Synchronous Generators

Three-phase synchronous generators are the primary source of all the electrical
energy we consume. These machines are the largest energy converters in the world.
They can convert mechanical energy into electrical energy, in powers reaching up to
1500MW. The operation of a synchronous motor is due to the interaction of the
magnetic fields of the stator and the rotor. A synchronous motor is a doubly excited
machine meaning that two electrical inputs are provided to it.
Commercial synchronous generators are built with either a stationary or a rotating
dc magnetic field. Its stator winding which consists of a 3 phase winding is provided
with 3 phase supply and the rotor is provided with DC supply. The 3 phase stator
winding carrying 3 phase currents produces 3 phase rotating magnetic flux and
therefore a rotating magnetic field. The rotor locks in with the rotating magnetic
field and rotates along with it. Once the rotor locks in with the rotating magnetic
field, the motor is said to be in synchronization. A single-phase (or two-phase
derived from single phase) stator winding is possible, but in this case the direction of
rotation is not defined and the machine may start in either direction unless
prevented from doing so by the starting arrangements. Once the motor is in
operation, the speed of the motor is dependent only on the supply frequency. When
the motor load is increased beyond the breakdown load, the motor falls out of
synchronization and the field winding no longer follows the rotating magnetic field.
Since the motor cannot produce torque if it falls out of synchronization, practical
synchronous motors have a partial or complete squirrel-cage damper (amortisseur)
winding to stabilize operation and facilitate starting. Because this winding is smaller
than that of an equivalent induction motor and can overheat on long operation, and
because large slip-frequency voltages are induced in the rotor excitation winding,
synchronous motor protection devices sense this condition and interrupt the power
supply also known as out of step protection.

A revolving-field synchronous generator has a stationary armature called a stator.

The 3-phase stator winding is directly connected to the load. A stationary stator also
makes it easier to insulate the windings because they are not subjected to
centrifugal forces. The field is excited by a dc generator, usually mounted on the
same shaft.

A stationary-field synchronous generator has the same outward appearance as a dc

generator. The salient poles create the dc field, which is cut by a revolving armature.
The armature possesses a 3-phase winding whose terminals are connected to three
slip-rings mounted on the shaft. A set of brushes, sliding on the slip-rings, enables
the armature to be connected to an external 3-phase load. The armature is driven by
a gasoline engine, or some other source of motive power. As it rotates a 3-phase
voltage is inducted, whose values depends upon the speed of rotation and upon the
dc exciting current in the stationary pole.

The frequency of the voltage depends upon the speed and the number of poles on
the field. Stationary-field generators are used when the power output is less than
5kVA. However, for greater outputs, it is cheaper, safer and more practical to employ
a revolving dc field.

Now let us connect the three windings of the generator to three identical resistors.
This arrangement requires six wires to deliver power to the individual single phase
loads. The resulting currents Ia, Ib and Ic are respectively in phase with voltages Va,
Vb and Vc. Because the resistors are identical, the currents have the same effective
values, but they are mutually out of phase by 120. The fact that they are out of
phase simply means that they reach their positive peaks at different times. The
instantaneous power supplied to each resistor is again composed of a power wave
that surges between zero and a maximum value Pm. However, the power peaks in
the three resistors do not occur at the same time, due to the phase angle between
the voltages. If we add the instantaneous powers of all three resistors, we discover
that the resulting power is constant, as in the case of a 2-phase generator. However,
the total output of a 3-phase generator has a magnitude of 1.5 Pm. Because the
electricaloutpus is constant, the mechanical power required to drive the rotor is also
constant, and so a 3-phase generator does not vibrate. Furthermore, the power flow
over the transmission line, connecting the generator to the load, is constant.

In a device, such as a synchronous generator, magnetic materials are used to shape

and direct magnetic fields that act as a medium in the energy conversion process. A
major advantage of using magnetic material in electrical machines is the fact that
high flux density can be obtained in the machine, which results in large torque or
large machine output per unit machine volume. Hence the size of the machine is
reduced by the use of magnetic materials.
A rotor positioned in the housing between the outer stator and the inner stator is
the first squirrel cage affixed to an outer diameter of the rotor in spaced relationship
to the outer stator. A second squirrel cage is affixed to an inner diameter of the rotor
in spaced relationship to the inner stator, and a shaft is affixed to the rotor such that
the shaft rotates relative to the rotation of the rotor. The shaft extends outwardly of
the housing.
The outer stator has an extending winding as also the inner stator. The outer stator,
the inner stator and the rotor are in concentric relationship within the housing. The
outer stator and the first squirrel cage define a first air gap therebetween. The inner
stator and the second squirrel cage define a second air gap therebetween. A power
source is electrically connected to the outer stator and the inner stator.
The first squirrel cage has a plurality of bars extending therethrough. Similarly, the
second squirrel cage also has a plurality of bars extending therethrough. The
plurality of bars of the first squirrel cage extends in concentric relationship to the
outer stator. The plurality of bars on the second squirrel cage extends in concentric
relationship with the inner stator. The plurality of bars of the first and second
squirrel cages are in parallel relationship to each other. The plurality of bars of the
first squirrel cage extends for the length of the rotor. Also, the plurality of bars of the
second squirrel cage extends for the length of the rotor. In the preferred
embodiment, the plurality of bars of the first and second squirrel cages is made out
of copper.

Double squirrel-cage arrangements can also be used to obtain a high value of

effective resistance at starting and a low value of the resistance at full-load
operation. It consists of two layers of bars, both short-circuited by end rings. The
upper bars are small in cross-section and have a high resistance. They are placed
near the rotor surface so that the leakage flux sees a path of high reluctance;
consequently, they have a low leakage inductance. The lower bars have a large
cross-section, a lower resistance and a high leakage inductance. At starting, rotor
frequency is high and very little current flows through the lower bars; the effective
resistance of the rotor is then at the high resistance upper bars. At normal low slip
operation, leakage reactance is negligible, and the rotor current flows largely
through the low resistance lower bars; the effective rotor resistance is equal to that
of the two sets of bars in parallel.
( SLIP)As soon as the rotor is released, it rapidly accelerates in the direction of the
rotating field. As it picks up speed, the relative velocity of the field with respect to
the rotor diminishes progressively. This causes both the value and the frequency of
the induced voltage to decrease because the rotor bars are cut more slowly. The
rotor current, very large at first, decreases rapidly as the motor picks up speed.
The speed will continue to increase, but it will never catch up with the revolving
field. In effect, if the rotor did turn at the same speed as the field(synchronous
speed), the flux would no longer cut the rotor bars and the induced voltage and
current would fall to zero. Under these conditions the force acting on the rotor bars
would also become zero and the friction and windage would immediately cause the
rotor to slow down. The rotor speed is always slightly less than synchronous speed
so as to produce a current in the rotor bars sufficiently large enough to overcome
the braking torque. At no-load the percent difference in speed between the rotor
and field, called slip, is small, usually less than 0.1% of synchronous speed.
The slip (s) of an induction motor is the difference between the synchronous speed
and the rotor speed, expressed as a percent (or per-unit) of synchronous speed. The
per-unit slip is given by the equation: s = (ns n)/ ns where s = slip, ns = synchronous
speed (r/min) and n = rotor speed (r/min). The slip is practically zero at no-load and
is equal to 100% (or 1) when the rotor is locked.

References:
[1] Theodore Wildi Electrical Machines, Drives, and Power Systems 6th Edition