1

Further Calculus

UNIVERSITY OF STRATHCLYDE
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS
Further Calculus
Contents
1 Implicit differentiation

2 Parametric differentiation

3 Applications of differentiation
3.1 Related rates . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Small variations and Error Analysis
3.3 Linear approximation . . . . . . . .
3.4 Curve sketching . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5 Optimisation . . . . . . . . . . . .

. .
.
. .
. .
. .

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

9
9
13
15
18
28

4 Area between curves

37

5 Volumes of revolution
5.1 Rotation about x-axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 Rotation about y-axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

43
43
47

6 Answers to exercises

50

Further Calculus

Implicit differentiation

y = f (x) defines y explicitly as a function of x. Sometimes we may have an equation relating

x and y which may be difficult or impossible to solve explicitly for y.
For example,

y = x2 + 3x + 4 defines y explicitly as a function of x;

however,
sin(xy) + y 2 + 2xy + x2 = 1 defines y implicitly as a function of x. As x
varies, so do the values of y which solve this equation,
i.e. we think of y as being a
function of x, even though we cannot write this function down explicitly.
Assuming the equation does define y as a differentiable function of x, we can use
implicit differentiation to obtain the derivatives.

x2 + y 2 = 1.

This has two explicit solutions: y = 1 x2 , y = 1 x2

circles, respectively).

For y = 1 x2 (1 < x < 1), we can show that

For example, consider the equation

x
x
2x
dy
=
=
=
2
2
dx
y
2 1x
1x

Similarly for y = 1 x2

y=

1 x2 .

(1 < x < 1),

x
dy
x
=
=

dx
y
1 x2

Proceeding implicitly:

using

(upper and lower semi-

using

p
y = 1 x2 .

(consider y as being a function of x)

2
x2 + y(x)
= 1
(assume y = y(x)).

Consider the LHS as a function of x. Differentiate both sides with respect to x, using the
Chain Rule for the second term:
dy
= 0,
()
2x + 2y
dx
therefore
dy
x
= ,
(y 6= 0).
dx
y
dy
as a function of both x and y.
dx
We can also go on to find the second derivative in terms of x and y using implicit differentiation.
Note that, in general, implicit differentiation gives

Further Calculus
Examples 1A
(i) Find the equation for the tangent to the curve
x2 = y 3 + x sin y + 4

at the point (2, 0).

[Note: the equation is satisfied when x = 2, y = 0.]

Differentiate implicitly: (think of y = y(x) )
2x = 3y 2

dy
dy
+ sin y + x cos y
dx
dx

dy
(3y 2 + x cos y) = 2x sin y
dx
i.e.

2x sin y
dy
=
.
dx
3y 2 + x cos y

Gradient at (2, 0) =
So tangent is y 0 = 2(x 2),

()

22 sin 0
4
=
= 2.
30 + 2 cos 0
2

i.e. y = 2(x 2).

Note that implicit differentiation simply involves the use of the usual rules of differentiation (linearity, product rule, chain rule and (occasionally) the quotient rule) and
whenever a function of the dependent variable, i.e. f (y), appears we apply the chain
rule:

 dy
d 
d 
dy
f (y) =
f (y)
= f (y) .
dx
dy
dx
dx
More Examples in Lectures

Further Calculus

Exercises:
1.

Implicit differentiation

For each of the following equations

(i) find

dy
by implicit differentiation,
dx

(ii) by solving the equation for y find two functions defined by the equation,
(iii) find the derivative of each of the functions found in (ii),
(iv) verify that the results obtained in (i) and (iii) are in agreement.
(a) y 2 = 4x 8

(b) x2 + y 2 = 25

(c) x2 y 2 = 16

(d) x2 + y 2 2x 4y 4 = 0.
2.

3.

Find

dy
as a function of x and y given that
dx
(a) x3 + y 3 = 1
(c)

(e)

sin(xy) = cos(x) cos(y)

xy + sin x + cos y = 0

(f)

x2

y
+ y2

sin(x + y 2) = y.

(b) (x + y)3 = 2x + y + 3, (3, 1)

(2, 4)

(c) xy 3 x3 y = 30,

(2, 3)

(d) x = y cos y,

(/2, /2).

Find y as a function of x and y given that

(a)

5.

(d) x =

Find the tangent to the given curve at the given point:

(a) y 2 = 2x3 ,

4.

(b) 2xy + y 2 xy 3 = 1

x+

Find the value of

y=1

(b)

sin x + tan y = 1

(c) y 2 + xy = 1.

dy
on the given curve at the given point:
dx

(a) 3x2 + 4y 2 = 19,

(1, 2)

(b)

cos(x + y) = y sin x,

(0, /2).

Further Calculus

Parametric differentiation

Sometimes the x and y coordinates of a point on a curve are specified in terms of a third
variable, e.g. the point (x, y) on a curve may be specified by defining x and y as functions
of time.
x = r cos t,
y = r sin t,
(r constant > 0).

(0 t 2)

P( r cost , r sint )

Then x2 + y 2 = r 2 : thus x, y are points on a circle,

radius r, centre O.

( r, 0 )

As t varies we obtain all points from (r, 0) traced out

in the anti-clockwise direction (t is the angle shown).
x = r cos t,

x = a cos t,

y = r sin t,
y = b sin t,

traces the same circle in a clockwise direction.

