and,
42
45-46
interval change, 32
interval distortion, 26
interval preference, loudness and, 62
5758
function of, 58
musical, 199203
learning efficiency, 200
44
interval tolerance, 36
interval uniqueness, 50
Liberia,
introvert-extrovert types,
composers, 183
music, 148
loudness, 17, 89
and interval preference, 62
Loma Negro
94
I.Q., of great
Italian
93
95
music as universal language, 106-108
psychoanalytic symbolism in, 08-1 10
"large" and "small," vs. major-minor, 40
26-27
interval resolutions,
95-99
for classifying,
40
lists
43
62-63
loudness losses, age and, 65-66
293
SUBJECT INDEX
"magnet tone," 41
major chord, three positions of, 8 8
major-minor effect, 40, i, 109
major-minor modes, 88-90
major mode, "happy" nature of, 8990,
major scale, 29
major sixth, stability of, 36
marijuana,
and
"feminine"
10
need
Mohler
2324
for,
Scales for
Measuring Judgment of
composers,
mood
108-109
meaning, in musical connmunication, 8^-86
mean-tone temperament, 24
Measure of Tonal Memory, j
music, 94
Moravian music, 30
motor activity, rhythm and, 71
motor skills, and musical ability, 185
music, adjectives for classifying, 95-99
applications of, to therapy and industry,
254-270
chromesthetic behavior
9193
in,
144146
cultural derivations,
231-23^
verbal and nonverbal skills, 226-231
Whistler-Thorpe test, 244-245
Wing standardized tests, 246-247
unstandardized aptitude
tests,
46
on achievement, 264-270
factor analysis in, 99-102
effect of,
grammar
of, 85
Grecian modes, 86
language aspects
of,
84-1
mathematical
defined,
harmony and,
as
7577
loudness and, 6164
"meaning"
"microscopic," ^6
noise and, 6769
art,
273
effects of, 86
258
memory,
reading
261
as socializing agent,
29,
In-
88-89
meaning
to,
99-102
ventory, 191
minor mode,
Personality
260261
millitone, 25
Multiphasic
205206
260
Minnesota
of,
rest and,
294
47
"masculine"
of,
10
183
basic,
230-233
SUBJECT INDEX
training and, 147
whimsical or absolute nature
of,
117-
120
178-179
development of, 196-199
and family lines, 187
Freudian view of, 194-1 9 j
generality of, 179-182
inheritance of, 184-187
imagery as source of, 19^-196
Jungian view of, 193-194
measurement of, see measurement of
defined,
"musicopoeia," 261
music
159-165
measurement of musical
tests,
see also
ability;
258-259
of,
musical ability
nature
178-21^
of,
and other
national anthem,
182
arts,
"natural" scale,
taste,
boredom
culture in
New
73
Chopin, 73
Flat,
noise, defined, 68
nomenclature
of,
142-152
of, 3
Loma Negro
Liberia,
and, 173174
and conditioners
defined,
see also
Nocturne in
musical
3
i
Nazi music, 10 1
"musical ear,"
difficulties,
70
nonverbal musical
230-231
16
"obe-imeter," 232
fluctuations in,
octave pattern, 20
34
individual and group differences
1
in,
38-
octave, 18-20
in,
142
142
organum, 7679
Oriental
measures
music,
lack
Western tones
overtone,
Oxford Companion
138
state creation
of,
Pacific
145
147
Tests, 163
organ, baroque, 65
Gas
of
in,
sensitivity
for
45
&
to
Music, 127
Electric
Company
broadcasts,
134, 168170
^95
SUBJECT INDEX
past,
prime numbers,
10
910
Philharmonic pitch, 17
phon, loudness unit, 6364
listing,
1 1
phonograph
scale of, 22
pastoral music, 87
music therapy
psychoneurosis,
tests and,
59-
pure tones, 5, 78
Pythagorean scale, 21, 26, 31
of intervals, 38
periodic changes
racial assessments, in
in, 8
Philharmonic, 17
189
racism, musical, 120
233
pitch-deafness, 257
pitch discrimination, 27
see also absolute pitch
pitch level,
polyrhythm
record
in, 6
studies,
research,
psychological,
resolution, of intervals,
composers
of,
psychological
44
keyboard, mass
vs.
