ORGANIC LECTURE NOTES

GOC-II

PPPP-P
Electronic effects (I, R, m, Hyperconjucation), Physical properties
Acidic strength & basic strength

GOC-2 (LECTURE NOTES)

ELECTRONIC EFFECTS (I & R EFFECTS)

ELECTRONIC EFFECT : The effect which appears due to electronic distribution is called electronic effect.

Types of electronic effect

(1) Inductive Effect
(2) Resonance (Mesomeric effect)
(3) Hyper conjugation
(4) Electromeric effect

(A)

Inductive Effect Inductive Effect When a sigma covalent bond is formed between two atoms of
different electronegativity atom then the sigma () bond pair electron are shited towards more electronegative atom due to this shifiting of e a dipole is created between the two atoms.
Due to this dipole the bonds e in the chain are also shifted and the chain becomes polarised this effect of
polorisation in the chain due to a dipole is called inductive effect.
Diagram showing I effect

Features of Inductive effect

(i)
Inductive effect is a permanent effect.
(ii)
The effect is distance dependent and this effect (end up) negligible after three carbon atom in the
change
(iii)
Inductive effect is operative only through bond it does not affect or participate the bond electron
(iv)
The CH bond is the reference of inductive effect i.e. the electron movement or polarity in the CH
bond is considered to be neglible and the I effect of Hydrogen is taken to be zero.

2.

Types of inductive effect :

(a)

I Effect :
The group which withdraws electron cloud is known as I group and its effect is called I effect. Various
groups are listed in their decreasing I strength as follows.
>
>
> NO2 > SO3H > CN > CHO > COOH > F > Cl > Br > I
> OR > OH > NH2 > C CH > C6H5 > CH = CH2 > H.

(b)

+ I Effect :
The group which repel (or release electron) cloud is known as + I group & this effect is + I effect.
>

> C(CH3)3 > CH (CH3)2 > CH2 CH3 > CH3 > D > H

Example-1 Since NO2 is I group it pulls or withdraws e from cyclohexane ring making it e deficient

ExampleExampleDue to e donating nature of

carbon chain has become partially negative but COOH is I group
therefore carbon chain has become partially positive.
Example Page # 2

(a) CH3

CH2

(c)

CH2

(b)

CN

CH2

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)

(i)

(j)

CH 3

CH

CH

NO2

O
-

(k)

-
-

3.

-
-

Applications of Inductive effect :

(i) Acidity
(ii) Basicity
(iii) Dipole moment
(iv) Stability of intermediate
(v) Reactivity of compound in chemical reaction

(a )

In deciding acidic strength of

(i) Carboxylic acid
I effect Acidic strength (presence of I groups increases acidic character)
+ I effect Basic strength (presence of + I groups increases basic character)
Example :
(I)

H3 C H 2C H2 C CH COOH
|
Cl

(II)

CH 3 CH 2 CH CH 2 COOH
|
Cl

(III)

CH 3 CH CH2 CH 2 COOH
|
Cl

(IV)

CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 COOH

Acid strength order

I II III IV

Explanation :
We know that I effect increases acidic strength. Now morever it is distance based effect so where the I
group is nearest to COOH, It enters strong effect and makes acid strong.
Example :
(I)
O2N CH2 COOH
(III)
H3CO CH2 COOH

(II)
(IV)

F CH2 COOH
CH3 CH2 COOH

Acid strength order

I II III IV

Since NO2 has strong I effect its influence will make corresponding acid strongest ( I effect acid
Page # 3

character).
Example :
Arrange for acidic strength order CH3COOH, ClCH2COOH, Cl2CHCOOH, Cl3CCOOH
Ans.
CH3COOH < ClCH2COOH < Cl2CHCOOH < Cl3CCOOH
(b)

Stability of alkyl carbocation : Carbocations are electron deficient species and they are stabilised by +
effect and destablised by effect. Because + effect tends to decrease the positive charge and effect
tends to increases the positive charge on
Example :

(c)

Stability : CH3

(carbocation)

< CH3 CH2

< (CH3 )2 C H < (CH3 )3 C

Stability of carbon free radical : Carbon free radical are stabilised by + I effect.
Example :

Stability : CH3 < CH3

CH2

< CH3

< CH3

CH3

LECTURE # 2
(B)

Resonance Effect
The delocalisation of adjacent (parallel) p-orbital electron is called resonanc. Through resonance the e
density in the molecule becomes uniform, due to uniformility of e density the stability of molecule increases.
Hence the phenomena of a resonance is a stabilising effect.
In resonance only parallel p-orbital e are involved. To explain the property of actual molecule different lewis
structure are drawn with the movement of p-orbital electrons.
This lewis structure are called resonating structure or canonical structure.

Resonance hybrid

Examples :
(I)

(II)

(III)

(IV)
(V)
(VI)

CH2 = CH

CH = CH2

Resonating structure are only hypothetical but they all contribute to a real structure which is called resonance
hybride. The resonance hybride is more stable than any resonating structure. The P.E. difference between
the most stable resonating structure and resonance hybride is called resonace energy. The stability of
molecule is directly proportional to resonance energy.

Page # 4

The most stable resonating structure contribute maximum to the resonance hybride and less stable resonating
structure contribute minimum to resonance hybride.

Rule for writing resonating structure :

(i) In resonating structure only p-orbitals e are shifted, bond e are not involved in resonance, therefore the
bond skeleton well remain same in two resonating structures.
(ii) The atoms are not moved
(iii) The no. of paired p e are same and pair of unpaired p e are same in two resonating structure.
(iv) The octel rule is not violated (for second period element)
(v) High energy structure are rejected as personating structure or their contribution to the resonance hybride
is least.
e.g. Opposite change on adjacent atoms and similar charge on adjacent atoms are cases of high energy.
They are not accepted as resonating structures.
e.g.
1.
CH2 = CH CH = CH2
2.

