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U4MEA10
FLUID MECHANICS
Unit - I Basic Concepts And Properties
9
Fluid definition, distinction between solid and fluid - UNIT Is and dimensions - Properties of fluids
- density, specific weight, specific volume, specific gravity, temperature, viscosity, compressibility,
vapour pressure, capillary and surface tension - Fluid statics: concept of fluid static pressure, absolute
and gauge pressures - pressure measurements by manometers and pressure gauges.
Unit II
Bernoullis Equation And Boundary Layer Concepts
9
Fluid Kinematics - Flow visualization - lines of flow - types of flow - continuity equation (one
dimensional differential forms)- fluid dynamics - equations of motion - Eulers equation along a
streamline - Bernoullis equation applications - Venturi meter, Orifice meter, Pitot tube - Boundary
layer flows, boundary layer thickness, boundary layer separation - drag and lift coefficients.
Unit - III
Flow Through Pipes
9
Viscous flow - Navier - Stokes equation (Statement only) - Shear stress, pressure gradient
relationship - laminar flow between parallel plates - Laminar flow through circular tubes (Hagen
poiseulles) - Hydraulic and energy gradient - flow through pipes - Darcy -weisbacks equation - pipe
roughness -friction factor-minor losses - flow through pipes in series and in parallel - power
transmission.
Unit - IV
Dimensional Analysis And Hydraulic Turbines
9
Dimensional analysis - Buckinghams p theorem- applications - similarity laws and models.Hydro
turbines: definition and classifications - Pelton turbine Francis turbine - Kaplan turbine - working
principles - velocity triangles - work done - specific speed - efficiencies -performance curve for
turbines.
Unit - V
Pumps
9
Pumps: definition and classifications - Centrifugal pump: classifications, working principles, velocity
triangles, specific speed, efficiency and performance curves - Reciprocating pump: classification,
working principles, indicator diagram, work saved by air vessels and performance curves cavitations in pumps -priming- slip- rotary pumps: working principles of gear, jet and vane pump.
Text Books
1. 1.Streeter, V.L., and Wylie, E.B., Fluid Mechanics, McGraw-Hill, 1983.
2. Kumar, K.L., Engineering Fluid Mechanics, Eurasia Publishing House (P) Ltd., New Delhi
(7th edition), 1995.
Bansal, R.K., Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics Machines, (5 th edition), Laxmi publications (P)
Ltd., New Delhi, 1995.
3.
Reference Books
1.
2.
3.
White, F.M., Fluid Mechanics, Tata McGraw-Hill, 5th Edition, New Delhi, 2003.
Ramamirtham, S., Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics and Fluid Machines, Dhanpat Rai and
Sons, Delhi, 1998.
Som, S.K., and Biswas, G., Introduction to fluid mechanics and fluid machines, Tata
McGraw-Hill, 2nd edition, 2004.
UNIT I
Mass of fluid
m
( K g / m3 )
Volume of the fluid v
Weight of fluid
mass Acceleration due to gravity
(N/m 3 )
Volume of fluid
Volume of fluid
w= g
1
Volume of fluid Mass of fluid 1
Specific volume (v)=
Mass of fluid
Volume
Ideal fluid is only an imaginary fluid as all fluids, have some viscosity.
Real Fluid:
A fluid which possess viscosity is known as real fluid
Specific Weight:
The Specific weight of a fluid is the weight it possesses per unit volume.
Weight density
Specific weight
Specific volume:
Specific Volume is the reciprocal of specific density. The specific volume of a
fluid is the volume occupied by the unit mass of the fluid.
3. State the Newtons law of Viscosity.
It states that the shear stress () on a fluid element layer is directly proportional
to the rate of shear strain. The constant of proportionality is called the coefficient of
viscosity.
Mathematically, it is expressed by equation
du
dy
Fluids which obey the above relation are known as Newtonian fluids
Fluids which do not obey the above relation are called Non-Newtonian Fluid.
4. Distinguish Between Surface Tension and capillarity.
SURFACE TENSION
Surface tension is defined as the tensile
force acting on the surface of a Liquid in
contact with a gas or on the surface
between two immiscible Liquids such
that contact surface behaves like a
membrane under tension.
Surface tension is expressed in N/m (or)
CAPILLARITY
Capillarity
is
defined
as
a
phenomenon of rise or fall of a liquid
surface in a small tube relative to the
adjacent general level of Liquid when
the tube is held vertically in the fluid.
dyne/Cm
2
[m / s]
du
dy
Ns
m2
Kinematic Viscosity:
It is defined as the ratio between the dynamic viscosity and density of fluid. It is
denoted by the Greek symbol () (Nu).
2
= Dynamic Viscosity Density v m / s
A real fluid in which is not proportional to the rate of shear strain [(or) velocity
gradient] is known as a Non-Newtonian fluid.
8. Define the term Viscosity.
Viscosity: ()
Viscosity is defined as the property of a fluid which offers resistance to the
movement of one layer of fluid over another adjacent Layer of the fluid.
du
dy
This property is due to cohesion and interaction between molecules of the fluid.
. ;
dy
du
dy
The fluid viscosity is due to cohesion and interaction between molecules of
the fluid.
For example
High viscosity Fluid Tar and caster op
Low viscosity fluid Kerosene, Petrol and water
10. What is the effect of temperature on viscosity of water and that of air?
When the viscosity of the liquid decreases with increase in temperature since the
molecules present in the Liquid is less.
Increase of Pressure
Volumetric strain
-dpV
=
dv
Bulk Modulus K=
Let = surface tension of liquid, =Angle of contact between liquid glass tube.
The weight of liquid of height h in the tube =(Area of tube x h) x g.
d2 h g
(1)
Where,
= Density of liquid
Vertical component of surface tensile force
= ( x Circumference) x Cos
= ( x d x cos)
2
Equating the equation (1) & (2) we get,
/4d2 h g = x d x cos
d cos
/ 4d 2 g
4 cos
h
gd
h
when = 0
Capillary Rise of Liquid h=
4 cos
gd
Ideal Fluid
Real Fluid
Newtonian Fluid
Non-Newtonian Fluid
Ideal Plastic Fluid.
P = gZ.
16. Define Manometer.
It is defined as the devices used for measuring the pressure at a point in a
fluid by balancing the column of fluid by the same or another column at the fluid.
17. Define absolute pressure.
It is defined as the pressure which is measured with reference to absolute
vacuum pressure.
18. Define Gauge pressure.
It is defined as the pressure which is measured with the help of a pressure
measuring instrument, in which the atmospheric pressure is taken as datum. The
atmospheric pressure on the scale is marked as zero.
19. Define vacuum pressure.
It is defined as the pressure below the atmospheric pressure.
20. What are the different types of mechanical gauges?
There are different types of mechanical gauges.
Mechanical gauges are best suitable for measuring very high fluid pressure.
Incase of steam boilers where manometer can not be used, a mechanical gauge can
be conveniently used.
1. Bourdon tube pressure gauge
2. Diaphragm pressure gauge
3. Dead weight pressure gauge.
Quantity
Unit
DIMENSIONS
10
1.
2.
3.
4.
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
Geometric
Length
Area
Volume
Slope
Kinematic
Time
Velocity
(linear)
Velocity
(angular)
Acceleration
(linear)
Acceleration
(angular)
Discharge
Gravitationa
l
acceleration
Kinematic
velocity
Dynamic
Mass
Force
Weight
Mass
density
Specific
weight
Dynamic
viscosity
Surface
tension
Elastic
modulus
Pressure
Shear
intensity
generally
adopted
MLT SYSTEM
FLT SYSTEM
M
M2
M3
L
L2
L3
L
L2
L3
Sec
M/sec
T
LT-1
T
LT-1
Rad / sec2
T-1
T-1
M/sec
LT-2
LT-2
Rad /sec2
T2
T2
Cum /sec
M/sec2
L3 T-1
LT-2
L3T-1
LT-2
M/sec2
L2 T-1
L2T-1
Kg
Newton
Newton
Kg /cum
M
MLT-2
MLT-2
ML-3
FL-1 T2
F
F
FL-4T2
Newton/cu
m
Newton
/cum
Newton/m
ML-2T2
FL-3
ML-1T-1
FL-3T
MT-2
FL-1
Newton/m2
ML-1T2
FL-2
Newton/m2
Newton/m2
ML-1T2
ML-1T2
FL-2
FL-2
11
23
24
25
26
Work,
energy
Impulse
momentum
Torque
Power
Newton m
ML2T2
FL
Newton sec
MLT-1
FT
Newton m
Newton /sec
ML2T-2
ML2T3
FL
FLT-1
12
PART - B
1. Calculate the specific weight, density and specific gravity of one litre of a
liquid which weights 7 N.
Solution: Given:
Volume
1
1
m3 1 litre
m3 or 1 litre 1000cm3
1000
1000
= 7 N.
= 1 litre
Weight
(i) Specific weight (w)
(ii) Density ()
Weight
7N
1
Volume
m3
1000
w 7000
kg / m3 713.5kg / m3 .
=
g 9.81
= 0.7135.
2. Calculate the density, specific weight and weight of one litre of petrol of
specific gravity = 0.7.
Solution:
Given:
Volume
= 1 litre
= 1x 1000 cm3
Sp. Gravity,
1000 3
m 0.001m3
6
10
= S = 0.7
(i) Density ()
Using equation (1.1A),
Density ()
13
w = xg
= 700x9.81 N/m3 = 6867 N/m3.
or
Weight
Volume
W
W
or 6867
0.001
0.001
3. A flat plate area 1.5x106 mm2 is pulled with a speed of 0.4 m/s relative to another
plate located at a distance of 0.15 mm from it. Find the force and power required
to maintain this speed, if the fluid separating them is having viscosity as 1 poise.
Solution:
Given:
Area of the plate,
A = 1.5 x 106 mm2 = 1.5m2
Speed of plate relative to another plate, du = 0.4 m/s
Distance between the plates,
dy = 0.15 mm = 0.15 x 10-3m
1 Ns
.
Viscosity
= 1 poise
10 m2
Using equation (1.2), we have
du 1
0.4
N
266.66 2
3
dy 10 015 10
m
(i) Shear force,
F= x area =266.66 x 1.5 = 400 N.
(ii) Power* required to move he plate at the speed 0.4 m/sec
= F x u = 400 x 0.4 = 160 W.
4. Calculate the dynamic viscosity of an oil, which is used for lubrication between
a square plate of size 0.8 m x0.8 m and an inclined plane with angle of inclination
30 as shown in Fig. The weight of the square plate is 300 N and it slides down
the inclined plane with a uniform velocity of 0.3 m/s. The thickness of oil film is
1.5 mm.
Solution:
Given:
14
Area of plate,
Angle of plane,
Weight of plate,
Velocity of plate,
Thickness of oil film,
F
150
N / m2
Area 0.64
Now using equation (1.2), we have
du
dy
0.64
1.5 103
150 1.5 10 3
0.64 0.3
5. The space between two square flat parallel plates is filled with oil. Each side of
the plate is 60 cm. The thickness of the oil film is 12.5 mm. The upper plate,
which moves at 2.5 meter per see requires a force of 98.1 N to maintain the speed.
Determine:
(i)
(ii)
Solution:
Given:
Each side of a square plate = 60 cm = 0.60 m
15
Area,
u = 2.5 m/sec
F = 98.1 N
Shear stress,
(i)
Force F 98.1N
Area A 0.36m2
N
98.1 12.5 10 3
1.3635 2s
0.36
2.5
m
du
dy
or
98.1
2.5
0.36
12.5 10 3
1Ns 10 poise
m2
(ii)
N
1.3635 2s
m
Using the relation, , we get
950
6. The dynamic viscosity of an oil, used for lubrication between a shaft and sleeve
is 6 poise. The shaft is diameter 0.4 m and rotates at 190 r.p.m. Calculate the
power lost in the bearing for a sleeve length of 90 mm. The thickness of the oil
16
= 6 poise
=
Dia. of shaft,
Speed of shaft,
Sleeve length,
Thickness of oil film,
N
6 Ns
0.6 2s
2
10 m
m
D = 0.4 m
N = 190 r.p.m.
L = 90 mm = 90 x 10-3m
t = 1.5 mm = 1.5 x 10-3 m
fig
DN
60
du
dy
0.4 190
60
3.98m / s
716.48W .
Power lost
60
60
7. A vertical gap 2.2 cm wide of infinite extent contains a fluid of viscosity 2.0 N
s/m2 and specific gravity 0.9. A metallic plate 1.2 m x 0.2 cm is to be lifted up with
a constant velocity of 0.15 m/sec, through the gap. If the plate is in the middle of
17
the gap, find the force required. The weight of the plate is 40 N.
Solution:
Given:
Width of gap
= 2.2 cm, viscosity, = 2.0 N s/m2
Sq.gr. of fluid
= 0.9
Weight density of fluid = 0.9 x 1000 = 900 kgf/m3 = 900 x 9.81 N/m3
( 1 kgf = 9.81 N)
Volume
= 1.2 m x 1.2 m x 0.2 cm
= 1.2 x 1.2 x .002 m3 = .00288 m3
Thickness of plate
= 0.2 cm
Velocity of plate
= 0.15 m /sec
Weight of plate
= 40 N.
When plate is in the middle of the gap, the distance of the plate from vertical
surface, of the gap
Width of gap thickness of plate 2.2 0.2
1cm .01m.
2
2
Now the shear force on the left side of the metallic plate,
43.2 N.
Similarly, the shear force on the right side of the metallic plate,
F2 = Shear stress x Area
.15
2.0
1.2 1.2 43.2 N
.01
Total shear force = F1 + F2 = 43.2 + 43.2 = 86.4 N.
In this case the weight of plate (which is acting vertically downward) and
upward thrust is also to be taken into account.
The upward thrust = Weight of fluid displaced
= (Weight density of fluid) x Volume of fluid displaced
18
N
m2
Let
19
2.5 40 10 3
N / m 0.0125N / m.
8
10. The pressure outside the droplet of water of diameter 0.04 mm is 10.32 N/cm2
(atmospheric pressure). Calculate the pressure within the droplet if surface
tension is given as 0.0725 N/m of water.
Solution:
Given:
Dia. of droplet,
Pressure outside the droplet
Surface tension,
The pressure inside the droplet, inn excess of outside pressure is given by
equation
or
4 4 0.0725
7250 N / m2
d
.04 103
7250N
4 2 0.725N / cm2
10 cm
= p + Pressure outside the droplet
20
Density
(a) Capillary rise for water ( = 0)
4
4 0.0725
4 cos
p gd
21
4 0.073575 cos 0
13600 9.81 103
= - 2.45 x 10-3 m = - 2.46 mm.
h
22
Dia. of ram,
Dia. of plunger,
Force on plunger,
Find weight lifted
D = 30 cm 0.3 m
d = 4.5 cm = 0.045 m
F = 500 N
=W
Area of ram,
A
a
Area of plunger,
D2
d
2
2
0.3 0.07068m2
2
0.045 .00159m2
Force on plunger F
500
N / m2 .
Area of plunger a .00159
Due to Pascals law, the intensity of pressure will be equally transmitted in all
directions. Hence the pressure intensity at the ram
500
314465.4 N / m2
.00159
Weight
Weight
W
W
N / m2
Area of ram A .07068
W
314465.4
.07068
= 314465.4 x .07068 = 22222 N = 22.222 kN.
15. The diameters of a small piston and a large piston of a hydraulic jack at 3 ate 3
cm and 10 cm respectively. A force of 80 N is applied on the small piston. Find
the load lifted by the large piston when:
(a) The piston is 40 cm above the large piston.
(b) Small piston is 40 cm above the large piston.
The density of the liquid in the jack is given as 1000 kg/cm3.
