INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS

Error
1.
Error is the difference between the actual value of a quantity and the
value obtained in measurement.
2.

There are 2 main types of error

a.

Systematic Error

b.

Random Error

Systematic Error
1.
Systematic errors are errors which tend to shift all measurements in a
systematic way so their mean value is displaced. Systematic errors can be
compensated if the errors are known.
2.

Examples of systematic errors are

a.

zero error, which cause by an incorrect position of the zero

point,
b.

an incorrect calibration of the measuring instrument.

c.

consistently improper use of equipment.

3.

Systematic error can be reduced by

a.

Conducting the experiment with care.

b.

Repeating the experiment by using different instruments.

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Zero error
1.
A zero error arises when the measuring instrument does not start
from exactly zero.
2.
Zero errors are consistently present in every reading of a
measurement.
3.

The zero error can be positive or negative.

(NO ZERO ERROR: The pointer of the ammeter place on zero when no
current flow through it.)

(NEGATIVE ZERO ERROR: The pointer of the ammeter does not place on
zero but a negative value when no current flow through it.)

(POSITIVE ZERO ERROR: The pointer of the ammeter does not place on
zero but a negative value when no current flow through it.)
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Random errors
1.
Random errors arise from unknown and unpredictable variations in
condition.
2.

It fluctuates from one measurement to the next.

3.
Random errors are caused by factors that are beyond the control of
the observers.
4.

Random error can cause by

a.

personal errors such as human limitations of sight and touch.

b.

lack of sensitivity of the instrument: the instrument fail to respond

to the small change.

c.

natural errors such as changes in temperature or wind, while the

experiment is in progress.
d.

wrong technique of measurement.

5.
One example of random error is the parallax error. Random error can
be reduced by
a.

taking repeat readings

b.

find the average value of the reading.

Parallax error
A parallax error is an error in
reading an instrument due to the
eye of the observer and pointer
are not in a line perpendicular to
the plane of the scale.

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Measuring Instrument
Ruler

A metre rule has sensitivity or accuracy accuracy of 1mm.

Precaution to be taken when using ruler
1.
2.
3.

Make sure that the object is in contact with the ruler.

Avoid parallax error.
Avoid zero error and end error.

Thermometer

There are 2 types of mercury thermometer

1.

Thermometers of range -10oC - 110oC with accuracy

1oC.
2.

Thermometers of range 0oC - 360oC with accuracy 2oC.

Precaution to be taken when using thermometer

Make sure that the temperature measured does not
exceed the measuring range.
2.
When measuring temperature of liquid

immerse the bulb fully in the liquid

1.

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stir the liquid so that the temperature in the liquid is

uniform

do not stir the liquid vigorously to avoid breaking the

thermometer

Stopwatch

There are 2 types of stopwatches

analogue stopwatches of sensitivity 0.1s or 0.2s
2.
digital stopwatches of sensitivity 0.01s.
The sensitivity of a stopwatch depends on the reaction
time of the user.
1.

Ammeter and Voltmeter

1.
Ammeters are measuring instrument used to measure electric
current.
2.
Voltmeters are measuring instrument used to measure potential
difference (voltage).
3.

In SPM syllabus, you need to know

a.

how to take reading from ammeter and voltmeter

b.

how to identify the sensitivity of an ammeter and voltmeter.

c.

the connection of ammeter and voltmeter in a circuit.

4.
An ammeter is always connected in series with the load (resistor)
in a circuit.
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INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS

5.
A voltmeter is always connected parallel to the load (resistor) in a
circuit.

1. The diagram shows a stopwatch. What is the sensitivity

of the stopwatch?
A.

0.01 s

B.

0.02 s

C.

0.1 s

D.

0. 2 s

2. What is the reading shown in the stopwatch on the

right?
A.

186.4 s

B.

6.4 s

C.

126.4 s

D.

185.4 s

3. What is the reading shown in the stopwatch on the

right?
A.

175.2 s

B.

115.2 s

C.

55.2 s

D.

235.2 s

4. The figure shows the reading on a stopwatch when

the reset button is pressed. What is the zero error shown
in the stopwatch?
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INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS

A.