CH2 = CH CH = CH2

3.

CH2 = CH

4.

CH2 = CH CH = CH2

5.

CH2 = CH CH = CH2

CH3 CH = C = CH2

Condition for resonance :

1.
All atoms participating in resonance must be sp or sp2 hybridised.
2.
The parallel p-orbitals overlap to each other.
3.
Molecule should be conjugated system (parallel p-orbitals systems are called conjugate system)
e.g.
1.
CH2 = CH C CH
(Show resonance)
2.
CH2 = CH CH2 CH = CH2
(Not show resonance)
3.

(Show resonance)

4.

(Not show resonance)

5.

CH2 = C = CH2

(Not show resonance)

Types of Conjugation:A given atom or group is said to be in conjugation with an unsaturated system if:(i) It is directly linked to one of the atoms of the multiple bond through a single bond.
(ii) It has bond, positive charge, negative charge, odd electron or lone pair electron.
1.
2.

CH2 = CH CH = CH2
+
CH 2 = CH CH 2

3.

..
CH 2 = CH NH 2

(Conjugation between C = C and C = C)

(Conjugation between +ve charge and C = C)
(Conjugation between lone pair and C = C)
Page # 5

Q.

4.

CH2 = CH CH2

(Conjugation between odd electron and C = C)

5.

CH2 = CH CH = CH CH2

(Conjugation between negative charge and C = C)

Write resonating structure for each of the following molecules :

O
||
(a) CH3 CH CH C CH3

(a)

..
(b) H 2 N CH CH C N

(b)

(c)

(c)

(d) CH3 O CH = CH

(d)

(e)

(e)

..

(f) CH3 C O :

(f)

(g)

(g)

(h)

(h)

(i)

(i)

(j)

(j)

Q.

Draw resonating structure for following molecules

,

CH2 = C = O

Ans.
+

CH3 C O

..

..

..

..

CH 3 C = O

CH 2 = C = O

C H2 C O N = N = N

N N N
Page # 6

LECTURE # 3
Mesomeric Effect : When a group releases or withdraw p orbital electron in any conjugated system then it is called
M effect group and effect is known as mesomeric effect.
+M group : (electron releasing group) : A group which first atom bears -ve charge or lone pair always shows
+M effect.
Relative order of +M group :

>

>

> NR2 > OH > OR > NHCOR > OCOR > Ph > x > NO > NC

e.g.

1.

2.

3.

4.
M group : (-electron withdrawing)
Relative strength of M group :
NO2 , CN , SO3H , CHO, CH = NH,

(G = H, R, OH, OR, NH2, NHR, NR2, X)

e.g.
1.

+
O N = .O:
.

+ . .
O N .O:
.

+ . .
O N .O:
.

2.

+ ..
O N .O:
.
+

+ ..
O N = O:

3.
Q

H 2C = CH C N:

H 2C CH = C = N:
..

By drawing resonating structures of following molecules, Judge whether the group attatched to ring exerts
+ m or m effect.

Page # 7

Ans.
NHCCH3

NHCCH3

NHCCH3

NHCCH3

NHCCH3

(a)

O
CCH3

(b)

CCH3 (m effect group)

O
O
CCH3

Note:
1.

CH3

CH3

CH3

CH3

When a +m group and m group are at meta-positions with respect to each other then they are not in
conjugation with each other, but conjugation with benzene ring

etc.
2.
Q.

+M group increases electron density in benzene ring while M group decreases electron density in the
benzene ring.
Write electron density order in the following compound.

(a)
Ans. III > I > II > IV

(b)
Ans.

I > II > III . IV

Ans.

IV > I > III > II

(c)

Page # 8

Rules for stability of resonating structure :

(1)

The resonating structure without any charge separation is more stable.

e.g.
1.

CH2 = CH CH = O
I
Stability order I > II

II

2.

Stability order I > II

(2)

The resonating structure with more no. of bonds is more stable.

(3)

Negative charge on more electronegative atom and positive charge on less electronegative atom are more
stable.
e.g.

1.
Stability order II > I.

2.

(4)

Stability order II > I.

Structure with complete octet of each atom is more stable.
e.g.

Stability order II > I.

Note : The rule of electronegativity and rule of octet is are contradictory to each other then priority is given
to the octet rule.

Stability order II > I.

Stability order III > II > I .

(5)

Two different compounds in which one compound has more conjugation is more stability (provided nature of
bonding is same).
CH2 = CH CH = CH2
CH2 = CH CH = CH CH = CH2
I
II
Stability order II > I.

Page # 9

(6)

In two compounds if one is aromatic and another is non aromatic and conjugation is equal in both the
compound the aromatic compound is more stable (nature of bonding is same)
(cyclic and conjugate)
Stability order

(7)

II

Structure with linear conjugation is more stable than cross conjugation (nature of bonding is same).
Cross conjugation : If two groups are in conjugation with a particular group but not conjugated with each other
then the system is called cross conjugation.

CH2= CHCH = CH CH = CH2

linear conjugation

>
LECTURE # 4

(C) Hyper conjugation :

When a sigma CH bond of sp3 hybridised carbon is in conjugation with bond at p-orbital, half filled
p-orbital or vacant p-orbital, then the bond pair e of sigma CH bond overlep with adjacent p-orbital. This
phenomena is called hyperconjugation.
Like resonance hyperconjugation is also a stabilising effect but the effect of resonance is more
dominating than hyperconjugation, since in resonance only p-orbital e overlape while in hyperconjugation
molecule orbitals overlape with - molecule orbital.
* Hyperconjugation is also called no bond resonance.
Condition :
There must be at least one hydrogen at sp3 hybridised -carbon and the hydrogen for hyperconjugation are
called hyperconjugation hydrogen atom.