23
Solution:
Given:
Dia. of small piston,
d = 3 cm
d2
3 7.068cm2
2
4
4
D = 10 cm
p
2
A 10 78.54cm2
4
F = 80 N
= W.
F
80
N / cm2
a 7.068
This is transmitted equally on the large piston.
Pressure intensity on the large piston
80
7.068
Force on the large piston = Pressure x Area
80
78.54 N 888.96 N.
7.068
(b) When the small piston is 40 cm above the large piston.
Pressure intensity on the small piston
F
80 N
a 7.068 cm2
Pressure intensity at section A A
F
Pr essure int ensity due to height of 40cm of liquid.
a
But pressure intensity due to 40 cm of liquid
= x g x h = 1000 x 9.81 x 0.4 N/m2
1000 9.81 .40
24
Z1 = 3 m
1 = 1.53 x 103 kg/m3
Z0 = 750 mm of Hg
750
0.75m of Hg
1000
Atmospheric pressure, patm = 0 x g x Z0
where 0 = density of Hg = 13.6 x 1000 kg/m3
and Z0 = Pressure head in teams of mercury.
17. The right limb of a simple U-tube manometer containing mercury is open to
the atmosphere while left limb is connected to a pipe in which a fluid of sp. Gr.
0.9 is flowing. The centre of the pipe is 12 cm below the level of mercury in the
right limb. Find the pressure of fluid in the pipe if the difference of mercury level
in the two limbs is 20 cm.
Solution:
Given:
25
Sp.gr. of fluid,
S1 = 0.9
Density of fluid,
1 = S1 x 1000 = 0.9 x 1000 = 900 kg/m3
Sp.gr. of mercury,
S2 = 13.6
Density of mercury,
2 = 13.6 x 1000 kg/m3
Difference of mercury level
h2 = 20 cm = 0.2 m
Height of fluid from A-A,
h1 = 20 12 = 8 cm = 0.08 m
Let p = Pressure of fluid in pipe
Equating the pressure above A-A, we get
p + 1gh1 = 2gh2
or p + 900 x 9.81 x 0.08 = 13.6 x 1000 x 9.81 x .2
p = 13.6 x 1000 x 9.81 x .2 9.81 x 0.08
= 26683-706 = 25977 N/m2 = 2.597 N/cm2.
S1 = 0.8,
S2 = 13.6
1 = 800
2 = 13.6 x 1000
2gh2 + 1gh1 + p = 0
p = -[2gh2 + 1gh1]
= - [13.6 x 1000 x 9.81 x 0.4 + 800 x 9.81 x 0.15]
26
S1 = 0.9
1 = 900 kg/m3
S2 = 13.6
2 = 13.6 x 1000
Area of reservoir
A
100
Area of right lim b a
Height of liquid,
h1 = 20 cm = 0.2 m
PA = Pressure in pipe
PA
a
h2 2 g 1 g h2 2 g h1 1 g
A
1
0.4 13.6 1000 9.81 900 9.81 0.4 13.6 1000 9.81 0.2 900 9.81
100
0.4
133416 8829 53366.4 1765.8
100
27
S1 = 1.5
1 = 1500
S2 = 0.9
2 = 900
pA = 1 kgf/cm2 = 1 x 104 kgf/m2
= 1.8 x 9.81 N/m2
( 1 kgf = 9.81 N)
( 1 kgf = 9.81 N )
12.7
20. A differential manometer is connected at the two points A and B as shown in
Fig. At B air pressure is 9.81 N/cm2 (abs), find the absolute pressure at A.
Solution:
Air pressure at B
or
Density of oil
Density of mercury
= 9.81 N/cm2
pB = 9.81 x 104 N/m2
= 0.9 x 1000 = 900 kg/m3
= 13.6 x 1000 kg/m3
28
pA = 103986-15107.4 = 88876.8
88876.8 N
N
pA = 88876.8 N/m2 =
8.887 2 .
2
10000cm
cm
2
Absolute pressure at A = 8.887 N/cm .
PA = Pressure at A
PA = Pressure at B
29
or
m
0.30
0.30
1
1
m 100 20cm.
5
5
30
UNIT II
Fluid Kinematics
Flow visualization
Lines of flow
Types of flow
Continuity equation (one dimensional differential forms)Fluid dynamics
Equations of motion
Eulers equation along a streamline
Bernoullis equation-applications
Venturi meter, Orifice meter, Pitot tube - Boundary layer flows,
Boundary layer thickness,
Boundary layer separation
Drag and lift coefficients.
31
PART A
1. Define Kinematics of flow.
It is defined as that branch of science which deals with motion of particles
without considering the forces causing the motion.
2. What are the methods of describing fluid flow?
The fluid motion is described by two methods they are
(i)
Lagrangian method and
(ii)
Eulerian method
In the Langrangian Method, a single fluid particle is followed during its motion
and its velocity, acceleration , density etc are described . In case of Eulerian method
the velocity, acceleration, density pressure and density etc. are described at a point
in flow field. The eulerian method is commonly used in fluid mechanics.
3. Distinguish between; steady flow and Un steady flow
Steady flow is defined as that type flow in which the fluid characteristics like
velocity , pressure , density etc at a point do not change with time. Thus for steady
flow, mathematically.
v
0,
t x0 , y0 , z0
p
0
x0 , y0 , z0
Unsteady flow is that type of flow in which the velocity pressure and density
at a point changes with respect to time
v
p
0,
0
t x0 , y0 , z0
t x0 , y0 , z0
4. Distinguish between uniform Non uniform flows.
Uniform flow is defined as that type of flow in which the velocity at any given time
does not change with respect to space [i.e. Length of direction of the flow]
32
v
=0
s t=constant
v= Changes of velocity
s= length of flow in the direction s
Non-Uniform Flow:
Non-uniform flow is that type of flow in which the velocity at any given time
changes with respect to space. Thus, mathematically for non- uniform flow.
v
0
s t=constant
5. Distinguish between Laminar and Turbulent flow
Laminar flows is defined as that type of flow in which the fluid particles
move along well defined path or stream line and all the stream lines are straight
and parallel. Thus, the particles move in laminas or layers gliding smoothly over the
adjacent layer. This type of flow is called stream line flow or viscous flow.
Turbulent flow is that type of flow in which the fluid particles move in a ZigZag way. Due to the movement of fluid particles in a Zig-Zag way, the eddies
formation takes place which are responsible for high energy loss.
6. Distinguish between compressible and in compressible flow.
Compressible flow is that type of flow in which the density of the fluid
changes from point to point ie. density is not constant for the fluid. Thus
mathematically, for compressible flow.
constant
In compressible flow is that type of flow in which the density is constant for
the fluid flow. Liquids are generally incompressible. Mathematically for
compressible flow.
constant
7. Distinguish between rotational and in rotational flow
Rotational flow is that type of flow in which the fluid particles while flowing
along stream lines, also rotate about their own axis . And if the fluid particles while
33
flowing along stream Lines, do not rotate about their own axis, that type of flow is
called irrotational flow.
8. Define the equation of continuity obtain an expression for continuity equation
for three dimensional flow.
According to Law of Conservation of mass. Rate of flow at section 1-1 =rate of flow
at section 2.2
1A1V1=2A2V2
The above equation is applicable to compressible as incompressible fluids and
is called continuity equation. If the fluid is incompressible then 1 = 2 and continuity
equation reduces to.
A1V1 = A2V2
9. Explain the term local Acceleration and convective Acceleration.
Local acceleration: is designed as the rate of increase of velocity with respect
to time at a given point in a flow field.
u v w
, ,
is known as local acceleration
t t t
Convective Acceleration:
It is defined as the rate of change of velocity due to the change of position of fluid
particles in a fluid flow.
10. Type of flow line
Path line
Stream line
Streak line or filament lines
Potential lines or Equi-potential lines
Flow net
11. Explain the terms:
(i)
(ii)
Path Line
Stream Line
34
Path Line:
A path line time is defined as , the path or line traced by a single particle of
fluid during a period of time. Path line shows the direction of velocity of the same
fluid.
Stream Line:
This is an imaginary curve drawn through a flowing fluid in such a way that
the tangent of which at any point . the pattern of flow of fluid may be represented by
a series of stream Lines obtained by drawing a series of curves into the following
fluid such that the velocity vector at any point is tangential to the curves.
12. Define Equipotential line.
A line along which the velocity potential is constant, is called equipotential line.
13. Define flow net.
A grid obtained by drawing a series of equipotential lines and stream lines is
called Flow net.
14. What is the Eulers equation of motion? How will you obtain Bernoullis
equation from if equation of motion.
According to Newtons second law of motion, the net force Fx acting on a
fluid element in the direction of x is equal to mass m of the fluid element multiplied
by the acceleration ax in the x direction
Fx = M.ax
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
Fg Gravity force
Fp The pressure force
Fv Force due to viscosity
Ft force due to turbulence
Fc force due to compressibility
35
v2
2g
Datum energy = z
So,
p V2
+Z = constant
2g
36
Fg Gravity force
Fp The pressure force
Fv Force due to viscosity
Ft force due to turbulence
Fc force due to compressibility
37
The component of the total Force (FR) in the direction of motion is called drag.
It I denoted by FD.
22. Define Lift.
The component of the total force (FR) in the direction perpendicular to the
direction of motion is known as lift. It is denoted by FL.
PART - B
1. Derive the Bernoullis equation from Eulers equation.
EULERS EQUATION OF MOTION
This is equation of motion in which the forces due to gravity and pressure are
taken into consideration. This is derived by considering the motion of a fluid
element along a stream-line as:
Consider a stream-line in which flow is taking place in S-direction. Consider
a cylindrical element of cross-section dA and length dS. The forces acting on the
cylindrical element are:
Pressure force pdA in the direction of flow.
p
1. Pressure force p
ds dA opposite to the direction of flow.
s
Let is the angle between the direction of flow and the line of action of the
weight of element.
The resultant force on the fluid element in the direction of S must be equal to
the mass of fluid element acceleration in the direction S.
pdA - p +
ds dA gdAds cos
s
= pdAds as
where as is the acceleration in the direction of S.
38
..... (1)
Now as =
dv
, where v is a function of s and t.
dt
v ds v vv v
s dt t
s
t
ds
v
dt
v
0
t
vv
as
s
Substituting the value of as in equation (1) and simplifying the equation, we get
p
vv
dsdA g dAds cos = dAds
s
s
p
vv
g cos =
Dividing y dsdA,
s
s
p
vv
g cos + v
0
or
s
s
we have
cos =
dz
ds
1 p
dz vv
g
0
s
ds s
p
gdz vdv 0
or
or
p
gdz vdv 0
....(2)
dp
gdz vdv = constant
39
p
v2
gz +
constant
or
p
v2
z
cons tan t
g
2g
or
p v2
z cons tan t
g 2g
.....(3)
p
pressure energy per unit weight of fluid or pressure Head.
g
V2/2g = Kinetic energy per unit weight or kinetic Head.
z
2
.2 0.0314m2
4
p1 39.24 N/cm2
A1
= 39.24 104N/ m2
z1 6.0 m
At section 2, D2 = 0.10 m
2
A 2 0.1 .00785 m2
4
z2 4 m
p2 ?
Rate of flow,
Q 35lit / s
35
0.035 m3 / s.
1000
40
Now
Q = A1V1 = A2V2
V1
Q 0.035
1.114 m/s
A1 .0314
Q
0.035
V2
4.456 m/s
A 2 .00785
and
z1 2 2 z 2
g 2g
g 2g
4.456 4.0
p2
39.24 104 1.114
6.0
or
or
40 0.063 6.0
or
46.063
p2
1.012 4.0
9810
p2
5.012
9810
p2
46.063 5.012 41.051
9810
p2 = 41.051 9810 N/m2
41.051 9810
N/ cm2 40.27 N/cm2 .
4
10
3. Water is flowing through a pipe having diameter 300 mm and 200 mm at the
bottom and upper end respectively. The intensity of pressure at the bottom end is
24.525 N/cm2 and the pressure at the upper end is 9.81 N/cm2. Determine the
difference in datum head if the rate of flow through pipe is 40 lit/s.
Solution:
Given:
Section 1,
D1 = 300 mm = 0.3 m
p1 = 24.525 N/cm2 = 24.525 104 N/m2
Section 2, D2 = 200 mm = 0.2 m
p2 = 9.81 N/cm2 = 9.81 104 N/m2
41
Rate of flow
= 40 lit/s.
40
0.04 m3 / s.
1000
or
Now
.04
.04
0.04
0.5658 m / s.
A1 D 2 0.3 2
4 1
4
0.566 m/s.
V2
.04
.04
0.04
1.274 m/s
A 2 D 2 .2 2
4 2
4
z1 2 2 z 2
g 2g
g 2g
z1
z2
1000 9.81
2 9.81
1000 9.81 2 9.81
2
or
or
or
25 + .32 + z1 = 10 + 1.623 + z2
25.32 + z1 = 11.623+ z2
42
2
d1
4
d2, p2, v2, a2 are corresponding values at section (2).
a = area at section (1) =
and
z1 2 2 z 2
g 2g
g 2g
or
g 2g g 2g
g
2g 2g
p p2
But 1
is the difference of pressure heads at sections 1 and 2 and it is equal to h
g
p p2
or 1
=h
g
Substituting this value of
h
p1 p 2
in the above equation, we get
g
v 22 v12
2g 2g
...(1)
a2 v 2
a1
or
a2 v 2
v 2 2 a1
v 2 a 2 v 2 a 2 a 2
h
2 1 22 2 1 2 2
2g
2g
2g a1 2g a1
2
a
v 22 2gh 2 1 2
a1 a2
43
a12
a1
v 2 2gh 2
2
2
a1 a2
a1 a22
Discharge,
2gh
Q = a2v2
a2
a1
a12 a22
2gh
a1a2
a12 a22
2gh (2)
Equation (2) gives the discharge under ideal conditions and is called
theoretical discharge. Actual discharge will be less than theoretical discharge.
Qact Cd
a1a2
a12 a22
2gh
....(3)
Then
h x h 1
So
(4)
Case II. If the differential manometer contains a liquid which lighter than the liquid
flowing through the pipe, the value of h is given by
S
h x 1 h
So
where S1 = sp. gr. Of lighter liquid in U-tube
So = sp. Gr. Of fluid flowing through pipe
x = difference of the lighter liquid columns in U-tube.
.(5)
44
p
p
h 1 z1 2 z2 x h 1
g
g
So
.(6)
Case IV
Similarly, for inclined venturimeter in which differential manometer contains
a liquid which is lighter than the liquid flowing through the pipe, the value of h is
given as
S
p
p
h 1 z1 2 z2 x 1 l
. (7)
g
g
So
5. A horizontal venturimeter with inlet and throat diameters 30 cm and 15 cm
respectively is used to measure the flow of water. The reading of differential
manometer connected to the inlet and the throat is 20 cm of mercury. Determine
the rate of flow. Take Cd = 0.98.
Solution, Given:
Dia. at inlet,
Area at inlet,
Dia, at throat,
d1 = 30 cm
2
a1 d12 30 706.85 cm2
4
4
d2 = 15 cm
or
h x h 1
So
45
a1a2
a12 a22
= 0.98
2gh
706.85 176.7
706.85
176.7
2 981 252
86067593.36
684.4
499636.9 31222.9
125756
125756 cm3 / s
lit / s 125.756 lit / s.
1000
86067593.36
Dia. at throat,
d1 = 20 cm
2
a1 20 314.16 cm2
4
d2 = 10 cm
for water
1000
kg
m3
and
p1 17.658 10 4
18 m of water
g 9.81 1000
p2
30 cm of mercury
g
= -0.30 m of mercury = - 0.30 13.6 = -4.08 m of water
Differential head
p1 p2
18 4.08
g g
46
Q Cd
a1a2
a12 a22
0.98
2gh
314.16 78.54
314.16 78.74
2
2 981 2208
50328837.21
165555 cm3 / s 165.555 lit/s.