43
distributed,
rhythm, defined, 70
primacy, law
"subjective," 73
201
of,
see
positive pitch, 59
practice,
169-170
research
25
"popular music," layman's reaction to,
"power of
listings,
75
polyrhythms, 63-64, 79
polytonal music, 29, 46
classics,
57
51
of, 57
Record Book, The, 170
polymodality, 46
polyphony, 77
popular
recency, law
in
49-1
00-101
pitch wobble, 8
loudness differences
ratio
296
209, 213
vs. art,
162
relative,
of,
6-7
71
44
SUBJECT INDEX
rhythm (cont.)
tempo and, 79
Roth Quartet,
Rubin-Rabson
5
study,
of,
243
Strouse music
199-201
Symphony
symphony
minor
sadness, and
scale,
8890
130
173
San Francisco City College, 129
synesthesia, 9
tempering, of intervals, 20
pentatonic, 29
2 2
1820
Power
in Music,
161
23^-237
239-240
Seashore Measures of Musical Talent, 236
1939 edition, 237240
original,
validity of,
semitone, 25, 30
semitone steps, 20
variation in, 9
tensions, expression of,
music therapy
see also
237
Siamese chord, 89
Siamese scale, 2526
64
melody and, 64-66
timbre discrimination, 231
time signatures, "instinctive" rhythm
205
as criterion
of consonance, 47
sonance, 78
melody and, 66
in,
musical ability
see also
tonal impurities, 78
of,
64
physiological
tonal interval,
experiments
tonality,
see
interval
4546
in atonal music,
by, 25^
tonal
tonal
172
spans, absolute size of,
102106
Union,
of
Soviet
meaning
in
smoothness,
of,
music, 99
sight reading,
importance
tempo,
scales, ancient,
musical taste
temperament, mean-tone, 24
scale of nature,
composer preferences
players,
of,
of just intonation,
264-265
stimulus configuration, 58
Stradivarius violin, 10
46
memory, 233
movement, measurement
test of,
of,
160
131
297
SUBJECT INDEX
of,
variables,
tone-word method, 61
37-38
and voice,
defined,
violin
MacDowell, 73
general problems
199-203
special problems of, 204206
tremolo, defined, 3738
trill, defined, 37-38
Tristan and Isolde, Wagner, 107
methods,
4^
see
pitch
26^-267
5,
of well-known singers, 8
vibrato rate,
Tragic Sonata,
true pitch,
true beat,
toward,
tonic, defined, 41
training
tendency
39
loudness
movement,
upward
of,
taste, 146147
Western music, equal temperament in, 2j
stress on harmony in, 21
Whistler-Thorpe
Musical
244-245
whole-tone scale,
29, 32
Wing
Ability
Test,
Intelli-
gence, 246247
30
Xerxes,
298
Handel, 89
Name
Adler, A.,
M.
Adler,
219
14,
Baumgarten,
17
J.,
Alchin, 40, ^2
Aldrich, C. K., 14
Alexander,
Aliferis, J.,
C,
Sir
109,
87,
123,
124,
30,
132,
260, 271
Bunch, C. C., 82
29,
Benham,
Aristoxenus, 20
Bienstock,
Jr.,
Berg,
271,
262
Atwell,
Avent,
E., 208,
S.
J.
E., 249
F.,
197,
5-6,
24,
W.
Campbell,
2^0
V.
D.,
80,
37, 141
Barlow,
J.,
6j, 109,
Bjorksten,
Case, Anna, 95
26,
29,
W.