2.

Hyperconjugation in alkene

3.

Hyperconjugation in carbocation

4.

Hyperconjugation in radical
H

CH 2 C H2

5.

H
CH2 = CH2

Hyperconjugation in toluene

Page # 10

(i) Stability of alkenes no. of hyperconjugative structures

1
HHydrogenat ion

6.

Applications of hyperconjugation

(a)

Stability of Alkenes:- Hyperconjugation explains the stability of certain alkenes over other alkenes.
Stability of alkenes Number of alpha hydrogens and Number of resonating structures
CH3

H3C

H3C

CH3

H3C
Example :
(b)

C = CH2

H3C

H3C

Stability in decreasing order

Heat of hydrogenation : Greater the number of hydrogen results greater stability of alkene. Thus
greater extent of hyperconjugation results lower value of heat of hydrogenation
Example :

(c)

H3C
C = CH CH3

C=C

CH2 = CH2 < CH3 CH = CH2 < CH3 CH = CH CH3

(Heat of Hydrogenation)

Bond Length : Bond length is also affected by hyperconjugation

Example :

(i) Bond length of C(II) C(III) bond is less than expected

(ii) Bond length of C(II) C(I) bond is more than expected
(iii) C H bond is longer than expected
(d)

Stability of carbocation : Greater number of hydrogen results greater stability of carbocations.

Example :

(a)

< CH3

< CH3

CH3 < (CH3)3

CH3

(b) CH3

> CH3 CH2 CH2

>

> CH3

CH3

(due to resultant of inductive effect and hyperconjugation)

(e)

Stability of free radical : Greater the number of -hydrogen results greater stability of carbon free radical
Example : 7

(a)

< CH3

(b) CH3

< CH3

> CH3 CH2

CH3 < CH3

>

>

(due to resultant of inductive effect and hyperconjugation)

(D)

Electromeric effects (Deals this topic in very short)

(i) Electromeric effect is a temporary effect in which a shared pair of electrons (-electron pair) is completely
transfered from a double or a triple bond to one of the atoms joined by the bond at the requirement of
attacking species.
CH2 E
(ii) If the attacking reagent or species is removed, charge disappears and substrate attains its original form.
Thus this effect is reversible and temporary.
(iii) The electromeric effect may be supported or opposed by other permanent effects in various conditions as
follows.
Case I : Electromeric effect may be supported or opposed by I effect as :
(A) CH3

CH3

Page # 11

(B) CH3

CH3

In the condition of (A) E effect is supported by + I effect similarly in the case of (B) E effect is opposed by
+ I effect. That is why (A) is easily possible in comparison to (B).
Case II : In the case of vinyl bromide :

(A)

CH =

(B) CH2

E
Br

Br

(A) is the condition of E effect supported by +m effect and opposed by I effect, (B) is the condition of E
effect opposed by + m effect and supported by - I effect.
Since + m > I effect, so the (A) is valid case.
Case III : If the multiple bond is present between two different atoms, the electromeric shift will take place
in the direction of the more electronegative atom.
(a)

(b)

+E and E effect : The electromeric effect is represented by symbol E, and is said to be + E when the
displacement of electrons is away from the atom or group, and E when displacement of electrons is
towards the atom or group.
+ E effect
E effect

NC

LECTURE # 5

Physical properties
(A)

Hydrogen Bonding

1.

Definition :
The hydrogen bond is an electrostatic attractive force between covalently bonded hydrogen atom of one
molecule and an electronegative atom (such as F, O, N) of another molecule.
eg:- Consider the hydrogen fluorine bond in hydrogen fluoride, HF. This bond is a polar covalent bond in
which hydrogen is attached to a strongly electronegative element.

H
F
The positive charge on hydrogen will be attracted electrostatically by the negative charge on F atom by
another molecule of HF.
H F ----- H F ------ H F
Covalent
hydrogen
bond
bond
Hydrogen bond is a very weak bond (strength about 2 10 kcal/mol)

2.

Conditions for hydrogen bonding:(a) The molecule must contain a highly electronegative atom linked to hydrogen atom.
(b) The size of electronegative atom should be small.
F, O and N atoms only form effective hydrogen bonding.
Example : 1
Greater the electronegativity and smaller the size of the atom (F, O, N), the stronger is the hydrogen bond.
H F ----- H > H O ----- H > H N ----- H
10 Kcal/mole 7 Kcal/mole
2 Kcal/mole

Page # 12

3.

Types of Hydrogen Bonding:-

(A)

Intermolecular hydrogen bonding:- In such type of linkages the two or more than two molecules of the
same compound combine together to give a polymeric aggregate.
This phenomena is also known as association.
Example : 2
(I) Hydrogen bonding in formic acid (Dimerisation)

O H ----- O
CH

HC
O ----- H O
(II) In m - Chlorophenol

O H ------ Cl

--Cl

(III) In water
H

OH ------

- - O H ------- O H ----- O H
O

+
N

O --------- H O

(IV) In p-Nitrophenol
----- H O

N
+

O -------

(V) In p-Nitrophenol & water

O

+
N

O --------- H O
H

O H ------ O H ----H

(B)

Intramolecular hydrogen bonding:- In this type, hydrogen bonding occur within two atoms of the same
molecule. This type of hydrogen bonding is commonly known as chelation.

O H
Example : 3

Cl

(I)

o-Chlorophenol

H
O

(II)

o-Nitrophenol

N
O
H
O
H

(III)

O
C

H
O

2, 6-Dihydroxybenzoic acid

Page # 13

4.