304
z1 2 2 z 2
g 2g
g 2g
p1
p2
v 22 v12
1
2
g
g
2g 2g
or
But
p1
p2
z1 z2 h Differential head
g
g
47
v 2 2 v12
h
or 2gh = v 2 2 v12
2g 2g
v 2 2gh v12
or
..(i)
Now section (2) is at the vena contracts and a2 represents the area at the vena
contracts. If a0 is the area of orifice then, we have
Cc
a2
ao
a 2 a o Cc
.(ii)
aC
a2
v2 0 c v2
a1
a1
.(iii)
or
v2
The discharge
a0 2Cc 2 v 22
a12
a 2
a0 2 2
2
2gh Cc v 2 or v 2 1 0 Cc 2 2hg
a1
a1
v2
2gh
2
a
1 0 Cc 2
a1
Q v2 a2 v2 a0Cc
a0Cc 2gh
....(iv)
a
1 0 Cc 2
a1
The above expression is simplified by using
48
a
1 0
a1
C d Cc
a
1 0 Cc 2
a1
2
a
1 0 Cc 2
a1
Cc C d
a
1 0
a1
Q a0 Cd
a
1 0 Cc 2
a1
a
1 0
a1
Cda0 2gh
a
1 0
a1
2gh
a
1 0 Cc 2
a1
Cda0a1 2gh
....(1)
a12 a0 2
d0 = 15 cm
2
15 176.7 cm2 a
4
d1 = 30 cm
ao
49
2
30 706.85 cm2
4
S0 = 0.9
a1
Area,
Sp. gr. of oil
13.6
h x g 1 50
1 cm of oil
0.9
So
50 14.11 705.5 cm of oil
Differential head,
Cd = 0.64
The rate of the flow, Q is given equation
Q Cd .
a0a1
a12 a0 2
= 0.64
2gh
176.7 706.85
706.85 176.7
2
2 981 705.5
94046317.78
137414.25 cm3 / s 137.414 Litres/s.
684.4
9. A sub-marine moves horizontally in sea and has its axis 15m below the surface
of water. A pitot-tube properly placed just in front of the sub-marine and along its
axis is connected to the two limbs of a U- tube containing mercury. The difference
of mercury level is found to be 170mm. Find the speed of the sub-marine knowing
that the sp. Gr. Of mercury is 13.6 and that of sea water is 1.026 with respect of
fresh water.
(A.M.I.E., Winter, 1975)
=
Solution. Given:
Diff. of mercury level,
Sp. Gr. Of mercury,
Sp. Gr. Of sea water,
x=170 mm=0.17m
Sg=13.6
So=1.026
50
Sg
13.6
h=x 1 0.17
1 2.0834m
S
1.026
6.393 60 60
km / hr 23.01km / hr.
1000
Area,
d=300mm=0.30m
a= d2 (.3)2 0.07068m2
4
4
Stagnation pressure
.981 10 4
.981 10 4
1m
g
1000 9.81
Velocity at centre
=C 2gh
=0.98 2 9.81 2.36 6.668m / s
Mean velocity,
= V area of pipe
=5.6678 .07068m 3 / s 0.4006m 3 / s.
51
11. A 30 cm diameter pipe, conveying water, branches into two pipes of diameters
20cm and 15cm respectively. If the average velocity in the 30cm diameter pipe is
2.5 m/s, find the discharge in this pipe. Also determine the velocity in 1.5 cm pipe
if the average velocity in 20cm diameter pipe is 2m/s.
Sol. Given:
D1=30cm=0.30m
A2 = .2 .4 0.0314m 2 ,
4
4
V2=2m/s
D3=15cm=0.15m
(1)
But
0.1767-0.0628=0.1139m3/s
Q3=.1767-0.0628=0.1139m3/s
Q3=A3 V3=.01767 V3 or .1139=.01767 V3
.1139
V3
6.44m / s.
.01767
12. Water flows through a pipe AB 1.2m diameter at 3m/s and then passes through
52
DAB=1.2m
VAB=3.0 m/s
DBC=1.5m
VCD=0.8m
VCE=2.5 m/s
AB=Q m3/s
BC=VBCm/s
CD=VCDm/s
CE= DCE
CD=Q/3
CE=Q-Q/3=
2Q
3
2
2
3.0 DAB 3.0 1.2
4
4
3
=3.393 m /s.
20. Explain Boundary Layer thickness.
Boundary Layer Thickness (): It is defined as the distance from the boundary of the
solid body measured in the y direction to the point, where the velocity of the fluid
is approximately equal to 0.99 times the free steam (U) velocity of the fluid. It is
denoted by the symbol. For laminar and turbulent zone it is denoted as:
1. lam = Thickness of laminar boundary layer,
2. tur = Thickness of turbulent boundary layer, and
3. =Thickness of laminar sub layer
Displacement Thickness (*): It is defined as the distance, measured perpendicular
to the boundary of the solid body, by which the boundary should be displaced to
compensate for the reduction in flow rate on account of boundary layer formation. It
is denoted by *. It is also defined as:
53
(i)
If there had been no plate, then the fluid would have been flowing with a
constant velocity equal to free stream velocity (U). Then mass of fluid per second
flowing through elemental strip would have been
= x Velocity x Area = x U x b x dy
(ii)
As U is more than, hence due to the presence of the plate and consequently
due to the formation of the boundary layer, there will be a reduction in mass flowing
per second through the elemental strip.
This reduction in mass / sec flowing through elemental strip
= mass / sec given by equation (ii) mass / sec given by equation (i)
= Ubdy - ubdy = b(U-u) dy
Total reduction in mass of fluid /s flowing through BC due to plate
54
b U u dy b U u dy
iii
if fluid is incompressible
Let the plate is displaced by a distance * and velocity of flow for the distance
* is equal to the free-stream velocity (i.e., U). Loss of the mass of the fluid / sec
flowing through the distance *
= x Velocity x Area
= x U x * x b
{Area = * x b}
b U u dy U * b
0
U u dy U * Or
0
U u dy
1
* U u dy
U0
U
0
* 1
0
u
dy
U
22. A plate of 600 mm length and 400 mm wide is immersed in a fluid of sp.gr. 0.9
and kinematic viscosity (v=1) 10-4 m2/s. The fluid is moving with a velocity of 6
m/s. Determine (i) boundary layer thickness, (ii) shear stress at the end of the
plate, and (iii) drag force on one side of the plate.
Solution:
As no velocity profile is given in the above problem, hence Blasiuss solution
will be used.
Given: Length of plate,
Width of plate,
Sp.gr.of fluid,
Density,
Velocity of fluid,
Kinematic viscosity,
L = 600 mm = 0.60 m
b = 400 mm = 0.40 m
S = 0.9
= 0.9 x 1000 = 900 kg / m3
U = 6 m/s
v = 10-4 m2/s
55
ReL
Reynold number
U L 6 0.6
3.6 104
v
104
As ReL is less than 5 x 105, hence boundary layer is laminar over the entire
length of the plate.
(i) Thickness of boundary layer at the end of the plate from Blasiuss solutions is
4.91x
,
Rex
4.91 0.6
3.6 10 4
56.6 N / m2
4
ReL
3.6 10
(iii) Drag force (FD) on one side of the plate is given by
FD
1
AU 2 CD
2
0.00699
ReL
3.6 10 4
FD
1
AU 2 CD
2
1
900 0.6 0.4 6 2 .00699
2
26.78 N
23. A flat plate 1.5m x 1.5m moves at 50 km/hour in stationary air of density 1.15
kg/m3. if the co-efficient of drag and life are 0.15 and 0.75 respectively,
determine:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
56
Solution :
Given
U = 50 km/hr =
Density of air
Co-efficient of drag
Co-efficient of lift
= 1.15 kg/m3
CD = 0.15
CL = 0.75
i)
ii)
U 2
2
0.75 2.25
1.15 13.892
N=187.20N Ans.
2
iii)
50 1000
m / s = 13.89m/s
60 60
U 2
2
0.15 2.25
1.15 13.892
N=37.44N Ans.
2
iv)
FD U 37.425 13.89
24. A man weighting 90 kgf descends to the ground from an aeroplane with the
help of a parachute against the resistance of air. The velocity with which the
parachute, which is hemispherical in shape, comes down is 20 m/s. finds the
diameter of the parachute. Assume CD = 0.5 and density of air =1.25 kg/m3.
Solution, Given:
Weight of man
Velocity of parachute
Co-efficient of drag
Density of air
Let the dia, of parachute
Area
D2m2
57
When the parachute with the man comes down with a uniform velocity, U=20
m/s, the drag resistance will be equal to the weight of man, neglecting the weight
parachute. And projected are of the hemispherical parachute will be equal to
Drag,
d2.
FD CD A
U 2
882.9=0.5
D2
D4
1.25 202
2
882.9 4 2.0
8.9946 m2
0.5 1.25 20 20
25. A kite 0.8 m x 0.8 m weighing 0.4 kgf (3.924 N) assumes an angle, of 12 to the
horizontal. The string attached to the kite makes an angle of 45 to the horizontal.
The pull on the string is 2.5 kgf (24.525 N) when the wind is flowing at a speed of
30 km/hour. Find the corresponding co-efficient of drag and lift. Density of air is
given as 1.25 kg/m3
Solution,
Given:
Speed of wind,
U = 30 km/hr =
Density of air,
Drag force,
of motion
= 1.25 kg/m3
FD = Force exerted by wind in the direction
30 1000
m / s = 8.333 m/s
60 60
58
U 2
2
2 FD
2 17.34
0.624. Ans.
2
A U
0.64 1.25 8.3332
U 2
2
2 FL
2 21.264
0.765. Ans.
2
A U
0.64 1.25 8.333 2
26. A jet plane which weights 29.43 kN and having a wing area of 20m 3 flies at a
velocity of 950 km/hour, when the entire delivers 7357.5 kW power. 656% of the
power is used to overcome the drag resistance of the wing. Calculate the coefficients of lift and drag for the wing. The density of the atmospheric air is 1.21
kg/m3.
Solution, given :
Weight of plane,
Wing area,
Speed of plane
U = 950 km/hr =
Engine power,
Power used to overcome drag
P = 7357.5 kW
Resistance
= 65% of 7357.5 =
Density of air,
= 1.21 kg/m3
59
950 1000
263.88 m / s
60 60
65
7357.5 4782.375 kW
100
Let
Now power used in kW to
over come drag resistance
FD U
F 263.88
or 4782.375= D
1000
1000
FD
4782.375 1000
263.88
FD CD .A.
U 2
2
4782.375 1000
263.88 2
CD 20 1.21
263.88
2
CD
4782.375 1000 2
0.0215. Ans.
20 1.21 263.883
But
CL
U 2
2
FL = W = 29430 N
or 29430 = CL 20 1.21
29430 2
0.0349. Ans.
20 1.21 263.882
60
263.882
2
UNIT III
Viscous flow
Navier - Stokes equation (Statement only)
Shear stress, pressure gradient relationship
Laminar flow between parallel plates
Laminar flow through circular tubes (Hagen poiseulles)
Hydraulic and energy gradient
Flow through pipes
Darcy -weisbacks equation
Pipe roughness
Friction factorMinor losses
Flow through pipes in series and in parallel
Power transmission.
61
PART - A
1. What do you understand by the terms major energy loss and minor energy
losses in pipes?
The loss energy in pipe is classified as major energy loss and minor energy
lossed. Major energy loss is due to friction while minor energy losses are due to
sudden expansion of pipe, sudden contraction of pipe, bend in pipe and an
obstruction in pipe.
2. How will you determine the loss of head due to friction in pipes by using (i)
Darcy formula and (ii) chezys formula?
4fLV 2
Energy loss due to friction is given by darcy formula, hfhf =
2gd
The head loss due to friction in pipe can also be calculated by Chezys
formula V = c mi
Where,
C = chezys constant
m = hydraulic mean depth = d/4
V = velocity of flow
h
i f loss of head per unit length
L
3. Derive an expression for the loss of due to
(i) Sudden enlargement (ii) Sudden contraction of a pipe
(V - V2 ) 2
(i) Loss of head due to sudden expansion of pipe, hc = 1
2g
V1 = velocity in small pipe
V2 = velocity in large pipe
(ii) Loss of head due to sudden contraction of pipe,
1 -1
hc =
Cc
V22
2g
Ce = Coefficient of contraction
V2
= 0.375 2 [for Cc = 0.62]
2g
62
V22
= 0.5
[if value of Cc is not given]
2g
6. What is compound pipe? What will be loss of head when pipes are connected in
series?
When pipes of different lengths and different diameter are connected end to
end, (in series) it is called as compound pipe. The rate of flow through each pipe
connected is series is same.
7. Explain the terms (i) pipes in parallel (ii) equivalent pipe (iii) Equivalent size of
the pipe?
(i) Pipes in parallel:
When the pipes are connected in parallel, the loss of head in each pipe is
63
same. The rate of flow in main pipe is equal to sum of the rate of flow in each pipe,
connected in parallel.
(ii) Equivalent size of the pipe:
The diameter of equivalent pipe is called equivalent size of the pipe.
The equivalent size of the pipe is obtained from
L L1 L 2 L3
d 5 d15 d 52 d 53
L = Equivalent length of pipe = L1 + L2+L3 and d1, d2, d3 = are diameters of pipe
connected in series.
Equivalent size of the pipes = d
(iii) Equivalent pipe:
A single pipe of uniform diameter, having same discharge and same loss of
head as compound pipe consisting of several pipes of different lengths and
diameters is known as equivalent pipe
8. Explain the phenomenon of Water hammer?
When a liquid is flowing through a long pipe fitted with a valve at the end of
the pipe and the valve is closed suddenly a pressure wave of high intensity is
produced behind the valve. This pressure wave of high intensity is transmitted
along the pipe with sonic velocity. This pressure wave of high intensity is having
the effect of hammering action on the walls of the pipe. The phenomenon is known
as water hammer
9. Find the expression for the power transmission through pipe. What is the
condition for maximum transmission of power and corresponding efficiency of
transmission?
Let H = total head available at inlet of pipe
hf = Loss of head due to friction
64
H - hf
H
65
H
and maximum
3
PART B
1. Explain the flow of viscous fluid through circular pipe and derive Hagen
Poiseuilles.
FLOW OF VISCOUS FLUID THROUGH CIRCULAR PIPE
For the flow of viscous fluid through circular pipe, the velocity distribution
across a section, the ratio of maximum velocity to average velocity, the shear stress
distribution and drop of pressure for a given length is to be determined. The flow
through the circular pipe will be viscous or laminar, if the Reynolds number (R e*) is
less than 2000. The expression for Reynold number is given by
Re
where
VD
Consider a horizontal pipe of radius R. The viscous fluid is flowing from left
to right in the pipe. Consider a fluid element of radius r, sliding in a cylindrical fluid
element of radius (r + dr). Let the length of fluid element be x. If p is the intensity
of pressure on the face AB, then the intensity of pressure on face CD will be
p
or
p 2
pr 2 p
x r 2r x 0
x
p
xr 2 2r x 0
x
66
or
p
.r 2 0
x
p r
x 2
....(1)
p
across a section is
x
constant. Hence shear stress distribution across a section is linear.
The shear stress across a section varies with r as
(i) Velocity Distribution. To obtain the velocity distribution across a section, the
du
y is substituted in equation (1).
value of shear stress
dy
du
y , is measured from the pipe wall. Hence
dy
y = R r and dy = -dr
du
du
dr
dr
du
p r
du 1 p
or
r
dr
x 2
dr 2 x
1 p 2
r C
4 x
.(2)
where C is the constant of integration and its value is obtained from the boundary
condition that at r = R, u = O.
