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Daniel Kahneman
3 PRACTICAL SIGNIFICANCE
The fact that some biases reect motivation, and in particular the motivation to have positive attitudes to oneself[22]
accounts for the fact that many biases are self-serving or
self-directed (e.g. illusion of asymmetric insight, selfserving bias, projection bias). There are also biases in
how subjects evaluate in-groups or out-groups; evaluating
in-groups as more diverse and better in many respects,
Alternatively, critics of Kahneman and Tversky such as even when those groups are arbitrarily-dened (ingroup
bias, outgroup homogeneity bias).
Gerd Gigerenzer argue that heuristics should not lead
us to conceive of human thinking as riddled with irra- Some cognitive biases belong to the subgroup of
tional cognitive biases, but rather to conceive rationality attentional biases which refer to the paying of increased
as an adaptive tool that is not identical to the rules of attention to certain stimuli. It has been shown, for exformal logic or the probability calculus.[19] Nevertheless, ample, that people addicted to alcohol and other drugs
experiments such as the Linda problem grew into the pay more attention to drug-related stimuli. Common psyheuristics and biases research program which spread be- chological tests to measure those biases are the Stroop
yond academic psychology into other disciplines includ- Task[23][24] and the Dot Probe Task.
ing medicine and political science.
The following is a list of the more commonly studied cognitive biases:
Types
irrelevant features of the case, weigh the relevant features appropriately, consider dierent possibilities openmindedly and resist fallacies such as appeal to emotion.
The various biases demonstrated in these psychological
experiments suggest that people will frequently fail to do
all these things.[29] However, they fail to do so in systematic, directional ways that are predictable.[30]
Cognitive biases are also related to the persistence of superstition, to large social issues such as prejudice, and
others give excessive weight to an unimportant but they also work as a hindrance in the acceptance of scisalient feature of the problem (e.g., anchoring)
entic non-intuitive knowledge by the public.[31]
6 References
Cognitive bias modication refers to the process of modifying cognitive biases in healthy people and also refers
to a growing area of psychological (non-pharmaceutical)
therapies for anxiety, depression and addiction called
CBMT. Cognitive Bias Modication Therapy (CBMT) is
sub-group of therapies within a growing area of psychological therapies based on modifying cognitive processes
with or without accompanying medication and talk therapy, sometimes referred to as Applied Cognitive Processing Therapies (ACPT). Although Cognitive Bias Modication can refer to modifying cognitive processes in
healthy individuals, CBMT is a growing area of evidencebased psychological therapy, in which cognitive processes are modied to relieve suering[36][37] from serious Depression,[38] Anxiety,[39] and Addiction.[40] CBMT
techniques are technology assisted therapies that are delivered via a computer with or without clinician support.
CBM combines evidence and theory from the cognitive
model of anxiety,[41] cognitive neuroscience,[42] and attentional models.[43]
[4] Kahneman, D.; Tversky, A. (1972). Subjective probability: A judgment of representativeness. Cognitive Psychology 3 (3): 430454. doi:10.1016/00100285(72)90016-3.
See also
Cognitive bias mitigation
Cognitive bias modication
Cognitive dissonance
Cognitive distortion
Cognitive psychology
Cognitive traps for intelligence analysis
Critical thinking
Cultural cognition
Emotional bias
Evolutionary psychology
Expectation bias
Fallacy
Prejudice
Realism theory
[2] Bless, H., Fiedler, K., & Strack, F. (2004). Social cognition: How individuals construct social reality. Hove and
New York: Psychology Press. p. 2.
[3] Bless, H., Fiedler, K., & Strack, F. (2004). Social cognition: How individuals construct social reality. Hove and
New York: Psychology Press.
[16] Kahneman, Daniel; Shane Frederick (2002). Representativeness Revisited: Attribute Substitution in Intuitive
Judgment. In Thomas Gilovich, Dale Grin, Daniel
Kahneman. Heuristics and Biases: The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
pp. 5152. ISBN 978-0-521-79679-8.
[17] Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1974). Judgement under
uncertainty: Heuristics and biases.. Sciences 185 (4157):
11241131. doi:10.1126/science.185.4157.1124. PMID
17835457.