Conclusion:
(a) The chelation between the ortho substituted groups restricts the possibility of intermolecular hydrogen
bonding.
(b) Chelation does not take place in m & p isomers because the two groups far away from each other.
(c) Ortho isomers of hydroxy, nitro, carbonyl compounds have low M.P. than their corresponding m & p
isomers.

(B)

Dipole moment
Due to difference in electronegativity polarity developes between two adjacent atoms in the
molecule. The degree of polarity of a bond is called dipolemoment.
(a) Dipole moment is represented by .
=el
= Dipolemoment
l = internuclear distance between two atoms, i.e., bond length in cm.
e = magnitude of separated charge in e.s.u.
e = 1010 e.s.u.
d = 108 cm
So 1D = 1 1018 esu.cm
(b) The Debye (D) is the unit of dipole moment.
(c) The dipole moment is represented by arrow head pointing towards the positive to the negative end.
Cl
C
Cl

Cl
Cl

(d) Dipole moment of the compound does not depend only on the polarity of the bond but also depends on
the shape of the molecule.
(e) Dipole moment of symmetrical compound is always zero. ( = 0)
(f) Symmetrical compounds are those compounds which fulfill two conditions.
(i) Central atom is bonded with the same atoms or groups.
(ii) Central atom should have no lone pair of electrons.

Example : 4

CCl 4 , CH4 , BH3 , CO 2

Symmetrical molecules

O= C= O
Resultant = 0

F
B
Example : 5

Borontrifluoride
= 0.0
(g) Dipole moment of unsymmetrical compound is always greater than zero ( 0 ).
..
..
..
Example : 6
CHCl3
H 2.O.
H2 S
NH3
..

Page # 14

Unsymmetrical molecules:..

..
O

..

N
H

H
Water
= 1.84D

H
Ammonia
= 1.46D

(h) electronegativity of central atom or surrounding atoms present on the central atom of the
molecule.

(i) Dipole moment of the trans derivative of the compound will only be zero if both the atoms attached to
carbons are in the form a and b.
C=C

C=C

=0
Example : 7

Cl

H
C=C

Cl

H
C=C

Cl
= 1.85D
(cis)

Cl

H
= 0D
(trans)

(ii) If both will not be atoms then trans may or may not be zero.
(iii) If group have linear moments, then the dipolemoment of the trans isomer will be zero.
H3C

Example : 8

CH3

H
C=C

C=C
H

CH3

= 0.33D

H3C
= 0D

(iv) If group have non-linear moments, then the dipolemoment of the trans isomer will not be zero.
H

Example : 9

COOH
C=C

HOOC

= 2.38D

(j) Dipolemoment of disubstituted benzene are :Case I:- When both groups x and y are electron donating or both groups are electron withdrawing then: 12 2 2 21 2 cos

1 = dipolemoment of bond c x
2 = dipolemoment of bond c y
= angle between x and y

Page # 15

 If value of will be more, then cos will be less.

o-derivative > m-derivative > p-derivative

in decreasing order
(i) If x = y and both are atoms then dipole moment of para derivative will be zero.
Cl

Example : 10
Cl

= 0
(ii) If x and y are same groups and group have linear moments then the dipolemoment of para derivative will
be zero.
CH3

CN

CH3

CN

= 0

= 0

Example : 11

Cl

Cl
Cl

Example : 12
= 2.54D

Cl
= 1.48D

(iii) If x and y are same groups and x = y and group have non-linear moments then the dipolemoment of para
derivative will not be zero.
OH

COOEt

OH

COOEt

Example : 13

0
0
Case-II:- When one group is electron withdrawing and the other group is electrondonating then: 12 2 2 21 2 cos

So

p-derivative > m-derivative > o-derivative

in decreasing order
CH3

CH3

CH3
CN

Example : 14
CN

CN

in increasing order
Page # 16

LECTURE # 6
(C) Criteria of Boiling Points :
The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature where its kinetic energy is sufficient to overcome the
intermolecular attractive forces.
Boiling point (a) Intermolecular hydrogen bonding
(b) Molecular weight attraction
(c) dipole-dipole attraction
(d) Strength of vander waal's
Conclusion :
(a) Intermolecular hydrogen bonding increases the B.P. of the compound and also its solubility in water.
(b) Intramolecular hydrogen bonding (chelation) decreases the B.P. of the compound and also its solubility in
water.
(a) Hydrogen Bonding
(i) Water:- Water has the lowest molecular weight among hydrides of the VI group of periodic table, it has
the highest boiling point.
Water molecules associate through intermolecular hydrogen bonding and thus require more energy to separate the molecules for vaporization.
H
H
H
H

HO
Compound
B.P.

HO

HO
H2O
100C

HO

H2S
59.6

H2Se
42C

(ii) Alcohols :
The successive replacement of hydrogen atom of the OH group of alcohol by alkyl group to form ether
blocks the probability of hydrogen bonding reduces and thus B.P. of alcohols are higher than ether.

B.P.

CH2 OH

CH2 OCH3

CH2 OCH3

CH2 OH
197C

CH2 OH
125C

CH2 OCH3
84C

(a) Surface area of the compound :

Boiling point Surface area of the compound
More is the surface area of the compound more will be the B.P. of isomeric compounds.
According to MW, B.P. of isomeric compounds will be the same but according to surface area, B.P. will be
different.
Example : 15

(I)

(II)

(III)

(b) Dipole-Dipole attraction :

(i) Boiling point of the compound, which is polar in character but has no X H group, depends on the
magnitude of dipole-dipole attractions present in the compound.
B.P. Dipole-Dipole attraction
Example : 16

Ethene
Ethyne

(B.P. = 102C)
(B.P. = 75C)

(ii) Alkynes has higher B.P. than corresponding alkanes / alkenes, due to greater dipolemoment in alkyne
then in alkene.