1 p 2
R C
4 x
1 p 2
C
R
4 x
67
1 p 2 1 p 2
r
R
4 x
4 x
1 p 2 2
R r
=4 x
....(3)
p
and R are constant, which means the velocity,
x
u varies with the square of r. Thus equation (3) is a equation of parabola. This shows
that the velocity distribution across the section of a pipe is parabolic. This velocity
distribution is shown in figure (b).
In equation (3), values of ,
Umax
1 p 2
R
4 x
.(4)
4 x
Q dQ
1 p 2 2
R r 2r dr
4 x
68
R
1 p
2 R 2 r 2 rdr
0
4 x
R
1 p
2 R 2r r 3 dr
0
4 x
R 2r 2 r 4
R4 R4
1 p
1 p
x
4 x
2
4
4
2
4
1 p
R4
p 4
4 x
4 8 x
Average velocity,
or
p 4
R
Q
8 x
u
Area
R2
p 2
u
R
8 x
2.0
1 p 2
u
R
8 x
1 p 2
R
8 x
-p 8u
or
2
x R
69
...(5)
8u
dx
R2
8u
8u
- p1 p2 2 x1 x 2 or p1 p2 2 x 2 x1
R
R
8u
2 L x 2 x1 L from figure
R
1
dp
or
8uL
D / 2
R=
32uL
, where p1 p2 is the drop of pressure.
D2
p p2
Loss of pressure head 1
g
p1 p2
p1 p2
32uL
hf
g
gD2
....(6)
Sol. Given:
0.97 poise =
Relative Density
0, or Density
Dia. Of pipe,
= 0.9
= 0.9 1000 900kg / m3
D = 100 mm = 0.1 m
L = 10 m
M = 100 kg
t = 30 seconds
kg / s
30
p1 p2
70
where u averagevelocity
Q
Area
0 Q 900 Q
0 900
100
900 Q
30
100
1
Q
0.0037 m3 / s.
30 900
Q
.0037 .0037
u
0.471 m/s.
2
2
Area
D
.1
4
4
For laminar or viscous flow, the Reynolds number (Re) is less than 2000. Let us
calculate the Reynolds number for this problem.
Re
Reynolds number,
VD
where 0 900,
0.097
As Reynolds number is less than 2000, the flow is laminar.
32uL 32 0.097 .471 10
p1 p2
N/ m2
2
D2
.1
0.7
Ns
m2
dp
dx
Average velocity, u
Reynold number, Re
Pressure gradient,
71
dp
dx
The maximum shear stress (0) is given by
(i) Pressure gradient,
p R
p D
p 0.1
or 196.2 = -
x 2
x 4
x 4
p
196.2 4
Pressure Gradient
= -7848N/m2 per m.
1
1 1 p 2
u Umax
R
2
2 4 x
1 p 2
R
8 x
1
2
7848 .05
8 0.7
Umax
1 p 2
R
8 x
D 1
.05
2 2
R=
3.50 m/s.
v
/
3.50 0.1
= 1300
650.00.
0.7
Re
4. Calculate: (a) the pressure gradient along flow, (b) the average velocity, and (c)
the discharge for an oil of viscosity 0.02 Ns/m2 flowing between two stationary
parallel plates 1 m wide maintained 10 mm apart. The velocity midway between
the plates is 2 m/s.
(Delhi University, 1982)
Sol. Given:
.02 Ns/m2
Viscosity,
Width,
b=1m
Distance between plates, t = 10 mm = .01 m
Velocity midway between the plates, Umax = 2 m/s.
72
dp
(i) Pressure gradient
dx
1 dp 2
1 dp
2
t or 2.0 = .01
8 dx
8 .02 dx
dp
2.0 8 .02
Umax
Umax 3
2
u
2 Umax 2 2
u
1.33 m/s.
3
3
Using equation
and
73
p1 V12
p2 V2 2
z1
z 2 hf
g 2g
g 2g
or
But
z1 = z2 pipe is horizontal
V1 = V2 as dia. Of pipe is same at 1-1 and 2-2
p1 p2
hf
g g
or hf
p1 p2
g g
....(i)
But hf is the head lost due to friction and hence intensity of pressure will be
reduced in the direction of flow by frictional resistance.
Now frictional resistance = frictional resistance per unit wetted area per unit
velocity wetted area velocity2
or
F1 = f dL V2
= f P L V2
The forces acting on the fluid between section 1-1 and 2-2 are:
1. Pressure force at section 1-1 = p1 A
where A = Area of pipe
2. Pressure force at section 2-2 = p2 A
3. Frictional force F1 as shown in figure.
Resolving all forces in the horizontal direction, we have
p1A p2A F1 = 0
(1)
or
p1 p2 A F1 f ' P L V2
or
p1 p2
f ' P L V 2
A
p1 p2 = ghf
ghf
f ' P L V 2
A
74
hf
or
In equation (iii),
f' P
L V2
g A
...(iii)
P Wetted perimeter
d
4
2 d
A
Area
d
4
f' 4
f ' 4LV 2
L V2
g d
g
d
hf
Putting
f'
f
,
g 2
...(iv)
4.f LV 2 4f. L. V 2
.
2g
d
d 2g
...(2)
f. L. V 2
d 2g
.(2A)
L = 2000 m
Q = 200 litre/s = 0.2 m3/s
hf = 4 m
C = 50
=d
Velocity of flow,
V=
Discharge
Q
0.2 0.2 4
2 2
Area
d2
d
d
4
4
d
m=
4
75
hf
4
.002
L 2000
d
0.2 4
.00509
.002 2
4
d 50
d2
d
.005092 .0000259
4 .0000259
.002
or d5
0.0518
4
4
4
d
d
.002
d 5 0.0518 .0518
1/ 5
7. An oil of sp.gr. 0.7 is flowing through a pipe of diameter 300 mm at the rate of
500 litres/s. Find the head lost due to friction and power required to maintain the
flow for a length of 1000 m. Take v = .29 stokes.
Sol. Given :
Sp.gr. of oil,
Dia. of pipe,
Discharge,
Length of pipe,
Velocity,
Reynolds number,
Co-efficient of friction,
S = 0.7
d = 300 mm = 0.3 m
Q = 500 litres/s = 0.5 m3/s.
L = 1000 m
Q
0.5
0.5 4
V
7.073 m/s
Area d2 0.32
4
V d 7.073 0.3
4
Re
7.316 10
4
v
0.29 10
f
.079
Re
1
4
76
0.79
7.316 104
1
4
.0048
163.18 m
d 2g
0.3 2 9.81
Power required
g.Qhf
kW
1000
Power required
8. Find the loss of head when a pipe of diameter 200 mm is suddenly enlarged to a
diameter of 400 mm. The rate of flow of water through the pipe is 250 litres/s.
Sol. Given:
Dia. of smaller pipe,
Area,
Dia. of large pipe,
Area,
Discharge,
Velocity,
Velocity,
D1 = 200 mm = 0.20 m
2
A1 D12 .2 0.03141 m2
4
4
D2 = 400 mm = 0.4 m
2
A 2 0.4 0.12564 m2
4
Q = 250 litres/s = 0.25 m3/s
Q
0.25
V1
7.96 m / s
A1 .03141
Q
0.25
V2
1.99 m / s
A1 .12564
he
V V2
1
2g
7.96 1.99
2g
1.816 m of water.
77
D1 = 240 mm = 0.24 m
2
A1 D12 .24
4
4
D2 = 480 mm = 0.48 m
2
A 2 .48
4
Area,
Dia. of large pipe,
Area,
p2 p1
10
1
m
z2 z1 10mm
g g
1000 100
he
V V2
1
2g
From continuity equation, we have A1V1 = A2V2
2
2
A 2 V2 4 D2 V2 D2
.48
V1
V2
V2 2V22 4V2
A1
.24
D1
D12
4
he
4V2 V2
2g
3V2
2g
9V22
2g
p1 4V2
p
V2
9V 2
z1 2 2 z2 2
g
2g
g 2g
2g
2
78
...(i)
z2 1 z1
2g
2g
2g g
g
or
p
p
1
But hydraulic gradient rise = 2 z2 1 z1
g
g
100
16V2 2 V2 2 9V2 2
6V2 2
1
1
or
2g
2g
2g
100
2g
100
2 9.81
0.1808 0.181 m/s
6 100
V2
Discharge,
Q = A2 V2
2
D22 V1 .48 .181 0.03275 m3 / s.
4
4
= 32.75 litres/s.
D1 = 500 mm = 0.5 m
Area,
A1
2
0.5 0.1963m2
4
D2 = 250 mm = 0.25 m
Area,
A2
2
.25 0.04908m2
4
Pressure in large pipe,
p1 = 13.734 N/cm2 = 13.734 x 104 N/m2
Pressure in smaller pipe, p2 = 11.772 N/cm2 = 11.772 x 104 N/m2
Cc = 0.62
Head lost due to contraction
79
2
2
1
V22 1
0.375 V2
1.0
1.0
2 g 0.62
2g
Cc
V2
2
2g
2
2
D 2 V2
A2 V2 4 2
D2
0.25 V V2
2
V1
2
A1
4
0.50
D1
D1
4
Applying Bernoullis equation before and after contraction,
p1 V12
p
V2
z 2 2 z2 hc
g 2g
g 2g
But
z1 = z2
(pipe is horizontal)
p1 V12
p
V2
2 2 hc
g 2g g 2g
hc 0.375
But
V22
V
and V1 2
2g
4
0.375 2
9.81 1000
2g
1000 9.81 2 g
2g
V22
V2
14.0
12.0 1.375 2
16 2 g
2g
2
2
V
1 V2
V2
14 12 1.375 2
1.3125 2
2 g 16 2 g
2g
2
or
or
V22
2.0 2 9.81
or V2
5.467 m / s.
2g
1.3125
(i) Loss of head due to contraction,
2
V22 0.375 5.467
hc 0.375
0.571m.
2g
2 9.81
(ii) Rate of flow of water, Q = A2V2 = 0.04908 x 5.467 = 0.2683 m3/s = 268.3 lit/s.
or
2.0 1.3125
80
Dia, of pipe,
Velocity,
D = 200 mm = 0.20 m
V = 30. m/s
Area of pipe,
D2
2
0.2 0.03141m2
Dia. of obstruction
4
d = 150 mm = 0.15 m
Area of obstruction,
2
.15 0.01767 m2
4
Cc = 0.62
The head lost due to obstruction is given by equation (11.10) as
V 2 2g
A
10
Cc A a
3 3
.03141
1.0
9
3.687 1.0 2 3.311m.
2 9.81
12. A horizontal pipe line 40 m long is connected to a water tank at one end and
discharges freely into the atmosphere at the other end. For the first 25 m of its
length from the tank, the pipe is 150 mm diameter and its diameter is suddenly
enlarged to 300 mm. The height of water level in the tank is 8 m above the centre
of the pipe. Considering all losses of head which occur, determine the rate of
flow. Take f = .01 for both sections of the pipe. (Osmania University, 1992;
A.M.I.E., Summer, 1978)
Solution:
Given:
Total length of pipe,
Length of 1st pipe,
Dia. of 1st pipe,
Length of 2nd pipe,
Dia. of 2nd pipe,
Height of water,
Co-efficient of friction,
L = 40 m
L1 = 25 m
d1 = 150 mm = 0.15 m
L2 = 40 25 = 15 m
d2 = 300 mm = 0.3 m
H=8m
f = 0.01
81
Applying Bernoullis theorem to the free surface of water in the tank and
outlet of pipe as shown in Fig. and taking reference line passing through the centre
of pipe.
p2 V22
008
0 all losses
g 2g
8.0 0
or
where
V22
hi h f 1 he h f 2
2g
...... i
V 12
2g
4 f L1 V12
hf1 = head lost due to friction in pipe 1
d1 2 g
he = loss head due to sudden enlargement
V1 V2
2g
4 f l2 V22
hf2 = Head lost due to friction in pipe 2
d2 2 g
But from continuity equation, we have A1V1=A2V2
2
d 2 V2 2
A2 V2 4 2
d2
0.3
V1
V2
V2 4 V2
2
A1
.15
d1
d1
4
82
2
2g
2g
2g
2
hf 1
4 0.01 25 4V22
0.15 2 g
4 .01 25 16 V22
V2
106.67 2
0.15
2g
2g
he
V1 V2
hf 2
2g
4 V2 V2
2g
9V22
2g
2.0 2
0. 2 g
0.3
2g
2g
8.0
V2
V22 8V22
V 2 9V 2
V2
106.67 2 2 2 2
2g 2g
2g 2g
2g
V22
V2
1 8 106.67 9 2 126.67 2
2g
2
8.0 2 g
8.0 2 9.81
1.2391 1.113m / s
126.67
126.67
Rate of flow,
Q A2 V2
2
0.3 1.113 0.07867 m3 / s 78.67 litres / s.
13. The difference in water surface levels in two tanks, which are connected by
three pipes in series of lengths 300m, 170m and 210m and of diameters 300mm,
200mm and 400 mm respectively, is 12m. Determine the rate of flow of water if coefficient of friction are. 005,0052 and .0048 respectively, considering: (i) minor
losses also (ii) neglecting minor losses.
(Delhi University, 1987).
Sol. Given:
83
H=12m
L1=300m and dia., d1 = 300 mm = 0.3 m
L2=170m and dia., d2 = 200 mm = 0.2 m
L3=210m and dia., d3 = 400 mm = 0.4 m
Also,
(i) Considering Minor Losses, Let V1, V2 and V3 are the velocities in the 1st, 2nd and
3rd pipe respectively.
From continuity, we have A1V1=A2V2=A3V3
2
2
d
A1V1 4 1
d2
0.3
V2
V1 12 V1
V1 2.25V1
2
A2
d
.2
2
d2
4
and
A V d2
0.3
V3 1 1 12 V1
V1 0.5625V1
A3
d3
0.4
2g
d1 2g
2g
d2 2g
2g
d 3 2g 2g
2
2g
0.3 2g
2g
+4 .0052 170
2.25V1
0.2 2g
2.25V1 .562V1
2g
0.4 2g
2g
2
or
V12
12.0=
0.5 20.0 2.53 89.505 2.847 3.189 0.316
2g
84
V12
118.887
2g
V1
Rate of flow,
12 2 9.81
1.407 m/s
118.887
Q=Area velocity=A1 V1
2
d1 V1 .3 2 1.407 0.09945 m 3 / s
4
4
= 99.45 lires/s.
=
d1 2g d 2 2g
d 3 2g
or
2
2
V12 4 .005 300 4 .0052 170 2.25 4 .0048 210 .5625
2g
0.3
0.2
0.4
12.0=
V12
V12
20.0
89.505
3.189
112.694
2g
2g
V1
2 9.81 12.0
1.445m / s
112.694
2
Discharge, Q=V1 A1 1.445 .3 0.1021 m 3 / s 102.1litres / s.
4
14. Three pipes of 400mm, 200mm and 300mm diameters have lengths of 400m,
200m and 300m respectively. They are connected in series to make a compound
pipe. The ends of this compound pipe are connected with tanks whose difference
of water levels is 16m. If co-efficient of friction for these pipes is same and equal
to 0.005, determine the discharge through the compound pipe neglecting first the
minor losses and then including them.
Sol. Given:
Difference of water levels,
Length and dia. of pipe 1,
Length and dia. of pipe 2,
Length and dia. of pipe 3,
H=16m
L1=400m and d1 = 400 mm = 0.4m
L2=200m and d2 = 200 mm = 0.2m
L3=400m and d3 = 300 mm = 0.3m
Also,
f1=f2=f3 = 0.005
85
(i) Discharge through the compound pipe first neglecting minor losses.