J.,
211, 225-
T., ^, 14,
Cattell,
J.
McKeen,
Bower,
122, 123,
I
3,
169
24,
33-" 34,
171,
177
220
Brahms, Johannes,
272
Bartholomew,
G., 112
I.
W. H., 249
Buxtehude, Dietrich, 16
Butterfield,
217,
113
T., 25-0
Birkhoff, G. D., 79
16, 20, 49,
S.
Burt, Cyril, 80
221
Bingham,
220
Burns,
224
A., 11^
I.
j,
26,
Arrington, G. E.,
56,
Brelet, G., 83
108,
M., 81
G., 80
J.
Thomas, 70
Beethoven, Ludwig van,
70,
M.,
L.
Beebe-Center,
249
I.
Brammer,
Altshuler,
216
F.,
Beecham,
216
Index
Chandler, A. R.,
^6,
I
26,
HI,
109,
I
29,
168,
17^
i'
Chien Lohtze, 29
Chinn, H. A., 50
i
299
NAME INDEX
Chopin,
109,
Frederic,
I
24,
72,
73,
262
M., 219
East, E.
Thomas
Edison,
Edmunds,
Eggen,
Corso,
J. F.,
i^,
5^3
Frances, R., 80
E.
A., 94,
13
M., 37, 52
Frankenstein,
Alfred,
1^4, 173
Franklin, E., 53,
Cowan, M., 82
Eitz, Karl, 81
Frischeisen-Kohler,
Cox, C, 216
Crews, A., 272
Critchley, M., 270
Dannenbaum,
Dashiell,
De
14
M. W.,
Fuller,
W., 113
Gardner,
Gardner, P. A.,
Garrison, K.
Gatewood,
R.,
35-,
34,
Gaw,
Gei^er, T.,
Geiringer, K.,
57,
j6
197, 221
C,
148, 272
J. E.,
113
J.,
15^^
81
Delay,
I.,
L. E., j6, 80
Farnsworth, P.
53
1^6
J. F.,
220,
Ellis,
Emerson,
I.,
216,
181,
2(^o
224
Ehrlich, S., 83
Elkus, A.
129,
Gernet,
S.
17
K., 175
Farnum,
Gigli,
Downey,
C. M.,
25^,
264,
270, 271
Disney, Walt,
J. E.,
Drager, H. H., 34
Drake, R. M., 164, 176,
21^^,
202, 223
Dunlevy, E. C, 2^2
Dutton, C. E., 115^
Dvorak, Anton, 89
P.
W.,
264
17^, 2^3
O. W.,
Easeley, E., i^
300
15-4
Girard,
^7
J., 271
Glazunov, Aleksandr, 141
Fletcher, H., 81
Fokker, A. D., 3^
Foley,
J. P., Jr.,
1^6,
9, 15,
14^,
19
Eagleson,
Beniamino,
253
Dreher, R. E., 112, 256, 270
Drexler, E. N., 217
Dunlap, K., ^2, ^4, 72, 83,
Dykema,
Giese, F., 14
Foster,
W.
J.,
Fraisse, P., 83
54
Gordon, Kate, 83
Gounod, Charles Francis, 196
Graf, Max, 209, 224
Graf, S., 218
St.,
NAME INDEX
Grieg, Edvard, 89
Higginson,
Hildum, D.
Grimmett,
Hill,
O., 220
J.
Gros, R. R.,
W.
C,
Keston, M.
14
Hitler, Adolf, 10
114
Gunther,
Hollingworth, L.
Hodgson, Walter, 14
M.
Hollinshead,
^7, 17^,
S.,
M., 253
Knapp, G. E., i ^7
Knuth, W. E., 249
Koch, H., 217
Kock, W. E., i^
Kichmann, R., 221
Kleist,
218
Guilford,
j6,
J.,
G., 82
^^
S.,
H., 11^
J.
216, 217
R., ig
W.,
Holmes,
J.