Page # 17

(iii) Boiling point of cis isomer is always more than the trans isomer, dipole-dipole attraction in the cis isomer
is more than the trans isomer.
(c) As molecular weight increases B.P. of the homologue also increases
Example : 17

o-Chlorophenol has lower boiling point in comparison to its p-isomer.

O
H

Cl
o-Chlorophenol : (B.P. = 178C)

HO

Cl ------ H O

Cl --------- H O

Cl -----

Intermolecular hydrogen bonding in p-Chlorophenol (B.P. = 217C)

Example : 18
CH2 OH

CH2OCH3

CH2OCH3

CH 2OH
197C

CH 2OH
125C

CH 2OCH 3
85C

OH
CH3 C CH3

OH
CH3 CH CH2 CH3
99C

CH3 CH2 CH2OH

118C

CH3
83C

Boiling points of aldehydes and ketones are lower than alcohols.

Examples - 19 Arrange following for decreasing order of boiling point
1.

CH3 I

CH3 Br

CH3 Cl

2.

CH3 CH2 OH

CH3 CH2 F

CH3 CH3

Ans.

(1) CH3 I > CH3 Br > CH3Cl > CH3F

CH3 F

(2) CH3CH2OH > CH3CH2F > CH3CH3

Examples - 20 Arrange the following compound in the order of boiling point.

(I)

(II)

OH

OH

OH

Cl

CHO

Ans.

(I)

>

(II)

>

>

CHO

Examples : 21
Ortho - hydroxy, nitro-, carbonyl, carboxylic or chloro compounds have lower melting and boiling points than
the respective meta or para isomer due to interamolecular, H-bonding in ortho substituted compound.

Page # 18

Reason:- Due to intramolecular hydrogen bonding association of molecules does not take place.
Chelation also explains the low boiling point of enolic form of acetoacetic ester than ketonic form.
O

O H ---- O
CH3 C = CH C OC2H5
(enol form) Chelation

CH3 C CH2 COOC2H5

(Keto form)

(E)

Melting Point :
(a) Melting point:- The M.P. of a liquid is the temperature where its kinetic energy is sufficient to overcome
the intermolecular attractive forces.
The heavier the molecule and stronger the intermolecular forces, higher will be the M.P. of the compound.
M.P. generally increase with increase in number of carbon atoms in most of the homologues series.
Examples : 24
The M.P. of covalent compounds increases with increase in molecular weight except water.
Mol. wt.
M.P.
B.P.
H2O
18
0C
100C
H2S

34

83C

59.6C

H2Se

81

64C

42C

H2Te

130

54C

1.8C

Reason:- In water molecule, hydrogen bonding is present so become more compact and more energy is
required to get them seperated during evaporation / melting.
M.P. depends upon symmetry of compounds in isomers, more symmetric compound have higher M.P.
C
|
i.e. C C C > C C C C C > C C C C
|
|
C
C

LECTURE # 7
Relative strength of Organic Acids :
(a) Defination :
(1) Arrhenius Acid : The compounds which furnish H+ ion in aqueous solution are called Arrhenius acids.
Ex. H2SO4, HNO3, HCl, HClO4 etc.
(2) Bronsted Acids : The species which are H+ ion donors are called Bronsted acids. Ex. NH4+ , H3O+,
etc. All Arrhenius acids are Bronsted acids.
(3) Lewis Acids : The lone pair acceptors are known as lewis acids. They have vacant p or d orbitals. Ex.
BX3, AlX3, ZnX2 etc.

Page # 19

(b) Scale for Measurement of Acid Strength :

(Arrhenius or Bronsted acids)

RCOO H

Ka

RCOOH

Where Ka acid dissociation constant.

A strong acid is defined as the acid which furnish more number of H+ ion in aqueous solution
OR the acid which is more ionised in aqueous solution.
So, a stronger acid has higher value of Ka , or it has lower value of pKa.
pKa = log Ka
(c)

(i) Inorganic acids : The mineral acids are inorganic acids. These are considered as completely ionised
in aqueous solution and are described as strong acids. [H2SO4 > HCl > HNO3].

(ii) Organic acids : They are R SO3H > R COOH > Ph OH > ROH.
They are weakly ionised in water, so these are weaker acids then mineral acids.
(d) Prediction of Acid strength :
(i)

Anion/conjugate base of HX

(ii)
(Cb conjugate base)
A stronger acid has more stable anion, so a stronger acid forms a more stable conjugate base.
Factors affecting stability of conjugate base/anion :
(i) Presence of EWG in the alkyl (R) part of the acid increase stability of anion, and hence increases
acidic strength.

Periodicity in Acid Strength of Hydrides :

(1) Along the period from left to right : As electronegativity increase, Ka
(i) CH4 < NH3 < H2O < HF.

(Ka)

Conjugate base/Anion :

(stability)

E.N. dominates over size decrease.

(2) Along the group from up to down : As size increases, Acid Strength
(i) HF < HCl < HBr < HI
Page # 20

(3) Organic acids :

Explanation :
>

>

in acidic character

Both of equal stability

Negative charge partially

localised to oxygen.
ROH

* In sulponic acid three equivelent resonating structure is formed.

* In carboxylic acid, the carboxylate anion has more resonating stabilization of negative charge. The two
resonating structure are equally stable and are equally contributing to R.Hybrid.
* The phenoxide (C6H5O) is a less stable anion, although it has five R.S. but three R.S. (II, III, IV) have
negative charge at C-atom, so are less stable and less contributing.
* The alkoxide anion does not have any resonance stabilization, so it is least acidic.

Page # 21

LECTURE # 8
4.

Experimental Order (Ka) :

(Ar Aromatic)

(1) Aliphatic acid

Ex.1

Ans.