Let V1, V2 and V3 are the velocities in the 1st, 2nd and 3rd pipe respectively.
From continuity, we have A1V1=A2V2=A3V3
2
2
d
A1V1 4 1
d12
0.4
V2
V
V
V1 4V1
2 1 d 22 1 0.2
A2
d2
4
and
2
2
d
A1V1 4 1
d12
0.4
V3
V1 2 V1
V1 1.77V1
2
A3
d3
0.2
d3
4
d1 2g d 2 2g
d 3 2g
1.77V1
0.4 2 9.81
0.2 2 9.81
0.3 2 9.81
2
or
=
2 9.81
0.4
0.2
0.3
16=
V1
V12
V12
20
320
63.14
403.14
2 9.81
2 9.81
16 2 9.81
0.882m / s
403.14
2
Discharge, Q=A1 V1 0.4 0.882 0.1108 m 3 / s.
4
(ii) Discharge through the compound pipe considering minor losses also.
Minor losses are:
(a) At inlet,
hi
0.5V12
2g
86
2g
2g
V2 4V1
0.5 16 V12
V2
8 1
2g
2g
(c) Between 2nd pipe and 3rd pipe, due to sudden enlargement,
he
V V3
2
2g
= 2.23
2
4V1 1.77V1
2g
V3 1.77 V1
V12
V2
4.973 1
2g
2g
V 2 1.77V1
V2
V2
1.77 2 1 3.1329 1
(d) At the outlet of 3 pipe, ho 3
2g
2g
2g
2g
2
rd
d1 2g
d 2 2g
2g
0.4 2 9.81
0.2 2 9.81
0.3 2 9.81
2
V12
2 9.81
Sum of minor losses and major losses
=403.14
0.5V12
V12
V12
V12
V12
V12
8
4.973
3.1329 403.14
419.746
2g
2g
2g
2g
2g
2g
87
V12
419.746
16
2g
V1
16 2 9.81
0.864m / s
419.746
Discharge, Q=A1V1
15. Three pipes of lengths 800m, 500m and 400m and of diameters 500mm,400mm
and 300mm respectively are connected in series. These pipes are to be replaced by
a single pipe of length 1700m. Find the diameter of the single pipe.
Sol. Given:
Length of pipe 1,
Length of pipe 2,
Length of pipe 3,
Applying equation,
L L1 L 2 L 3
or
d5
d= .007188
1700
.007118
239037
0.2
0.3718 371.8
16. A main pipe divides into two parallel pipes which again forms one pipe as
shown in fig. The length and diameter for the first parallel pipe are 2000 m and
1.0m respectively, while the length and diameter of 2nd parallel pipe are 2000m
and 0.8m. Find the rate of flow each parallel pipe, if total flow in the main is 3.0
m3/s. The co-efficient of friction for each parallel pipe is same and equal to .005.
88
Sol. Given:
Length of pipe 1,
Dia. of pipe 1,
Length of pipe 2,
Dia. of pipe 2,
Total flow,
L1=2000 m
d1=1.0 m
L2=2000m
d2=0.8m
Q=3.0m3/s
Let
From equation,
Using equation, we have
f1=f2=f=.005
Q1=discharge in pipe 1
Q2=discharge in pipe 2
Q=Q1+Q3=3.0
d1 2g
d 2 2g
1.0 2 9.81
0.8 2 9.81
or
V12 V22
V2
or V12 2
1.0 0.8
0.8
V1
V2
V
2 .......(ii)
0.8 .894
Q1
Now
V
d1 V1 (1)2 2
4
4
.894
V1
V2
.894
d2 V2 (.8)2 V2 .64 V2
4
4
4
Substituting the value of Q1 and Q2 in equation (i), we get
Q2
and
V2
89
3.0
2.17m / s
1.3811
V1
V2
2.17
2.427 m/s
.894 0.894
2
d1 V1 12 2.427 1.906m 3 / s.
4
4
Hence
Q1
17. A pipe line of 0.6 m diameter is 1.5 km long. To increase the discharge, another
line of the same diameter is introduced parallel to the first in the second half of
the length. Neglecting minor losses, find the increase in discharge if 4f=0.04. The
head at inlet is 300mm.
(A.M.I.E., December, 1975)
Sol. Given:
Dia. of pipe line,
Length of pipe line,
D=0.6m
L=1.5 km=1.5 1000 = 1500 m
4f=0.04 or f=.01
Head at inlet,
h=300mm=0.3m
Head at outlet,
= atmospheric head =0
Head lost,
hf=0.3m
1500
Length of another parallel pipe, L1
750m
2
Dia. of another parallel pipe,
d1=0.6m
Fig shows the arrangement of pipe system.
Ist Case. Discharge for a single pipe of length 1500m and dia. =0.6m.
4fLV * 2
This head lost due to friction in single pipe is h f
d 2g
where V* = velocity of flow for single pipe
or
0.3=
V*
4 .01 1500 V* 2
0.6 2g
2
.6 0.0685m 3 / s....(i)
4
2nd Case. When an addition pipe of length 750m and diameter 0.6 m is connected in
90
Q=Q2=Q/2
4 f 750 V 2
where V= velocity of flow
0.6 2 9.81
through AB
Q
Q
40
4 0.1 750 4Q
2
31.87 Q
0.6 2 9.81 .36
2
d1 2g
4 0.1 750
Q
0.6 2 9.81 2 .6 2
Disch arg e
V1
2
2
2 .6
.6
4
4
4 0.1 750
16
Q2 7.969 Q2
2
2
0.6 2 9.81 4 .36
91
18. Two sharp ended pipes of diameters 50 mm and 100 mm respectively, each of
length 100 m are connected in parallel between two reservoirs which have a
difference of level of 10 m. If the co-efficient of friction for each pipe is (4f) 0.32,
calculate the rate of flow for each pipe and also the diameter of a single pipe 100
m long which would give the same discharge, if it were substituted for the
original two pipes. (A.M.I.E., Winter 1982, Summer 1987)
Solution:
Given:
Dia. of 1st pipe,
Length of 1st pipe,
Dia. of 2nd pipe,
Length of 2nd pipe,
Difference in level in reservoirs,
Co-efficient of friction,
Let
d1 = 50 mm = 0.05 m
L1 = 100 m
d2 =100 mm = 0.10 m
L2 = 100 m
H = 10 m
4f = 0.32
When the pipes are connected in parallel, the loss of head will be same in both
the pipes. For the first pipe, loss of head is given as
92
d1 2 g
0.05 2 9.81
4f=.32
10 32.619V12
or
V1
10
0.5535m / s
32.619
.5536
d1
10 H
V2
d2 2 g
0.10 2 9.81
10 .10 2 9.81
0.783 m / s
.32 100
Let
d22 V2
2
.1 .783 .00615m3 / s 6.15 litres / s.
Q
.007237 4 .007237 .009214
m/ s
2
Area
D2
D2
D
4
93
4 f LV
D2
D 2g
D 2 9.81
or
10.0
or
D5
2 9.81 D 5
D5
.0001384
.00001384
10
D .00001384
1/ 5
19. A pipe of diameter 300 mm and length 3500 m is used for the transmission of
power by water. The total head at the inlet of the pipe is 500 m. Find the
maximum power available at the outlet of the pipe, if the value of f = .006.
Solution:
Given:
Diameter of the pipe,
Length of the pipe,
Total head at inlet,
Co efficient of friction
d = 300 mm = 0.30 m
L = 3500 m
H = 500 m
f = 0.006
hf
Now
H 500
1.667 m
3
3
4 f L V 2 4 .006 3500 V 2
hf
14.27V 2
d 2g
0.3 2 9.81
94
166.7
3.417 m / s
14.27
Discharge,
Q = V x Area
3.417
2
d 3.417 .3 0.2415m3 / s
4
H hf H
H 2 H 2 500
333.33m
3
3
3
kW
UNIT - IV
Dimensional analysis
Buckinghams p theorem
Applications
95
Quantity
Unit
DIMENSIONS
96
1.
2.
3.
4.
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
Geometric
Length
Area
Volume
Slope
Kinematic
Time
Velocity
(linear)
Velocity
(angular)
Acceleration
(linear)
Acceleration
(angular)
Discharge
Gravitationa
l
acceleration
Kinematic
velocity
Dynamic
Mass
Force
Weight
Mass density
Specific
weight
Dynamic
viscosity
Surface
tension
Elastic
modulus
Pressure
Shear
intensity
Work, energy
generally
adopted
MLT SYSTEM
FLT SYSTEM
M
M2
M3
L
L2
L3
L
L2
L3
Sec
M/sec
T
LT-1
T
LT-1
Rad / sec2
T-1
T-1
M/sec
LT-2
LT-2
Rad /sec2
T2
T2
Cum /sec
M/sec2
L3 T-1
LT-2
L3T-1
LT-2
M/sec2
L2 T-1
L2T-1
Kg
Newton
Newton
Kg /cum
Newton/cu
m
Newton
/cum
Newton/m
M
MLT-2
MLT-2
ML-3
ML-2T2
FL-1 T2
F
F
FL-4T2
FL-3
ML-1T-1
FL-3T
MT-2
FL-1
Newton/m2
ML-1T2
FL-2
Newton/m2
Newton/m2
ML-1T2
ML-1T2
FL-2
FL-2
Newton m
ML2T2
FL
97
24
25
26
Impulse
momentum
Torque
Power
Newton sec
MLT-1
FT
Newton m
Newton /sec
ML2T-2
ML2T3
FL
FLT-1
98
99
Reynolds numbers
Froudes number
Eulers number
Webers number
Machs number
9. What are the different laws on which models are designed for dynamic
similarity?
Model laws or laws of similarity are the laws on which the models are
designed for dynamic similarity. Models are designed on the basis of ratio of the
force, which is dominating in the phenomenon.
100
10. Explain the terms: distorted models and undistorted models. What is the use
of distorted models?
Undistorted Models: Undistorted models are those models which are geometrically
similar to their prototypes or in other words the scale ratio for the linear dimensions
of the model and its prototype is same. The behaviour of the prototype can be easily
predicted from the results of undistorted model.
Distorted Model:
A model is said to be distorted if it is not geometrically similar to its
prototyped model. Different scale ratios for the linear dimensions are adopted. For
example, incase to rivers, harbours, reservoirs etc. two different scale ratios, one for
horizontal dimensions and other for vertical dimensions are taken. Thus the models
of revivers, harbors and reservoirs will become distorted models.
The followings are the advantages of distorted models.
1. The vertical dimensions of the model can be measured accurately.
2. The cost of the model can be reduced.
3. Turbulent flow in the model can be maintained.
11. What do you mean by model analysis?
Model analysis is the means of asserting and eliminating certain undesirable
conditions through model experiments and research that results in improvements in
the existing works. Safe and economic design and construction of new works and
knowledge on many aspects of hydraulic engineering can be achieved.
Model analysis are made for two purposes:
101
(a) to obtain information about the likely performance of the prototype, and
(b) to help in the design and to avoid costly mistakes
13. Models are the only resources to the nearest approach to the solution of some
hydraulic problems. Justify this statement?
In a model, there is ample scope to try several alternatives designs before
adopting a final one. These trails cost less. A model study provides not only
qualitative but also quantitative indication of the characteristics of the prototype. A
hydraulic model offers itself as a powerful design tool which establishes a valid
system from the observations on which the performance of the prototype could be
inferred. Models are very useful in studying the relative merits of alternative designs
Hence the statement Models are the only resource to the nearest approach to
the solution of some hydraulic problems is justified.
14. What are the various fields where models have great application?
The following are some examples where model studies have been of great value.
1. Dams: The design of every dam and all its connected works like spillways,
penstocks and gates are studied in order to get detailed information on the
flow of water and its effect on the structure. A model study can be helpful in
deciding locality and site of the dam.
102
103
i)
ii)
iii)
Due to unequal horizontal and vertical scales the pressure and velocity
distribution are not truly reproduced in the model.
The wave pattern in the model will be different from that in the prototype
due to depth distortion.
Slopes, bends and earth cuts are not truly reproduced.
104
It is equal to the product of shear stress () due to viscosity and surface area of
the flow. It is present in fluid flow problems where viscosity is having an important
role to play.
3. Gravity Force (Fg) :
It is equal to the product of mass and acceleration due to gravity of the flowing
fluid. It is present in case of open surface flow.
4. Pressure Force (Fp) :
It is equal to the product of pressure intensity and cross sectional area of the
flowing fluid. It is present in case pipe flow.
5. Surface Tension Force(Fs) :
It is equal to the product of surface tension and length of surface of the flowing fluid.
6. Elastic Force (Fe) :
It is equal to the product of elastic stress and area of the flowing fluid.
For a flowing fluid, the above mentioned forces may not always be present.
And also the forces, which are present in a fluid flow problem, are not of equal
magnitude. There are always one or two forces which dominate the other forces.
These dominating forces govern the flow of fluid.
105
When two different turbines are to be compared, it can be done by reducing their
data to specific quantities.
21. Define the terms: Hydraulic machines, Turbines and pumps?
Hydraulic machines are those machines which convert either hydraulic
energy into mechanical energy or mechanical energy into hydraulic energy.
Turbines are the hydraulic machines which convert hydraulic energy into
mechanical energy.
Ex: Pelton turbine, Francis turbine, Kaplan turbine.
Pumps are the hydraulic machines which convert mechanical energy into
hydraulic energy.
Ex: Centrifugal pump, Reciprocating pump.
23. How will you classify the turbines?
1. According to the type of energy at inlet:
a. Impulse turbine
b. Reaction turbine
2. According to the direction of flow through runner:
a. Radial flow turbine
b. Axial flow turbine
c. Mixed flow turbine.
3. According to the head at the inlet of turbine:
a. High head turbine
b. Medium head turbine and
c. Low head turbine
4. According to the specific speed of turbine:
a. Low specific speed turbine
b. Medium specific speed turbine and
c. High specific speed turbine
106
Speed ratio =
U1
2g H
Flow ratio:
107
Flow ratio =
Vf1
2g H
2g H
Jet ratio (m): It is defined as the ratio of the pitch diameter (D) of the pelton wheel
to the diameter of the jet (d).
D
( = 12 for most cases)
d
60 to 300
300 to 1000
(S.I)
8.5 to 30
30 to 51
51 to 225
255 to 860
Type of turbine
Pelton wheel with single jet
Pelton wheel two or more
jets
Francis turbine
Kaplan or Propeller turbine
108
VV
i 1
gH
iii.
iv.
PART B
1. A fluid flow field is given by
V=x2yi+y2zj-(2xyz+yz2)k.
Prove that it is a case of possible steady incompressible fluid flow. Calculate the
velocity and acceleration at the point (2,1,3).
Sol.
109
u
2xy
x
u
2xy
x
w
2xy 2yz.
z
For a case of possible steady incompressible fluid flow, the continuity equation
should be satisfied.
w=-2xyz-yz 2
u w
0.
x y z
i.e.,
u
w
, and
, we get
x y
z
u w
ax u
u
u
u
w
x
y
z
ay u
w
x
y
z
ay u
w
w
w
w
x
y
z
110
u x 2 y,
u
u
u
2xy,
x 2and
0
x
y
z
y 2 z,
0,
2yz,
y2
x
y
z
w 2xyz yz 2 ,
w
w
w
2yz,
2xz z 2 ,
2xy 2yz.
x
y
z
x
y2
3
3
(i)
(ii)
Sol Given:
111
xy 3
x3 y
x3
y2
3
3
2x
........(1)
x
3
3
and
3xy 2 x 3
2y........(2)
y
3
3
u
2x
2x x 2 y
x
3 3
3
y2
2x x 2 y
3
u=
3x 2 y x 3
3x 2 y x 3
x3
2
=
2y
2y xy 2y
y
3
3
3
3
3
(ii) The given value of , will represent a possible case of flow if it satisfies the
Laplace equation, i.e.,
2 2
0
x 2 y 2
112
Now
y 3 / 3 2x x 2 y
x
2
2 2xy
x 2
and
x3
xy 2 2y
x
3
2
2xy 2
y 2
2 2
2 2xy 2xy 2 0
x 2 y 2
=f ,,,D,Q or f1 , , , , D,Q 0
Number of -terms
Equation (i) is written as
= n-m = 6-3=3
f1(1, 2, 3)=0
Each -term contains m+1 variables, where m is equal to three and is also repeating
variable.