[18] Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1983). Extensional versus intuitive reasoning: The conjunction fallacy in probability judgement. Psychological Review 90: 293315.
doi:10.1037/0033-295X.90.4.293.
[19] Gigerenzer, G. (2006). Bounded and Rational. In
Stainton, R. J. Contemporary Debates in Cognitive Science.
Blackwell. p. 129. ISBN 1-4051-1304-9.
[20] Schacter, D.L. (1999). The Seven Sins of Memory: Insights From Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience. American Psychologist 54 (3): 182203.
doi:10.1037/0003-066X.54.3.182. PMID 10199218.
[21] Kunda, Z. (1990). The Case for Motivated Reasoning. Psychological Bulletin 108 (3): 480498.
doi:10.1037/0033-2909.108.3.480. PMID 2270237.
[22] Hoorens, V. (1993). Self-enhancement and Superiority
Biases in Social Comparison. In Stroebe, W. and Hewstone, Miles. European Review of Social Psychology 4.
Wiley.
[23] Jensen AR, Rohwer WD (1966). The Stroop colorword test: a review. Acta psychologica 25 (1): 3693.
doi:10.1016/0001-6918(66)90004-7. PMID 5328883.
[24] MacLeod CM (March 1991). Half a century of research on the Stroop eect: an integrative review. Psychological Bulletin 109 (2): 163203. doi:10.1037/00332909.109.2.163. PMID 2034749.
[25] Jones, E. E., & Harris, V. A (1967). The attribution of
attitudes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 3:
124. doi:10.1016/0022-1031(67)90034-0.
[26] Mahoney, M. J. (1977). Publication prejudices: An experimental study of conrmatory bias in the peer review
system. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 1 (2): 161
175. doi:10.1007/bf01173636.
[27] Jermias, J. (2001). Cognitive dissonance and resistance
to change: The inuence of commitment conrmation
and feedback on judgement usefulness of accounting systems. Accounting, Organizations and Society 26: 141
160. doi:10.1016/s0361-3682(00)00008-8.
[28] Martin Hilbert (2012) Toward a synthesis of cognitive biases: How noisy information processing can bias human
decision making" Psychological Bulletin 138(2), 211
237; free access to the study here: martinhilbert.net/
HilbertPsychBull.pdf
[29] Sutherland, Stuart (2007) Irrationality: The Enemy Within
Second Edition (First Edition 1994) Pinter & Martin.
ISBN 978-1-905177-07-3
REFERENCES
Further reading
Eiser, J.R. and Joop van der Pligt (1988) Attitudes
and Decisions London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0415-01112-9
Fine, Cordelia (2006) A Mind of its Own: How your
brain distorts and deceives Cambridge, UK: Icon
Books. ISBN 1-84046-678-2
8 External links
Heuer, Richards J. Jr. (1999). Psychology of Intelligence Analysis. Central Intelligence Agency.
Kahneman D., Slovic P., and Tversky, A. (Eds.)
(1982) Judgment Under Uncertainty: Heuristics and
Biases. New York: Cambridge University Press
ISBN 978-0-521-28414-1
Kahneman, Daniel (2011) Thinking, Fast and Slow.
New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux ISBN 978-0374-27563-1
Kida, Thomas (2006) Don't Believe Everything You
Think: The 6 Basic Mistakes We Make in Thinking
New York: Prometheus. ISBN 978-1-59102-408-8
Nisbett, R., and Ross, L. (1980) Human Inference:
Strategies and shortcomings of human judgement.
Englewood Clis, NJ: Prentice-Hall ISBN 978-013-445130-5
Piatelli-Palmarini, Massimo (1994) Inevitable Illusions: How Mistakes of Reason Rule Our Minds New
York: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-15962-X
Stanovich, Keith (2009). What Intelligence Tests
Miss: The Psychology of Rational Thought. New
Haven (CT): Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300-12385-2. Lay summary (21 November 2010).
Sutherland, Stuart (2007) Irrationality: The Enemy
Within Second Edition (First Edition 1994) Pinter
& Martin. ISBN 978-1-905177-07-3
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