(11) > (2) > (7) > (3) > (6) > (10) > (1) > (4) > (5) > (8) > (9)

Ex.2

CH3COOH < ClCH2COOH < Cl2CHCOOH < Cl3CCOOH

Ex. 3

Ex.4

>

(a) HCOOH
(I = 0)

>

>

CH3COOH
(+I)

Page # 22

(b) CH3 COOH

(+I)

>

CH3CH2COOH
(+I)

(c) CCOOH > CCCOOH > CCCCOOH

Thus, as alkyl size increase, acid strength decreases.
(e) CCCCCOOH >

>

(f) F CH2 COOH > Cl CH2 COOH > Br CH2COOH > I CH2 COOH
(g)
(h) CH3 CH2 COOH < CH2 = CH COOH < CH C COOH
sp3
sp2
sp

(2) Dicarboxylic acids :

1st one is stabilizing, 2nd one destabilizing.

In case of Polybasic acids (compounds having more than one acidic H) , the successive acid dissociation
constant always have order
Ka1 > Ka2 > Ka3 > ...............
In second dissociation

ion is taken out from a negatively charged species, so it is difficult.

(ii)

Ka1 I > II > III > IV

pKa1 IV > III > II > I
(iii)

Maleic acid is stronger acid than fumaric acid.

Page # 23

Ka1 > Ka1

Ka2 > Ka2

LECTURE # 9
Acidic strength in Aromatic acid :
Acidic strength in aromatic acid depends upon following factors
(i)
Steric effect (steric inhibition of resonance) or Ortho effect
(ii)
Electronic effect of substituents
(iii)
Intermolecular and intramolecular hydrogen bonding.
Steric effect (ortho effect) : In case of 1,2-disubstituted benzene if the substituents are bulky then due to steric
repulsion (vanderwaal repulsion) the group go out of plane w.r.t. benzene ring. Due to this change in planarity
the conjugation between the substituents on benzene is slightly diminished. This effect is called steric
inhibition of resonance. (ortho effect) In case of ortho substituted benzoic acid due to steric inhibition of
resonance the conjugation between benzene and carboxylic group is diminished and the +m effect benzene
ring to the carboxylic is diminished and as the acidity increases w.r.t. benzoic acid and w.r.t. meta and para
substituent benzoic acid inspite any electronic effect of substituent
G may be NO2 , R , X , COOR , COOH
except OH , NH2, C N
O

OH

(COOH group goes out of plane)

Substituted Benzoic Acid :
(1) (G = m, I)
COOH

COOH

COOH

NO2
(c)

NO2 (b)

H+

H+

H+
O

NO2

O
N

I, m

O
I (m)

N
O

O
I (w), m
Page # 24

Ka order = ortho > para > meta > benzoic acid

(2) G = (I) ................. CCl3

Ka order = ortho > meta > para > benzoic acid

(3) G = (I > +m) Cl, Br, F, I

Ka order = ortho > meta > para > benzoic acid

(4) G = (+m > I) ..... OCH3

Ka order = meta ortho > benzoic acid > para

(5) G = (+I, H.C.) ........ R (Alkyl group)

Ka order = ortho > benzoic acid > meta > para

<

Ex.

Ex.

<

<

<

>

Electronic effect : In case of different O susbstituted benzoic acids the acidity is not decided by the basis of
ortho effect but it is decided by the. electronic effect of substituents.

Ex.1

+I
II

+m>I
III

I>+m
II

I,m
V

Ka order = V > VV > V > VV > VVV

Page # 25

Ex.2
+I
II

I
III

I
II

I
V

Ka order = V > VV > VVV > V > VV

At meta positions only electronic effect is operative and m effect is not operative.

Ex.3
+I
II

I
3.

I
III

I
II

I
V

Ka order = V > VV > VV >VVV > V

Intermolecular& Intramolecular hydrogen bonding
Intramolecular (6-membered) H-bond due to ortho is effective only in Phenols and not in COOH (7-membered, insignificatnt).

COOH

Ex.1
COOH

H +

H+

OH O
C

OH

COO

Ortho anion stabilised by intramolecular H-bonding.

Ka
B.P.
Solubility
M.P.
Separation

o>p
o<p
o<p
o<p
Ortho is steam volatile.

Ex.2

Ka order : (i) > (ii) > (iii) > (iv).

Note:

Ortho effect is operative only in o-substituted Benzoic acids and not in o-substituted phenols.

Page # 26

LECTURE # 10
(3) Acid strength of Phenols (effect of substituents) :
There is no ortho effect in phenol

>

>

(1) EWG = (m , I) (NO2, CHO, COR, C N, etc.)

Ka order = Para > Ortho > Meta > Phenol

(2) EWG = (I)

with no mesomeric effect

>

>

>

Ka order = Ortho > Meta > Para > Phenol

(3) EWG = (I > + m) X = F, Cl, Br, I

Ka order = Ortho > Meta > Para > Phenol

Page # 27

(4) G = R (Alkyl group) = + I, H.C.

Ka order : Phenol > Meta > Para > Ortho

(5) G = (+m > I) (OH, NH2, OR, etc.)

Ka order : Meta > Phenol > Ortho > Pera

LECTURE # 11

Ex.1

>

(1)

>

>

(II)

(III)

>

>

(2)

(I)

(IV)

(V)

(VI)

only (I)
Page # 28

Ka order = I > II > III > VI > IV > V

(3)

(I)

(II)

(III)

(IV)

(V)

(VI)

Ka order = I > II > III > IV > V > VI

>

(4)

>

(5)

(No acidic H)

>

(6)

>

>

picric acid
Reaction of Acids with salts :
(1)

Ex.