Choosing D, and as repeating variables, we have
113
0=c1+0,c1=0
0=a1+0,
a1=0
0=-b1+0,
b1=0
0=c2+1,c2=-1
0=a2-3c2-1, a2=3c2+1=-3+1=-2
0=-b2-1,
b2=-1
114
2 D2 .b3 .1 .
3rd -term.
D
2
3 Da 3 .b3 .c 3 .Q
0=c3,
0=a3-3c3+3,
0=-b3-1,
c3=0
a3=3c3+1-3=-3
b3=-1
Q
D2
Substituting the values of 1, 2 and 3 in equation (ii)
3 D3 .1 .0 .Q
Q
Q
f1 , 2 , 2 0 or = 2 , 2 .
D D
D D
115
First -term.
1 Ha1 .g b1 .c1 .V
Power of M,
0=c,
Power of L,
0=a1+b1-3c1+1, a1=-b1+3c1-1=
Power of T,
0=-2b1-1,
b1=-
1
2
1
2
1 H .g .0 .V
Second -term.
V
.
gH
2 Ha 2 .g b2 .c 2 .D
116
1
2
1
1
1 1
2
2
Power of M,
Power of L,
Power of T,
2 H1 .g 6 .0 .D
Third -term.
D
.
H
3 Ha 3 .g b3 .c 3 .
c3=-1
0=c3+1,
1
1
3
0=a3+b3-3c3-1, a3=-b3+3c3+1= 1 1 3 1
2
2
2
1
0=-2b3-1,
b3=2
Power of L,
Power of T,
3 2
.g
12
H gH
.1
HV
.1 .
V
HV gH
1
gH
117
V D
f1
, , 1
0 or
gH H
H
D
V
, 1
HV
gH
H
D
V= 2gH ,
.
H VH
or
5. A pipe of diameter 1.5m is required to transport an oil of sp. Gr. 0.90 and
viscosity 310-2 poise at the rate of 3000 litre/s. Tests were conducted on a 15cm
diameter pipe using water at 20oC. Find the velocity and rate of flow in the model.
Viscosity of water at 20oC=0.01 poise. (Delhi University, 1992)
Sol. Given:
Dis. Of prototype,
Dp=1.5m
Viscosity of fluid,
p=3 10-2 poise
Q for prototype,
Qp=3000 lit/s=3.0 m3/s
Sp.gr. of oil,
SP=0.9
Density of oil,
P=SP 1000 =0.9 1000 =900 kg/m3
Dia. of the model,
Dm=15cm=0.15 m
o
Viscosity of water at 20 C = 0.1 poise = 1 10-2 poise or m=1 10-2 poise
Density of water or m=1000 kg/m3.
For pipe flow, the dynamic similarity will be obtained if the Reynolds number in the
model and prototype are equal.
m Vm D m P VP DP
m
P
Vm P DP m
.
.
VP m D m P
=
But
VP
10 3.0
2
1000 0.15 3 10 1000
3
1.697 m/s
2
2
Area of prototype
2.25
D
1.5
P
4
4
118
2
Dm Vm 0.15 2 5.091m 3 / s
4
4
LP=300m
= Sea water
=1030kg/m3
vP=0.018 strokes = 0.018 104 m2/s
=VP
=FP
For model
1
300 3m
100
Velocity,
Vm=30m/s
Resistance,
Fm=60N
Density of air,
m=1.24 kg/m3
Kinematic viscosity of air, vm=0.018 stokes =.018 10-4 m2/s.
Length,
Lm
For dynamic similarity between the prototype and its model, the Reynolds number
for both of them should be equal.
VP LP Vm Lm
v
L
orVP P m Vm
vp
vm
v m LP
.012 104
3
1
1
=
30
30 0.2m / s.
4
.018 10
300
1.5 100
119
Resistance
= Mass Acceleration
V 2 V L
L L2 V2
t
1 t
2
2
2 2
L V P P L P VP
FP
Fm L2 V 2 m m L m Vm
L3
Then
But
P 1030
m 1.24
369.17
Fm 1.24 3 30
1
of its prototype is 80 N/cm2.
10
The model is tested in water. Find the corresponding pressure drop in the
prototype. Take density of air = 1.24 kg/m3. The viscosity of water is 0.01 poise
while the viscosity of air is 0.00018 poise.
7. The pressure drop in an airplane model of size
Sol. Given:
Pressure drop in model,
Linear scale ratio,
Fluid in model
Viscosity of water,
Density of air,
Pm=80N/cm2=80104 N.m2
Lr=40
=Water, while in prototype = Air
m=0.01 poise
P=1.24 kg.m3
120
m Vm Dm P VP DP
V
or m P P m
m
P
VP m L m P
But
P 1.24
m 1000
LP
0.01
L r 40, m
Lm
P .00018
Vm 1.24
.01
40
2.755
VP 1000
.00018
VP
P
m
Pm
PP
PP / P
m
p
But
Vm
1.24
2.755 and P
VP
m 1000
2.755=
Pm
1.24
P
m .0352
PP
1000
PP
Pm 2.755
78.267
PP .0352
Pm
Pm
80
2
78.267 or PP
2
2
PP
78.267 78.267
=0.01306 N/cm 2 .
121
Volume
Velocity
Time
L
dy L
By definition, Reynolds number
. A Since
Re
Fi
pAV2
pVL
V L V L
Fv V A
( / p)
V
L
Fe
Fi
Fg
where Fi
= pAV2
122
And Fg
F1 pAV 2
Fe
Fg pALg
(c) Eulers Number (Eu) : It is defined as the square root of the ratio of the inertia
force of a flowing fluid to the pressure force. Mathematically it is expressed as,
Eu
F1
Fp
Eu
pAV 2
V2
p A p/ p
V
p/ p
webers number (we) it is defined as the square root of the ratio of the inertia force of
flowing fluid to the surface tension force. Mathematically it is expressed as webers
numbers We
F1
Fp
where
fi = inertia force = pAV2
and Fs
= surface tension force
= surface tension force
= surface tension per unit length X length
=XL
123
pAV 2=
p L2 V 2
{since A=L2 }
L
L
pL V 2
V2
=
{since A=L2 }
/ pL
V
/ pL
we =
Machs Number (M) : Machs Number is defined as the square root of the ratio of the
inertia force of a flowing fluid to the elastic force. Mathematically, it is defined as
inertia force Fi
Elastic force Fe
where Fi = pAv2
and Fe
= Elastic force = Elastic stress X Area
= K X A = K X L2 (Since K = Elastic Stress)
pAV 2 p L2 V 2
K L2
K L2
V2
V2
K/p
K/p
But
V
C
124
the outlet of which a nozzle id fitted. The nozzle increases the kinetic energy of the
water flowing through the penstock. At the outlet of the nozzle, the water comes out
in the form of a jet and strikes the buckets (vanes) of the runner. The main parts of
the Pelton turbine
1.
2.
3.
4.
1. Nozzle and Flow Regulating Arrangement. The amount of water striking the
buckets (vanes) of the runner is controlled by providing a spear in the nozzle as
shown in fig. the spear is a conical needle which is operated either by a hand
wheel or automatically in an axial direction depending upon the size of the
unit. When the spear is pushed forward into the nozzle the amount of water
striking the runner is reduced. On the other hand, if the spear is pushed back,
the amount of water striking the runner increase.
2. Runner with Buckets. The following fig. shows the runner of a Pelton wheel.
It consists of a circular disc on the periphery of which a number of buckets
evenly spaced are fixed. The shape of the buckets is of a double hemispherical
cup or bowl. Each bucket is divided into two symmetrical part by a dividing
wall which is known as splitter.
The jet of water strikes on the splitter. The splitter divides the jet into two
equal parts and the jet comes out at the outer edge of the bucket. The buckets are
shaped in such a way that the jet gets deflected through 160 or 170. The buckets are
made of cast iron, cast steel bronze or stainless steel depending upon the head at the
inlet of the turbine.
3. Casing. A Pelton turbne with a casing. The function of the casing is to prevent
the splashing of the water and to discharge water to trail race. It also acts as a
safeguard against accidents. It is made of cast iron or fabricated steel plates.
The casing of the Pelton wheel does not perform any hydraulic function.
4. Breaking Jet. When the nozzle is completely closed by moving the spear in
the forward direction, the amount of water striking the runner reduces to
zero. But the runner due to inertia goes on revolving for a long time. To stop
the runner in a short time, a small nozzle is provided which directs the jet of
125
water on the back of the vanes. This jet of water is called breaking jet.
Velocity Triangles and Work done for Pelton Wheel: The shape of the vanes or
buckets of the Pelton wheel. The jet of water from the nozzle strikes the bucket at the
spilitter, which splits up the jet into two parts. These parts of the jet, glides over the
inner surfaces and comes out at the outer edge, fig. shows the section of the bucket at
z-z. The splitter is the inlet tip and outer edge of the bucket is the outlet tip of the
bucket . The inlet velocity triangle is drawn at the splitter and outlet velocity triangle
is drawn at the outer edge of the bucket.
Let
4fLV 2
D * 2g
DN
60
d2
Now work done by the jet on the runner per second = Fx x u = aV1 [Vw1 + Vw2] x
Nm/s
126
aV1[Vw1 Vw 2 ] u
1000
kW
aV1[Vw 1 Vw 2 ] u
kW
weight of water striking/s
aV1[Vw 1 Vw 2 ] u 1
[Vw 1 Vw 2 ] u
aV1 g
g
The energy supplied to the jet at inlet is in the form of kinetic energy and is
equal to
1
mV 2
2
1
= ( aV1 ) V12
2
Hydraulic efficiency, h
=
aV1[Vw 1 Vw 2 ] u
1
( aV1 ) V12
2
2[Vw 1 Vw 2 ] u
V12
V12
V12
or
or
(1+cos ) d
(2uV1 2u 2 ) 0
du
V12
2V1 4u 0
or
or
0
du
V12
d
[2uV1 2u 2 ] 0
du
or u=
V1
2
127
1+cos
2
V1
The above equation states that hydraulic efficiency of a Pelton wheel will be
maximum when the velocity of the wheel is half the velocity of the jet of water at
inlet. The expansion for maximum efficiency will be obtained by substituting the
value of u
V1
2
in equation.
V
V
2 V1 1 (1 cos ) 1
2
2
Max.h
2
=
V1
V
(1 cos ) 1
2
2 (1 cos )
2
V12
DN
60u
or D=
60
N
v. Jet ratio. It is defined as the ratio of the pitch diameter (D) of the pelton wheel to
the diameter of the jet(). It is denoted by m and is given as
m
D
(= for most caes)
d
D
=15+0.5 m
2d
vii. Number of Jets. It is obtained by dividing the total rate if flow through the
turbine by the rate of flow of water through a single jet.
128
10. A pelton wheel has a mean bucket speed of 10 metres per second with a jet of
water flowing at the rate of 700 litres/s under a head of 30 metres. The buckets
deflect the je through an angle of 160. Calculate the power given by water to the
runner and the hydraulic efficiency of the turbione. Assume co-efficient of
velocity as 0.98.
Solution, Given:
Speed of bucket,
Discharge
Angle of deflection
Angle,
Co-efficient of velocity
The velocity of jet,
u = u1 = u2 = 10 m/s
Q = 700 litres/s = 0.7 m3/S, Head of water, H = 30 m
= 160
= 180 160 = 20
Cv = 0.98
V1 = Cv 2gH 0.98 2 9.81 30 23.77 m/s
V1 = V1 u1 = 23.77 10 = 13.77 m/s
Vw1 = V1 = 23.77 m/s
186970
186.97 kW. Ans.
1000
11. The penstock supplies water from a reservoir to the Pelton wheel with a gross
head 500 m. one-third of the gross head is lost in friction in the penstock. The rate
of flow of water through the nozzle fitted at the end of the penstock is 2.0 m3/s. the
129
angle of deflection of the jet is 165. Determine the power given by the water to
the runner and also hydraulic efficiency of the pelton wheel. Take speed ratio =
0.45 and Cv = 1.0.
Solution, Given:
Gross head,
Hg = 500 m
hf
H8 500
166.7 ,
3
3
Net head
Discharge,
Angle of deflection
= 165
Angle
= 180 165 = 15
Speed ratio
= 0.45
Co-efficient of velocity,
Cv = 1.0
Velocity of jet,
Velocity of wheel,
Also
Work done by the jet on the runner per second is given by equation, as
= aV1[Vw1+Vw2] x u=Q[Vw1 + Vw2] x u
( aV1 = Q)
= 1000 x 2.0 x [80.86 + 6.57] x 36.387 = 6362630 Nm/s
Power given by the water to the runner in KW
130
12. A Pelton wheel is working under a gross head of 400 m. the water is supplied
through penstock of diameter 1 m and length 4 km from reservoir to the Pelton
wheel. The co-efficient of friction for the penstock is given as .008. The jet of
water of diameter 150 mm strikes the buckets of the wheel and gets deflected
through an angle of 165. The relative velocity of water at outlet is reduced by 15%
due to friction between inside surface of the bucket and water. If the velocity of
the buckets is 0.45 times the jet velocity at inlet and mechanical efficiency as 85%
determine,
i.
ii.
iii.
Solution, Given:
Gross head,
Diameter of penstock
Length of penstock
Co-efficient of friction
Diameter of jet
Angle of deflection
Angle,
Relative velocity at outlet
Velocity of bucket
Mechanical efficiency
Let
Hg = 400 m
D = 1.0 m
L = 4 km = 4 x 1000 = 4000 m
f = .008
d = 150 mm = 0.15 m
= 165
= 180 165 = 15
Vr2 = 0.85 Vr1
u = 0.45 x Jet velocity
m = 85 % = 0.85
131
D2 V *
V*
d 2 V1
d2
0.152
V1 .0225 V1
1
D2
1.02
(1)
Applying Bernoullis equation to the free surface of water in the reservoir and outlet
of the nozzle, we get,
Hg Head lost due to friction+
400
V12
2g
D 2g 2g
1.0 2 9.81
2g
V2
4 .008 4000
(0.0225V1 )2 1
2 9.81
2g
400
85.83 m/s
.0543
d 2 v1
5033.54 kW Ans.
1000
1000
132
2[Vw 1 Vw 2 ] u
V12
13. A Pelton wheel is to be designed for a head of 60 m when running at 200 r.p.m.
the Pelton wheel develops 95.6475 kW shaft power. The velocity of the buckets =
0.45 times the velocity of this overall efficiency = 0.85 and co-efficient of velocity is
equal to 0.98.
Solution, Given :
Head,
Speed
Shaft power,
Velocity of bucket
Overall efficiency,
Co-efficient of velocity
H=60m
N = 200 r.p.m.