Haba, 30
Haecker, V., 217, 233, 2^0
Haggin, B. H., 170, 176
Homer,
Kovacs,
Friedrich,
126,
Huygens, Christiaan, 35
Hall, J.
Haller,
C,
256, 272
M. W.,
Hampton,
221
P. J., 113
George
Handel,
72, 89,
137, 141
Handschin,
123,
,
124,
115
Harrington, R.
J.,
Kotick,
F.,
^^
D.
B.,
Ives, Charles,
^4
263
O.
Jacobsen,
236,
25-1
Joseph,
26,
I.,
206,
224,
137,
123,
183, 210
Jancke,
J.,
218, 234,
J.,
W.
i2
S.,
Lavere,
W., 271
Lawshe, C. H.,
Jeritza, Maria, 8
Learned,
Lehman, C.
Lehman, H.
Jr.,
J.,
217
F., 211,
C,
5-4,
63, 80,
Helmholtz, H. L.
252
Heinlein, C. P.,
224
209, 224
25^1
J. L., 163
2^1
249
201, 222
S.,
Landsburg,
L., 229,
Lamp, C.
81
Hart, H.
Haydn,
M.
Howes,
Irvine,
156
L.,
81
Hardcastle, Arthur, 74
Harrell, T. W., 155
Harriman, P.
Kohler,
216
225-
Kaiser, L.,
5^2,
112
2^2
Kant, Immanuel, j8
Kaplan, I., 272
Kaplan, M., i
Linder, F. E.,
Kelley,
N. H., 82
Lichte,
W.
H., i^j
301
NAME INDEX
Ortmann, O.,
Miller, R. S.,
Milstein, Nathan, 66
80,
Mjon,
<^
J.,
Montgomery, H. C,
Moon, P., 34
216, 253
Lusby, W. S., 81
McAllester, D. P., ^3
McCauley, C. J., 249
82
25^3
Palestrina,
Marx, Karl,
Peatman,
J. G., i j6
Pepinsky, A., 114
Pickford,
H.,
J.
34-1
35-,
L.,
J.
83,
71,
Pinto,
Piatt,
I.
Plotkin,
32,
3^, ^3,
216, 222,
119,
W., 34
Poole, H.
2^1
Myers, C.
S.,
54
J.,
T., 17 j
Mursell,
180, 21 j
10
148, 171
Petran, L. A., 80
S.,
W., 249
A., 216
Peterson,
Munro,
W.
Owens,
Mueller,
iji, 15-7
Porter, Cole,
C,
Pratt, C.
Nash, D.,
Masson, D. L, 113
Mendelssohn, Felix, 117, 126,
132,1 37, 141, 171, 262
Nelson, H. M., 80
Pressey, L.
Preston, D., 82
Prokofiev,
263
Ptolemy,
Newton,
Pyle,
Meyer, Max,
14,
4,
20,
33,
224
90
Sir Isaac,
Nickerson,
J. F.,
Mezzrow, M., 14
Nielsen,
T., 2^1
Michelman,
J.,
Oakes,
Middleton,
W.
112, 119,
J.
W.
28, 34
Omwake,
Miles,
302
C.
J.
C.,
191,
R., 270
219,
228, 249
Serge,
122,
140,
H., 217
Pythagoras, 18, 28
Quinan,
C,
190, 219
Sergei,
122,
Miles,
W.
C,
Rachmaninov,
F., 81
O'Connor,
2^
15-,
iji,
217
S., 216
Mosher, R. M., 249
Mosonyi, D., 108, 115
Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus,
113,
Otterstein, A.
ij6,
5^4,
Morrow, R.
82,
Morini, Erika, 66
MacDowell, Edward, 73
McElroy, W. A., 112
E.,
81,
115
Ramon, K. M., 14
Rashevsky, N., 1^3
Ravel, Maurice, 103,
133-134, 140, 263
122,
NAME INDEX
Razran, G. H.