NaX
+
Salt = NaOH + HX
Weak acid

HY

Strong
Acid

NaY
+
Salt = NaOH
+ H Y (S.A.)

HX
W.A.

2 NaCl + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + 2HCl

Na2SO4 + 2HCl No reaction

Remark : A stronger acid displaces the weaker acid from any metal salt. The weaker acid is released out as a gas
or liquid or precipitates out as a solid. The weaker acid cannot displace the stronger acid from the salt.
Ex.

CH3COONa + CH3SO3H CH3COOH + CH3SO3Na (feasible)

CH3COONa + PhOH PhONa + CH3COOH (not feasible)

Q.

Which of the follwing reaction is possible ?

(A) CH3COOH + HCOONa Not possible (reverse is possible)

ONa

OH
(B)

Not possible

NO2
Page # 29

SO3Na
(C)

COOH
+

Not possible

(D*) HC C Na + H2O HC C H + NaOH

LECTURE # 12
Basic strength
(I) DEFINITION:

Ex:

(a) Arrhenius base: Those compound which furinishes OH - ions in aquous solutions are known as arrhenius
base.
NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2 etc.
(b) Bronsted base:- e pair donor or H ion acceptor. :NH3, R N H2, R2 N H, R3 N , H2 O, R O H, R O R
(c) Lewis base:- e pair donor to H ion.

NH4

R O R + H+

+
R OR
H

NH 3 + H +

(II) BASICITY:
It is the tendency to accept H ion, or it is the case of acceptance of H ion.
H3N: + H __________easily..

Ex:

H O H + H __________less easily..
Thus, NH3 > H2O in basicity.
Less electronegative atom (N) donates electron pair easily.

(III) SCALE OF BASICITY/BASIC STRENGTH:-

In aq. solution:R NH 2 + H2O

Base

+
R NH3 + OH Conjugate Acid (C.A.)

[RNH3 ][OH - ]
Kb =
[where Kb = Base dissociation constant].
[RNH2 ]

pKb = logKb
Note : A stronger base always has a weaker C.A. and vice versa.

(IV) PERIODICITY IN Kb (BASIC STRENGTH):Factors:- (i) E.N. of element__________E.N. , Kb

(ii) Size of element__________size , Kb
(a) CH3 > NH2 > OH > F - -------- E.N.
CH - is strongest base in periodic table.
3

(b) CH3 > P H2 > S H > Cl-------- E.N.

(c) F - > Cl - > Br - > - -------- size

Page # 30

(d) - O H > - SH-------- size

(e) H2 O > H2 S
(f) :NH3 > :PH3

(V) CARBANION BASES (:C - ) :

(i) CH3 CH2 > CH2 = CH > CH (E.N. , Kb )
(ii) CH3 CH2 CH2 >> CH2 = CH CH2
(delocalised lone pair) due to Resonance
(iii) CH2 = CH CH2 > CH3 C CH2

CH2

(better resonance due to ve charge on O)

(iv)

<
(Resonance
Stabilisation)

(localised
ve charge)

Criteria for deciding basec strengths :1.

Electronic effect : +I, +m group increases electron density at nitrogen atom and increases is lone pair
donating ability therefore basicity increases.
I, m group decreases electron density at nitrogen and hence decreases its lone pair donating ability,
therefore basicity decreases.
2.
Hybridisation of Nitrogen atom : The lone pair donating ability of nitrogen atom changes with hybridisation.

sp3(N) > sp2(N) > sp(N)

CH3 CH2 CH2 N H2 > CH2 = CH CH2 N H2 > CH C CH2 N H2

Ex.

Kb lone pair donating ability

sp(N) > sp2(N) > sp3(N)

Electrongeativity :

(VI) NITROGENOUS BASES N: :-

Classification:- (i) Aliphatic amines (R NH2, R2 NH, R3 N)

(ii) Aromatic amines (Ph NH2) or Anilines

(iii) Amides R C NH2

O
(iv) Amidines R C NH2
:NH
Among these, amides are the weakest bases.
(iv) > (i) > (ii) > (iii)

(i) Aliphatic amines :

Consider the following molecules

By visiting + I effect of methyl in above example we may expect basic nature as

NH3 < MeNH2 < Me2NH < Me3N
Which is not true
This is due the fact that basic strength of an amine in water is determined not only by ease of electron
donation (protonation) of N atom but also by the extent to which cation so formed can undergo SOLVATION
Page # 31

and become stabilised by H atom attatched to N atom greater is possibility of solvation via H bonding by
water. Alkyl groups are hydrophobic and inhibits H bond.

H
H
H

N:

+ = O, solvation = max., Steric Hinderance = min.
(1)
H

H
H
(2) R N: +, solvation, Steric Hinderance
H

H
H
(3) R N: + , solvation, Steric Hinderance
R

R
H
R

N:
+max., solvation min., Steric Hinderance max.
(4)
R
In aq. solvation, the general order of basic strength is R2NH > R3N > RNH2 > NH3. (R = Ethyl)

or, in some cases, it is R2NH > RNH2 > R3 N > NH3 (R = Methyl)
Explanation: It will be seen that the introduction of an alkyl group into ammonia increases the basic strength
markedly as expected. The introduction of a second alkyl group further increases the basic strength, but the
net effect of introducing the second alkyl group is very much less marked than with the first. The introduction
of a third alkyl group to yield a tertiary amine, however, actually decreases the basic strength in both the
series quoted. This is due to the fact that the basic strength of an amine in water is determined not only by
electron-availability on the nitrogen atom, but also by the extent to which the cation, formed by uptake of a
proton, can undergo solvation, and so become stabilised. The more hydrogen atoms attached to nitrogen in
the cation, the greater the possibilities of powerful solvation via hydrogen bonding between these and water:

Thus on going along the series, NH3 RNH2 R2NH R3N, the inductive effect will tend to increase the
basicity, but progressively less stabilisation of the cation by hydrating will occur, which will tend to decrease
the basicity. The net effect of introducing successive alkyl groups thus becomes progessively smaller, and
an actual changover takes place on going from a secondary to a tertiary amine.
Conclusion :
(1) Secondary amines are stronger bases than tertiary amines.
Reason:- Solvation is less in 3 amines and more steric hinderance to H ion.
(2) All alkyl amines (1, 2, 3) are stronger bases than ammonia (due to + effect of R group).
(3) In gaseous phase, the basic strength order is 3 > 2 > 1 > NH3 (+ effect of R group).