S.P = 95.6475 kW
u = 0.45 x Velocity of jet
0=0.85
Cv=0.98
Design of Pelton wheel means to find diameter of jet (d), diameter of wheel (D),
Width and depth buckets and number of buckets on the wheel.
i. Velocity of jet,
Bucket velocity,
But
DN
;
where D=Diameter of wheel
60
D 200
60 15.13
15.13=
or D=
=1.44 m, Ans
60
200
133
overall efficiency
But
S.P
95.6475 95.6475 1000
W .P W .P
g Q H
1000
95.6475 1000
1000 9.81 Q 60
Q=
95.6475 1000
95.6475 1000
0.1912 m2 / 2
0 1000 9.81 60 0.85 1000 9.81 60
d 2 V1
d 2 33.2
4 0.1912
0.085 m=85mm Ans.
33.62
=5 x d = 5 x 85 = 425 mm.
=1.2 x d = 1.2 x 85 = 102 mm. Ans.
D
1.44
15
15 8.5 23.5 say 24. Ans.
2d
2 .085
14. The three- jet Pelton turbine is required to generate 10,000 kW under a net
head of 400 m. The blade angle at outlet is 15 and the reduction in the relative
velocity while passing over the blade is 5%. If the overall efficiency of the wheel
is 80%, Cv = 0.98 and speed ratio = 0.46, then find: (i) the diameter of the jet, (ii)
total flow in m3/s and (iii) the force exerted by a jet on the buckets.
If the jet ratio is not to be less than, 10, find the speed of the wheel for a
frequency of 50 hertz/sec and the corresponding wheel diameter.
Solution:
Given:
134
No. of jets
Total power,
Net head,
Blade angle at outlet,
Relative velocity at outlet
=3
P = 10,000 kW
H = 400 m
= 15
= 0.95 of relative velocity at inlet
Overall efficiency,
Value of
Speed ratio
Frequency,
or
P
g Q H
1000
0.80
10000
1000 9.81 Q 400
1000
10000
3.18m3 / s.
0.8 9.81 400
3.18
1.06m3 / s.
3
1.06
d2 87
4 1.06
0.125m 125mm.
87
= 3.18m3/s.
135
(ii)
Now
and
10 or
D
10
d
Dia. of wheel,
D = 10 x d = 10 x 0.125 = 1.25 m
But,
u1
DN
60
60 u1 60 40.75
N
620r.p.m.
D
1.25
60 f
p
60 f 60 50
4.85
N
620
Take the next whole number i.e. 5. Hence pairs of poles are 5.
Now corresponding to five pairs of poles, the speed of the turbine will become as
given below:
136
60 f 60 50
600r.p.m.
p
5
DN
u
60
N
But
60 u 60 40.75
1.3m
N
600
D 1.30
Jet ratio becomes
10
d 0.12
Hence the given condition is satisfied.
D
at 150 r.p.m. and the hydraulic losses in the turbine are 22% of the available
energy. Assuming radial discharge, determine:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Solution:
Given:
Overall efficiency,
Power produced,
Head,
Peripheral velocity,
o = 75% = 0.75
S.P. = 148.25 k.W
H = 7.62 m
u1 = 0.26
137
Speed,
Hydraulic losses
Discharge at outlet
N = 150 r.p.m.
= 22% of available energy
= Radial
Vw2 = 0 and Vf2 = V2
But
(i)
H .22 H 0.78 H
0.78
H
H
Vw 1u1
gH
Vw 1u1
0.78
gH
0.78 g H
Vw 1
u1
0.78 9.81 7.62
18.34m / s.
3.179
Vf1
Vw 1
11.738
0.64
18.34
Vf1
Vw 1 u1
11.738
0.774
18.34 3.179
u1
D1 N
60
138
D1
60 u1 60 3.179
0.4047 m.
N
50
But
W .P.
or
S.P. 148.25
W .P. W .P.
1000
1000
1000
148.25
148.25 1000
148.25 1000
148.25 1000
2.644m3 / s
1000 9.81 7.62 o 1000 9.81 7.62 0.75
Q = D1 x B1 x Vf1
B1
2.644
0.177 m.
.4047 11.738
16. Francis turbine working under a head of 30 m has a wheel diameter of 1.2 m at
the entrance and 0.6 m at the exit. The vane angle at the entrance is 90 and guide
blade angle is 15. The water at the exit leaves the vanes without any tangential
velocity and the velocity of flow in the runner is constant. Neglecting the effect of
draft tube and losses in the guide and runner passages, determine the speed of
wheel in r.p.m. and vane angle at the exit. State whether the speed calculated is
synchronous or not. If not, what speed would you recommend to couple the
turbine with an alternator of 50 cycles? (Fluid Power Engg., A.M.I.E., Summer
1986)
Solution:
Given:
Head on turbine,
H = 30 m
139
Inlet dia,
Outlet dia.,
Vane angle at inlet,
Guide blade angle,
D1 = 1.2 m
D2 = 0.6 m
= 90
= 15
The water at exit leaves the vanes without any tangential velocity.
Vf1 = Vf2
1
Vw1 u1
g
Vw1 0
1
u1 u1
g
Vf 2 1
30 2 u12
2g g
Vw1 u1
or
V2 V f 2 V f 1
.... i
Vf1
u1
or u1
Vf1
tan
Vf1
tan 15
ii
3.732V f 1
30
or
30
Vf 2
2
2g
V f 2 13.928V f 2
2
1
2
3.732V f 1 or 30 1
g
2g
g
14.928V f 2
1
140
Vf2 V f 1
Vf1
30 9.81
4.44m / s.
14.928
u1
D1N
60
or 16.57
1.2 .N
60
16.57 60
263.72r.p.m.
1.2
D2 N
60
0.6 263.72
60
8.285m / s
V f 2 V f 1 4.44
Vf 2
u2
4.44
0.5359
8.285
= 28.87
(iii) For a turbine, which is directly coupled to the alternator of 50 cycles the
p.N *
synchronous speed (N*) is given by f
where f = Frequency of alternator in
60
cycles/s, p = Number of pair of poles for the alternator.
Assuming the number of pair of poles = 12, we get
50
12 N *
60
N*
60 50
250r.p.m.
12
141
But the speed of turbine 263.72. And synchronous speed (N*) is equal to 250.
Hence the speed of turbine is not synchronous. The speed of turbine should be 250
r.p.m.
Runner vane angles at inlet and outlet at the extreme edge of the runner,
and
Speed of the turbine.
(ii)
Solution:
Given:
Head,
Shaft power,
Outer dia. of runner
Hub diameter,
Guide blade angle,
Hydraulic efficiency,
Overall efficiency,
H = 20 m
S.P. = 11772 kW
Do = 3.5 m
Db = 1.75 m
= 35
k = 88%
o = 84%
where W .P.
WP g Q H
we get ,
1000
1000
0.84
11772
g Q H
1000
142
S.P.
W .P.
11772 1000
= 1000
1000 9.81 Q 20
11772 1000
Q
71.428m3 / s.
0.84 1000 9.81 20
71.428
or
Vf 1
3.5
4
D
4
2
o
1.752 V f 1
71.428
9.9m / s.
7.216
Db2 V f 1
Vw1
Vf1
tan
Vf2
Vw 1
9.9
9.9
14.14m / s
tan 35 .7
Vw 1u1
gH
0.88
u1
Vw2 0
14.14 u1
9.81 20
0.88 9.81 20
12.21m / s
14.14
(i) Runner vane angles at inlet and outlet at the extreme edge of the runner are given
as:
tan
Vf1
Vw 1 u1
9.9
5.13
14.14 12.21
For Kaplan turbine, u1 = u2 = 12.21 m/s and Vf1 = Vf2 = 9.9 m/s
143
Vf 2
u2
9.9
0.811
12.21
18. The hub diameter of a Kaplan turbine, working under a head of 12 m, is 0.35
times the diameter of the runner. The turbine is running at 100 r.p.m. If the vane
angle of the extreme edge of the runner at outlet is 15 and flow ratio 0.6, find:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
H = 12 m
Db = 0.35 x D0 where D0 = Dia . or runner
N = 100 r.p.m
= 15
Vf1
0.6
2 gH
Flow ratio
9.2 m / s
Vf2 V f 1 9.2
9.2
u2
9.2
u2
34.33m / s
tan15
tan 15
144
u1
Do N
or 34.33=
Do 100
60
60
60 34.33
Do
6.55m
100
Db = 0.35 x D0 = 0.35 x 6.35 = 2.3m
Do2 Db2 V f 1
Solution:
Given
Runner diameter,
Speed,
Guide blade angle,
Runner blade angle at outlet,
Flow area,
Runner blade angle at inlet is radial
D0 = 4.5 m
N = 40 r.p.m
= 145
= 25
a = 25 m2
= 90, Vr1 = Vf1 and u1 = Vw1
For Kaplan turbine, the discharge is given by the product of area of flow and
velocity of flow.
As area of flow is constant and hence Vf1=Vf2 ( Q = Area of flow x Vf1 = Area
of flow x Vf2)
145
Do N
60
4.5 40
60
9.42m / s
Vf1
u1
Vf1
u1
tan =
Vf2
u 2 Vw 2
6.59
9.42+Vw2
tan25=
Vw2 9.42
Using equation,
6.59
14.13
tan 25
V22 1
Vw 1u1 Vw 2u2
2g g
Here ve sign is taken as the absolute velocity at inlet and outlet (i.e., V 1 and
V2) are in the same direction and hence change of velocity will be with a ve sign.
H-
8.12
1
9.42 9.42 4.71 9.42
2 9.81 9.81
H-3.344=
1
88.736-44.368 4.522m
9.81
H=4.522+3.344=7.866m
146
Vw 1u1 Vw 2u2
gH
9.81 7.866
0.575 57.5%
1 Vw1u1 Vw 2u2
Weight of water
g
1000
Ns
N P
H
N 6867
7.866
40 6867
7.866
40 82.867
251.62r.p.m
13.173
The pressure at the exit of the runner of a reaction turbine is generally less
than atmospheric pressure. Thus the water at the exit of the runner cannot be
directly discharged to the tail race. A pipe of gradually increasing area is used for
discharging water from the exit of the turbine to the tail race. This pipe of gradually
increasing area is called a draft tube. One end of the draft tube is connected to the
outlet of the runner while the other end is sub-merged below the level of water is the
tail race. The draft tube, in addition to serve a passage for water discharge, has the
following two purposes also:
1. The turbine may be place above the tail race and hence turbine may be
inspected properly.
2. The kinetic energy (V22/2g) rejected at the outlet of the turbine is converted
147
Solution:
Given
Head,
Speed,
Discharge,
H = 25 m
N = 200r.p.m
Q = 9 cumec = 9 m3/s
Power developed
P
g Q H
Water power
1000
P 0
g Q H
1000
Ns
N P
H
200 1986.5
25
159.46r.p.m
20. A Pelton turbine develops 3000 kW under a head of 300 m. The overall
efficiency of turbine is 83%. If speed ratio = 0.46, Cv = 0.98 and specific speed is
16.5, then find:
148
(i)
(ii)
Solution:
Given:
Power,
Net head,
Overall efficiency,
Speed ratio
Value of Cv,
Specific speed*,
Using equation,
P = 3000 kW
H = 300 m
0 = 83 % or 0.83
= 0.46
= 0.98
Ns = 16.5
Ns
N P
H
NH
orN s
P
16.5 300
3000
375r.p.m
u
or u = speed ratio 2gH
2 gH
DN
60
or D =
60 u 60 34.95
1.78m
N
375
149
P
g Q H
1000
0.83
300
1000
9.81
Q 300
1000
3000
1.23m3 / s
9.81 300 0.83
d 2 75.1
4 1.23
0.142 m 142 mm
75.1
21. Obtain an expression for the workdone per second by water on the runner of a
pelton wheel. Hence derive an expression for maximum efficiency of the pelton
wheel giving the relationship between the jet speed and bucket speed?
Velocity Triangles and Workdone for Pelton Wheel:
Figure shows the shape of the vanes or buckets of the pelton wheel. The jet of
water from the nozzle strikes the bucket at the splitter, which splits up the jet into
two parts. These parts of the jet, glides over the inner surfaces and comes out at the
outer edge. Figure shows the section of the bucket z-z. The splitter is the inlet tip and
outer edge of the bucket is the outlet tip of the bucket. The inlet velocity triangle id
drawn at the splitter and outlet velocity triangle is drawn at the outer edge of the
bucket.
Shape of Bucket
Let H = Net head acting on the Pelton wheel
= Hg hf
150
4fLV 2
D * 2g
------ (1)
2gH
Vw1 = V1
= 0 and = 0
From the velocity triangle at outlet, we have Vr2 = Vr1 and Vw 2 = Vr2 cos - u2
The force exerted by the jet of water in the direction of motion is given by equation
(17.19) as
Fx = pa V1 Vw1 Vw 2
-------- (2)
As the angle is an acute angle, +ve sign should be taken. Also this is the case of
series of vanes, the mass of water striking is paV2 and not pa Vr1 . In equation (2), a is
the area of the jet which is given as
A = Area of jet =
2
d
4
151
= p a V1 Vw1 Vw 2
--------- (3)
H.P given to the runner by the jet
p a V1 Vw1 Vw2 u
75
--------- (4)
p a V1 Vw1 Vw 2 u
Weight of water striking
p a V1 Vw1 Vw 2 u
paV1 g
1
= Vw1 Vw 2 u
g
---------- (5)
The energy supplied to the jet at inlet is in the form of kinetic energy and is
equal to mV2.
K.E of jet per second = (paV1) x V12
Hydraulic Efficiency.
paV1 Vw1 Vw 2 u
2 Vw1 Vw 2 u
1
2
paVt V12
V12
152
2[V1 V1 u cos u] u
V12
2 V1 u V1 u cos u
V12
2 V1 u (1 cos )u
----------- (7)
V12
The efficiency will be maximum for a given value of V1 when d/du (h) = 0
Or
Or
d 2u V1 u 1 cos
0
Du
V12
1 cos
2
1
d
2uV1 2u2 0
du
d
2uV1 2u2 = 0 (since 1 + cos /V12 0)
Du
Or 2 V1 4u = 0
V
Or u 1
2
Or
2 V1 1 1 cos 1
2
2
Max, h
2
V1
V1
V
1 cos 1
2
2
2
V1
1 cos
2
------------ (9)
153
UNIT V
PUMPS
154
PART A
1. Explain the main parts of a single stage centrifugal pump with sketches.
Main Parts of a Centrifugal Pump:
The following are the main parts of a centrifugal pump:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Impeller
Casing
Suction pipe with a foot valve and a strainer.
Delivery pipe.
155
valve opens in the upward direction. A strainer is also fitted at the lower end of the
suction pipe.
4. Delivery pipe: A pipe whose one end is connected to the outlet of the pump and
other end delivers the water at a required height is known as delivery pipe.
Main Parts of a centrifugal pump:
2. What are the different types of casings commonly used for centrifugal pumps?
The following three types of the castings are commonly adopted:
a.
b.
c.
156
without stock. Also the area of the guide vanes increases, thus reducing the velocity
of flow through guide vanes and consequently increasing the pressure of water. The
water from the guide vanes then passes through the surrounding casing which is in
most of the cases concentric with the impeller.
3. Define the terms:
Suction head, Delivery head, Static head, Manometric head?
1. Suction Head (hs): It is the vertical height of the centre line of the
centrifugal pump above the water surface in the tank or sump from which
water is to be lifted. This height is also called lift and is denoted by hs.
2. Delivery Head (hd): The vertical distance between the centre line of the
pump and the water surface in the tank to which water is delivered is
known as delivery head. This is denoted by hd.