-0.2 s

B.

-0.1 s

C.

+0.1 s

D.

+0.2 s

5. Which of the following are the precaution steps to be taken when using a
ruler?
I.
Ensure the object to be measured is in contact with the ruler.
II.
III.

Avoid parallax error.

Avoid zero error.

6. What is the sensitivity of the mercury thermometer with range -10oC 110oC?
A.

1 oC

B.

2 oC

C.

0.5 oC

D.

0.2 oC

7. An voltmeter must be connected ________ the electrical component in a

circuit.
A.

in series with

B.

parallel to

C.

after

D.

before

Verniar Calipers

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1.

Vernier caliper is a measuring tool used to measure length.

2.
It is more accurate than metre rule. It can measure length with an
accuracy up to 0.01cm.
3.
Figure above shows the illustration of a vernier caliper. For SPM
students, you need to remember the name aof the parts and the function of
the 2 jaws and the stem.

Taking Reading from a Vernier Calipers:

1.
A vernier caliper has 2 scale, namely the main scale and the vernier
scale.
2.

The main scale is read at the zero mark of the Vernier scale.

3.
The vernier scale is read at the point where it's scale coincide with
the main scale.
4.
Reading of Vernier caliper = Reading of main scale + reading of
vernier scale.
5.

The vernier scale is 9mm long, divided into 10 divisions.

Example:

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Reading of main scale = 2.2cm

Reading of vernier scale = 0.07cm
Reading of the vernier caliper = 2.27cm
Zero Error of Vernier Caliper
1.
The zero error is determined by tightening the jaws of the vernier
calipers.
2.

Zero error must be eliminated from the reading.

Actual Reading = Reading of Vernier Caliper - Zero

Error
Example:
Images below show the reading of 3 vernier calipers when their jaws are
tightly closed. Find the zero error of each caliper.

a.
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Zero error = +0.02 cm

b.

Zero error = -0.06cm

c.

Zero error = 0 cm (No zero error)

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Micrometer Screw Gauge

Label of the Parts

Range and Accuracy

1.
The range of a micrometer is 0-25mm.
2.

The accuracy of a micrometer is up to 0.01mm.

How to Use a Micrometer?

1.
Turn the thimble until the object is gripped gently between the anvil
and spindle.
2.
Turn the ratchet knob until a "click" sound is heard. This is to
prevent exerting too much pressure on the object measured.
3.

Take the reading.

How to Read the Reading?

Reading = Reading of main scale + Reading of thimble scale.
Reading of main scale = 0 - 25 mm
Reading of thimble scale = 0 - 0.49mm
What is the function Ratchet?
___________________________________________________________

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Example

Reading of main scale = 5.5mm

Reading of thimble scale = 0.28mm
Actual Reading = 5.5mm + 0.28mm = 5.78mm
Precaution Steps
1.
The spindle and anvil are cleaned with a tissue or cloth, so that any
dirt present will not be measured.
2.

The thimble must be tightened until the first click is heard.

3.

The zero error is recorded.

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Exercise:

1. Diagram above shows the reading on a Vernier calliper. What is the

reading of the measurement?
Answer = ____________
2. A student used a vernier caliper to measure the length of his pencil. He
found that the caliper showed a reading of -0.02 cm even though the jaws of
the caliper was firmly closed. When he used the caliper to measure the
length of the pencil, the caliper showed a reading of 8.25 cm. What was the
correct measurement of the length of the pencil?
A.

8.25 cm

B.

8.27 cm

C.

8.23 cm

3. Figure (a) above shows the zero error of a vernier calliper. Figure (b)
shows the reading on the vernier calliper when measuring the length of an
object. Find the correct reading of the measurement.

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A.

2.03 cm

B.

2.07 cm

C.

2.05 cm

D.

2.15 cm

4. Figure above shows the reading on a micrometer screw gauge.

The reading is equal to _________
5. A student was asked to measure the thickness of a sheet of paper. The
diagram shows the reading on a micrometer when he measured the thickness
50 sheets of similar paper. What is the thickness of the paper?

A.

4.44 mm

B.

4.44 cm

C.

0.089 mm

D.

0.089 cm

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