CH2 NH2 >

(4)

: NH3
> NH2 NH2 >
NH2 O H
Ammonia
Hydrazine Hydroxylamine

(3)

CH2 NH2

(2)

(1)

Ex.

N H3 > R O R > R O H > H O H

(+)
(+ )

N:

>

N:

(More compact)
Cyclic Amine is more basic than acyclic amine (if degree of N is same).

Page # 32

(5)
:NH2

:NH2

(ii) > (iii) > (i) > (iv)

(6)
Kb order : I > II > III

(7)
I
Sulphonamide

II
Amide

III
Ar. Amine

IV
Aliphatic amine

Kb order : IV > III > II > I

(8)

CH2 CH2 NH2

|
Ph
I

CH3 CH NH2
|
Ph

CH3 CH2 NH
|
Ph

II

III

Kb order : I > II > III

(9)

PhNH2
I

Ph2NH
II

Ph3N
III

Kb order : I > II > III

(10)

II

III

IV

Kb order : IV > II > III > I

LECTURE # 13
(ii) Aromatic amines (Ph NH2) or Anilines :

When the lone pair lies in conjugation with a multiple bond, it resides in 2p atomic orbital, so that it can get
resonance stabilisation.
Aniline is a weaker base than NH3 because it has delocalised lone pair.

Page # 33

Ex.

Which of them is stronger base

CH3 NH2
Since ease of donation of lone pair of N is basicity, CH3 NH2 is more basic due to + I effect of CH3 group.
Aryl amines aniline is very less basic since lone pair of N are involved in resonance.

Ex.

Which of them is strong base

In pyrole lone pairs are involved in resonacne therefore it is less basic. But in pyridine lone pairs are in
perpendicular plane of orbitals therefore not involved in resonance
Substituted Anilines:(i) G = ERG (+m, HC, +)__________Kb
(ii) G = EWG (m, )__________Kb
Steric effect of ortho-substituted G (ortho effect) :

H2N:

H
+
HNH
G

(a) Ortho-substituted anilines are mostly weaker bases than aniline itself.
(b) Ortho-substituent causes steric hinderance to solvation in the product (conjugate acid i.e. cation).
(c) The small groups like NH2 or OH do not experience (SIR) due to small size.
(1) G = (m, ); NO2

NH2
(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Kb :
dbc a

(2) G = (); CCl3

NH2
(Aniline > p > m > o).

CCl3

CCl3

NH2

NH2

NH2

CCl3
(3) G = ( > +m); Cl

NH2

NH2

NH2
Cl

aniline > p > m > o

Cl

NH2

Ex.

Cl

Page # 34

Only () decides the order.

(4) G = (+, HC); R = CH3 (Toluidines)

NH2

O effect,
+
HC

+m

CH3

NH2

CH3

NH2

NH2

CH3
+w
HC more do min ating

(5) G = (+m > );

Kb order : P > Aniline > O > M

LECTURE # 14

(iii) Amides :

In amides lone pair donation atom is oxygen which is more electronegative. so it can hold negative charge
more effectively, so it donation tendency decrease (kb decreases).

(iv) Amidines :
(a)

Hybridisation of N : sp3 > sp2 > sp

(b)

In case of amidines, the doubly-bonded N is more basic in nature. Although, both the N are sp2 hybridised.
The lone pair of most basic N lies in sp2 hybrid orbital (localised).

x R y
H2N C = NH

R
x
y
NH2 C = NH

(1) sp2
sp2
2
(2) lone pair in sp H.O. lone pair in 2p A.O.
(3) lone pair localised
lp delocalised
(4) Basicity y > x.
Strongest organic Nitrogenous base:(+m)

(+m)
NH 2 C NH 2

Guanidine

:NH2
Page # 35

+
:NH2 C = NH2
NH2

NH2
:NH
Heterocyclic Compounds (Nitrogenous base) :
(1) Pyridine (C5H5N:)

+
NH2 = C NH2
NH2

S.F.:- H
H

6e
Aromatic
Stronger base

N:

A.O. Diagram:-

H
NH2 C NH2 :NH2 C NH2

sp hybrid orbital
(lone pair)
localised

(2) Pyrrole (C4H5N:):6 e

Aromatic
Very weak base
Non aromatic after it donates lone pair

:N H (sp )

S.F.:-

(lp. in 2p A.O.)

A.O. Diagram:-

NH

Complete delocalisation of e

>

N
H
H

>

:NH2
H

3
N sp (4e )
H
H
Non-aromatic

NH3

Aromatic

+
N
H
Aromatic

1.

2.

3.

a>c>b>d

N
H
(c)
sp3/2 ()

(a)
(b)
sp3/2
sp2 localised

NH2 C NH2 ; R C NH2

:NH
(1)

N
H
(d)
sp2

N
H

; RCR ;

:NH
(2)
sp2

NH
(3)
sp2

Kb order : (1) > (2) > (4) > (3) > (5)

:NH2(x)
4.

(y)

N(z)
H

Basicity order:- y > x > z

Ex:-

Page # 36