3. Static Head (Hs): The sum of suction head and delivery head is known as
static head. This is represented by Hs and is written as
Hs = hs + hd
4. Manometric head (Hm): The manometric head is defined as the head
against which a centrifugal pump has to work. It id denoted by Hm. It is
given by the following expressions:
(a) Hm = head imparted by the impeller to the water loss of head in the
pump
Vw1u 2
g
Vw1u 2
g
(b) Hm = Total head at outlet of the pump Total head at the inlet of the
pump
p0 V02
Pi Vi2
Z0
Zi
w 2g
w 2g
Where
Po
= Pressure head at outlet of the pump = hd
w
Vo2
= Velocity head at outlet of the pump
2g
157
Vd2
= Velocity head is delivery pipe =
2g
Zo = Vertical height of the outlet of the pump from datum line and
Pi Vi2
,
,Zi = Corresponding values of pressure head, velocity head and datum head
w 2g
at the inlet of the pump.
i.e. hs,
Vs2
and Zs respectively.
2g
Vd2
(c) Hm = hs + hd + hfs + hfd +
2g
158
one cubic meter of liquid per second against a head of one meter. It is denoted by
Ns.
Expression for specific speed for a pump: The discharge, Q, for a centrifugal pump
is given by the relation
Or
DN
DN
60
------- (iii)
Now the tangential velocity (u) and velocity of flow (Vf) are related to the
manometer head (Hm) as u Vf
Hm ------- (iv)
Hm DN
or
Hm
N
Hm
Hm (Since From equation (iv) Vf
N2
H3 / 2
m2
N
Hm3 / 2
Q=K 2
(v)
N
159
Hm )
12 K
1 k 2 2
Ns Ns
K = Ns2
N Q
3
Hm4
160
pressure and the sudden collapsing of these vapour bubbles in a region of higher
pressure. When the vapour bubbles collapse, a very high pressure is created. The
metallic surface, above which the liquid is flowing, is subjected to these high
pressures, which cause pitting action on the surface. Thus cavities are formed on the
metallic surface and also considerable noise and vibrations are produced.
Cavitation includes formation of vapour bubbles of the flowing liquid and
collapsing of the vapour bubbles. Formation of vapour bubbles of the flowing liquid
take place only whenever the pressure in any region falls below vapour pressure.
When the pressure of the flowing liquid is less than its vapour pressure, the liquid
starts boiling and vapour bubbles are formed. These vapour bubbles are carried
along with the flowing liquid to higher pressure zones where these vapours
condense and bubbles collapse. Due to sudden collapsing of the bubbles on the
metallic surface, high pressure is produced and metallic surfaces are subjected to
high local stresses. Thus the surfaces are damaged.
Precaution against Cavitation: The following precautions should be taken against
cavitation:
i.
ii.
The pressure of the flowing liquid in any part of the hydraulic system
should not be allowed to fall below its vapour pressure. If the flowing
liquid is water, then the absolute pressure head should not be below 2.5 m
of water.
The special materials of coatings such as aluminium-bronze and stainless
steel, which are cavitation resistant materials, should be used.
The metallic surfaces are damaged and cavities are formed on the surfaces.
Due to sudden collapse of vapour bubble, considerable noise and
vibrations are produced.
The efficiency of a turbine decreases due to cavitation. Due to pitting
action the surface of the turbine blades becomes rough and the force
exerted by water on the turbine blades decreases. Hence the work done by
water or output horse power becomes less and thus efficiency decreases.
161
decreasing from the shaft of the pump to the impeller and then to the water. The
followings are the important efficiencies of a centrifugal pump:
a. Manometric efficiency, mano
b. Mechanical efficiency, m and
c. Overall efficiency, o.
a. Manometric Efficiency (mano): The ratio of the manometric head to the head
imparted by the impeller to the water is known as manometric efficiency.
Mathematically, it is written as
man
Manometric head
head imparted by impeller to water
Hm
gHm
(1)
Vw 2 u2 Vw 2 u2
b. Mechanical Efficiency (m): The power at the shaft of the centrifugal pump is
more than the power available at the impeller of the pump. The ratio of the
power available at the impeller to the power at the shaft of the centrifugal
pump is known as mechanical efficiency. It is written as
W Vw 2 u2
kw
g 1000
W v w 2u 2
g 1000
m
S.P
---- (2)
162
1000
o
S.P
-------- (3)
163
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
164
Reciprocating Pump
Centrifugal Pump
1. Suitable for small discharge and high Suitable for large discharge and
heads.
smaller heads.
2. The discharge is fluctuating and The discharge is continuous and
pulsating.
smooth.
It can be used for lifting highly viscous
3. It is used for lifting less viscous liquids.
liquids.
4. The reciprocating pump runs at low The centrifugal pump runs at high
speed.
speed.
5. The efficiency is low.
6. It requires larger floor area for It needs smaller floor area for
installation.
installation.
7. The initial and maintenance costs are
The initial and maintenance are low.
high.
8. Air vessels are required.
9. No need of priming.
165
PART B
1. A centrifugal pump delivers 1.27 m3 of water per minute at 1200 r.p.m. The
impeller diameter is 350 mm and breadth at outlet 12.7 mm. The pressure
difference between inlet and outlet of pump casing is 272 kN/m2. Assuming
manometric efficiency as 63%, calculate exit blade angle.
Solution:
Given: Q =1.27 m3/min; N=1200 rpm; D2 =350 mm =0.35 m,
B2 =12.7 mm = 0.0127 m;mano = 63% = 0.63
Pressure difference between outlet and inlet of pump casin, (Pd = Ps) = 272 kN/m2.
Discharge, Q
1.27
0.021 m3 / s
60
Manometric head,
Hm
Pd Ps
.g
272 103
1000 9.81
=27.73 m
=
21.99 m / s
60
60
Discharge,
Q D2B2 .Vf 2
0.021 0.35 0.0127 Vf 2
mano
g.Hm
Vw2 .u2
166
Vw 2
g Hm
9.81 27.73
19.64 m / s
mano u2 0.63 21.99
Vf2
1.52
06468
u2 Vw 2 21.99 19.64
2. The internal and external diameter of the impeller of a centrifugal pump are 20
cm and 40 cm respectively. The speed of the pump is 1400 rpm. Assuming a
constant velocity of flow of 5 m/s throughout, radial entry to impeller vanes and
the exit vane angle of 300. Find:
i) Inlet vane angle.
ii) Work done by impeller per N Weight of water.
Solution:
Given : D1=20 cm = 0.2 m; D2=40 cm = 0.4 m; N = 1400 rpm, Vf1 = Vf2 = 5 m/s;
Radial entry i.e, =900, VW1=0,=300.
Vane velocity at inlet, 1
D1N
60
0.2 1400
60
=14.66 m/s
D2N
60
0.4 1400
60
=29.32 m/s
Vf1
5
0.341
u1 14.66
=18.83o
167
5
20.66 m/s
tan30o
61.75Nm / N
g
9.81
3. The external and internal diameter of the impeller of centrifugal pump are 0.6 m
and 0.3 m respectively and the width of impeller at outlet is 60 mm. The speed of
the pump is 1440 rpm and it is required to work against the head of 105 m. The
velocity of flow through the impeller is maintained at 4 m/s. The exit vane angle
is 350. Determine the vane angle at inlet, workdone by impeller on water per
second and the manometric efficiency of the pump.
Solution: Refer the velocity diagram shown in Fig.
Given: D2 = 0.6 m, D1=0.3 m, B2=60 mm =0.06 m:
N=1440 rpm, Hm=105 m:
Vf1=Vf2 = 4 m/s; =350.
i)
60
60
= 22.62 m/s
V
4
tan = f1
0.1768
u1 22.62
u1
=10.03o
45.24 m/s
60
60
Vf 2
4
45.24
39.53 m/s
tan
tan350
168
gHm
9.81 105
0.576 or 57.6%
Vw2 u2 39.53 45.24
50
0.05 m3 / s
1000
2.21m
s
D2B2 K b 0.4 0.02 0.9
Blade velocity at outlet,
u2
D2N
60
0.4 1000
60
20.94 m
Vf 2
2.21
20.94
tan
tan 45o
169
= 18.73 m/s
mano
g Hm
Vw 2 u2
i .e. 0.9=
9.81 Hm
18.73 20.94
Hm = 35.98 m/stage
Ps =
gQH
Ps
0
0.8
13.5
= 0.225 m3/s; Hm = 30 m; N = 1500 rpm;
60
170
mano
g Hm
;
Vw 2 u2
or
0.8=
g 30
Vw2 .u2
Vw 2 .u2 30
37.5 m
g
0.8
Vw 2 u2
-Hm = 37.5 30 = 7.5 m
g
V2 = 15.81 m/s
Q
Q
Velocity of flow at outlet, Vf 2
A D2B2
0.225
Vf 2
0.179 / D22m / s
D2 0.4D2
But, hf = 7.5 m = 0.03 V22
u2
D2N
60
D2 1500
60
78.54D2m / s.
V22 V22 Vf 22
4.684 0.179
15.81
2
2
D D2
249.96=
21.94 0.032
D22
D24
171
0.179
0.179
2.039 m/s
2
D2
(0.2963)2
Vw 2
4.684 4.684
15.808 m/s
D2
0.2963
Vf 2
2.039
0.273.
u2 Vw 2 (23.271 15.808)
15.28
Ans
Vf 2
1.5
2.142m / s;
tan tan35
Vw 2 u2 2.142
mano
g.H m
Vw 2 .u2
0.85
9.81 16
(u2 2.142)u2
172
2
2
D2N
60
D2
D2 0.28208 m
(ii)
60u2 60 14.702
N
1000
or 28.08 cm
Ans
Q D2B2Vf 2
B2 0.0605 m or 6.05 cm
7. A centrifugal pump delivers 0.1 m3/s of water through a pipe of 0.2m diameter
of length 300m upto a height o 26m. Darcs coefficient for pipe, f=0.02, inlet losses
in suction pipe are estimated to e 0.4m. Calculate the power required to drive the
pump I its overall efficiency is 73%
Solution;
Given:
Q 0.1m3 / s, dd 0.2m,Id 300m; Hs 26m; f 0.4hfs 0.4m;
0 73% 0.73
Q
Q
4 0.1
3.183m / s
A .d 2 0.22
4 d
Head equivalent to kinetic energy in piple
V 2d 3.1832
0.52m
2g 2 9.81
Vs Vd
hfd
fId .Vd2
0.02 300 (3.183)2
15.49m
dd 2g
0.2 2 9.81
Manometric head,
173
Vd2
Hlm Hs hfs hfd
26 0.4 15.49 0.52 42.41m
2g
Power required to drive the pump , Ps :
Ps
=
p.g.Q.Hm
103 kW
8. A double acting reciprocating pump with air vessel in suction pipe has 200 mm
piston diameter and 400 mm stroke. The suction pipe diameter is 160mm. Find
the crank angles at which there is no flow of water into or from the vessel. The
pump runs at 120 rpm. Assume motion of piston with S.H.M.
Solution:
Dp 200 mm 0.2 m, L 400 mm 0.4m,
Given:
Ds 160 mm 0.16m;
Area of piston
2
.Dp x(0.2)2 0.0314 m2
4
4
2N 2x120
4 rad/ s
60
60
Instant velocity of water from or into air vessel.
A
V1 p .w r sin A p ..r.sin
As
Angular velocity of crank, w =
39.540 or 140.46 0
9. A centrifugal pump of 20 cm diameter running at 1430 rpm delivers 0.1 m3/s of
water against a head of 40m with an efficiency of 90% what is its non-dimensional
specific speed? (AU,Nov 2002)
Given D=20cm, N=1430 rpm, Q=0.1m3/s H=40m, mo=90%
174
Solution:
Specific speed Ns
=
N Q
3
1 4
1430 0.1
3
40 4
=28.43 rpm.
Find the power required to drive a centrifugal pump which delivers 0.04m3/s of
water to a height of 20m through a 15 cm diameter pipe and 100m long. The
overall efficiency of the pump is 70% and coefficient of friction is 0.15 in the
formula hf
4flv 2
(AU,Apr 04)
2gd
Q
a
0.04
2
0.15
4
=2.26m/s
=
Fraction head, hf
=
4flv 2d
2gd
0.15 100 2.26
2 9.81 0.15
=26.11m
Manometric head, Hm h h fd
Vd2
2g
=20+26.11+
2.26 2
249.81
=46.37m
Power required to drive the pump=
WQHm
mO
=25.994 hW
175
10. Two geometrically similar pumps are running at the same speed of 750 r.p.m.
one pump has an impeller diameter of 0.25 m. and lifts water at the rate of 30
litres/sec against a head of 20m. Determine the head and impeller diameter of the
other pump to deliver half the discharge. (AU-Nov 2003)
Given:
N1=N2=750 rpm.
D1=0.25m
Q1=30lit/sec
H1=20m
Q2=
Q1
2
Solution:
Q AV
2 DN
D
4
60
QD3N
2 Q2 D32N1
Q1 D13
N1 N2
Q2 D32
D32
=
D2
Q1
D13
Q2
Q1
2 Q2
0.25
2
1
3
0.198m
176
Similarly, V=
T1DN
60
VDN
Also V= 2gH
V H
DN H
4 D2N2
H2
D1
H1
D2
H2
N1 N2
D
H2 2 H1
D1
2
0.198
=
20
0.25
12.55m
11. The diameter and stroke of a single acting reciprocating pump are 200mm and
400mm respectively. The pump runs at 60 rpm and lifts 12 litres of water per
second through a height of 25m. the delivery pipe is 20m long and 150mm in
diameter. Find (i) theoretical power required to run the pump (ii) percentage of
slip (iii) Acceleration head at the beginning and middle of the delivery
stroke.(AU-Nov 2003).
Given:
D=0.2m
L=0.4m
L 0.4
0.2m
2
2
N 60rpm.
Q actual =12 litres/s
r
=0.012m3 / s
hd=25m
ld=20m
177
dd=0.15m
Solution:
Qth
ALN
60
0.2 0.4 60
=
0.0126m3 / s
4
60
2
(i)
Qth Qact
100
Qth
0.126-0.12
100
0.126
=4.76%
=
ld A 2
w r
g ad
cosO O 1
2
2
0.2
20 4
2 60
=
0.2
2
9.81
60
015
4
=28.62 m of water.
ld A 2
w cos90o
g ad
=0
12. The length and diameter of a suction pipe of a single acting reciprocating
pump are 5m and 10cm respectively. The pmp has a plunger diameter of
150mm and stroke length of 300mm. the centre of the pump is 4 m above the
water surface in the sump. The atmospheric pressure head is 10.3m of water
and the pump is running at 40rpm. Determine
(i)
Pressure head due to acceleration at the beginning of suction stroke.
(ii)
Maximum pressure head due to acceleration .
178
(iii)
Pressure head in the cylinder at the beginning and at the end of the
stroke (AU- Nov2004.
Given:
Ls=5m
Ds=0.1m
D=0.15m
L=0.3m
L 0.3
0.15m
2
2
hs 4m
r
Solution:
Acceleration head on the suction stroke,
Has
ls A 2
w r cos
g as
ls A 2
w r
g as
cos 0 o 1
2
2
0.15
5
2 40
=
4
0.15
2
9.81
60
0.1
4
=3.02m of water.
179
ls A 2
wr
g as
=-3.02m of water.
180
L
0.2 m
L = 400 mm = 0.4, therefore
2
hd 1m;dd 150 mm 0.15 m;
r
Area of piston A p
2
Dp x0.22 0.03142 m2
4
4
2
2
xdd 0.15 0.1767 m2
4
4
2N 2x40
4.19 rad/ s
60
60
2N 2x40
4.19 rad/ s
60
60
had 1
ldl Ap 2
3
0.01342
. . r cos
x
4.192 x0.2cos
g Ad
9.81 0.1767
= 1.909 cos
2LAN 2x0.4x0.01342x40
Q
p
A d 60xA d
60x0.01767
4f.ld.V2 4x0.01x37x0.952
0.454 m
dd.2g
0.15x2x9.81
Pressure head in delivery pipe,
hfd
181
***************
182