Regner,
Rethberg, Elizabeth,
Revesz,
1^7
S.,
N., 15
S.
G.,
216,
82,
224,
Rife,
D. C., 216
Rigg,
M.
Rimsky-Korsakov,
Nicolai,
115^,
253
C,
34
Ernestine,
16
1
130,
171,
177
Rothschild, D. A., 15
Rubin-Rabson, G., 157, 199-
Stone,
W., 2ji
262
2, 8 n.,
222,
219,
23J,
240,
R. H.,
i6j,
217,
Shimp,
112
B.,
14,
Dmitri,
109,
140
Sibelius, Jan,
J.,
148,
Strauss,
Stravinsky,
Igor,
66
Szucharewa, G., 220
Szigeti, Joseph,
133-134, 141,
M.
L., 190,
19
Talley, Marion, 8
Tangeman, R.
Sjostrom, L.,
Taylor,
Small, A.,
iji,
216,
1^7,
2
113,
164,
176,
Schrammel, H.
Schubert,
E.,
9^,
132,
26,
137,
W., 37, j4
Smith, G. H., 236, 2ji
Smith, H. B., 2ji
J.
H., 218
107,
I
29,
148,
W.,
J. P.,
54
Peter
I.,
124,
227, 249
89,
US,
137,
1^4,
168, 169, 262
163,
Thompson, A.
249
Franz,
177
Smith, P.
9^,
15^,
S.,
Tchaikovsky,
M.,
12 j
Schoen,
122,
103,
129,
Taylor, L. E.,
i ^^
154
109,
Skinner, L., 83
Saunders, P. A., 9,
56
Richard,
49,
52, 54, S7, 61, 67, 80,
81, 82, 83, 112, 130,
Sikes,
224
2jo
I.,
Stevens, S. J., 33
Stone, C. L., 147, ij6
Shostakovitch,
M.
Stelzer, T. G.,
Seashore,
Gioacchino,
1 1
j6
2J2
Stein,
Scripture, E.
29
Rittenhouse, C. H.,
Roncalio, A.
112
J,
Riker, B. L., 80
Stanton, P.,
Schuman,W., 140
Schumann, Robert,
G., 10,
91, 109,
8,
Schultz, E. J., 17
Schumann-Heink,
232, 250
Richardson, E. G., ij
j6
29
S., 54
Thorpe, L. P., 2^3
Thurstone, L. L., 80, i6j
Thus, S., 113
Tibbett, Lawrence, 8
M.,
Tilson, J.
270
2J7
M., 252
1 1
J,
303
NAME INDEX
Tinker,
M.
A., 1^4.
Tolmie, J. R., 1 ^
Torgerson, T. L., 229, 249
Toscanini, Arturo, 70
Totenberg, Roman, 66
Trabue, M. R., 175
Trembley, J. C,
Tully, M., 249
11 j
81
^^3,
Wachsmann, K. P., 27
Wagner, A. H., ^
Wagner, Richard, 109,
Whittaker,
124,
Wakeham,
126,
iii,
130,
Waterman,
W.,
Valentine, C.
112,1
Van
Van
^, 22
Williams,
Ralph,
22
Vernon, L.,
Vernon, P.
ids,
'
E.,
76,
13,
I
224
Verneer, E. M.,
304
16,
1^7,
s7
J.
W.
G., 224
83
G., 2^0
i j6
Williams, G. D., 156
Williams, H. M., 217, 221,
2JI
215-,
2^3
P. A.,
2^2
Vaughan
Watkins,
W. C,
T., 253
271
S.,
123,
^6
M.
Whitley,
Whiting, H.
Yasser, J., 34
Young, M., i6j, 176
M.
J.,
113
DATE DUE
1
GAYLORD
PRINTED
IN U.S.A.
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Farnsworth,
1899-1978.
F215
Paul
R.