(0 t 2).

x2 y 2
+ 2 = 1
a2
b

(0, b)

(a, b non-zero constants).

(a, 0)

(a, 0)

Ellipse

(the case a = b is a circle).

(0, b)

x = t cos t,

y = t sin t,

t 0.

x2 + y 2 = t2 (cos2 t + sin2 t) = t2 .

t
O

t is the distance of the point (x, y) from the origin,

as well as the angle.
Increasing spiral.

x = a + r cos t, y = b + r sin t,
Circle, centre (a, b), radius r.

0 t 2

t sint

t
t cos t

(a, b, r constants, r > 0)

(x a)2 + (y b)2 = r 2 .

Further Calculus

Equations of the above type are called parametric equations the third variable is called
the parameter.
Suppose that we have
h(x). Then

x = g(t), y = f (t)
y = f (t) = h g(t)

so that by the chain rule,

and that we can express y as a function

and

y = h(x),

dx
dy
= f (t) = h g(t) g (t) = h (x)
dt
dt
dy dx
dy
=
dt
dx dt

i.e.

First derivative using parametric differentiation

If x and y are given as functions of parameter t, then
dy
dt
dx
dt

dy
=
dx

dx
6= 0.
dt

if

Differentiate both x and y with respect to parameter t; then divide the derivative of y by the
dy
derivative of x. Note that the derivative
is obtained as a function of the parameter t.
dx

Having found
2

dy
= z(t) as a function of parameter t, we can apply the same method to find
dx

d y
:
dx2
2

d
d y
2 =
dx
dx

dy
dx

d
z(t)
dx

d
z(t)
dt

dx
dt
2

Note: It is usual to denote derivatives with respect to t by a ,

In this notation we have:

y =

y
dy
=
dx
x

d
=
dx

dy
dx

= z(t)

d
z
z(t) =
dx
x

d y
dx
, y = 2 .
i.e. x =
dt
dt

Further Calculus
Examples 2A
 1 3 
(i) Find the equations of the tangent and normal at the point
on the circle
,
2 2
2
2
x + y = 1.

Set x = cos t, y = sin t. The given point corresponds to t = .

3
dy
dt

dy
=
dx

dx
dt

Tangent has equation

cos t
1
= cot t =
sin t
3

at t =

.
3

3
1 
1
.
=
x
2
2
3

The normal is perpendicular to the tangent. So the gradient of normal is 3. (Product

of gradients is 1.)

1
3 
,
i.e. y = 3 x.
= 3 x
The equation of the normal is y
2
2
The normal is a line through the origin as expected (although we could prove this
without calculus).
(ii) We saw that if

x = cos t,

y = sin t, then

dx
= sin t,
dt

dy
= cot t,
dx

d
2
( cot t )
cosec2 t
d y
dt
=
= cosec3 t
=
2
dx
( sin t)
sin t
(=

1
y3

as before in Implicit Differentiation).

More Examples in Lectures

Further Calculus

Exercises:
1.

Parametric Differentiation

By eliminating the parameter t identify and sketch the curves described by the following
equations. Indicate the direction of motion on the curve for increasing t.
(a) x = 2t 1,

y = t + 1,

(b) x = 2t3 + 1,
(c) x = cos t,

y = sin t,

(d) x = 3 + cos 2t,

2.

Find

1 t 1
0 t 2

y = 2 + sin 2t,

0 t .

dy
as a function of the parameter t when x and y are given by
dx
(a) x = 4t2 1,
(c) x =

3.

y = t3 + 2,

0t2

1 t2
,
1 + t2

y = 2t + 1
y=

2t
1 + t2

(b) x = 2 sec t,
(d) x = t + t1 ,

y = tan t
y = t t1 .

The coordinates of a particle moving in the (x, y)-plane are given as functions of time
t by
x = 2 cos2 t,
y = sin(2t)
(t 0).
Find the x and y components of the velocity at any time t and hence find the magnitude
and the direction of the resultant velocity at any time t. Deduce that the particle never
comes to rest.
dy
d2 y
and 2 as functions of the parameter t when x and y are given by
dx
dx
(a) x = cos2 t, y = sin2 t
(b) x = cos(2t), y = sin t
1
(c) x = t2 , y = t3
(d) x = t2 t + 1, y = t2 + .
t

4.

Find

5.

Find equations for the tangent and the normal at the point (2, 1) on the curve given
1
parametrically by x = t2 + , y = t2 t + 1 .
t

Further Calculus

3
3.1

Applications of differentiation
Related rates

Consider a practical problem where two quantities x and y are related by a formula y = f (x),
and suppose that x depends on a variable t, x = g(t) so that
y = f (x) = f (g(t)) = h(t)
i.e. y is also a function of t. (Often, t represents time).
Then, by the Chain Rule,
dy dx
dy
=
dt
dx dt

or

y = f (x)x,

where, as usual, we use x and y to represent the derivatives (i.e. the rates of change) with
respect to t.
For example, as water is pumped into a tank or bath, the height of the water level increases.
The rate at which the level increases is related to the rate at which the water is supplied (or
the rate at which the volume changes).

To solve related rate problems:

1. Draw a diagram (if possible) and introduce appropriate variables (e.g. x
and y).
2. Decide which rate of change is asked for (e.g. y),
and which rate of change
is given (e.g. x).

3. Find an equation relating the variables (e.g. y = f (x)).

4. Use the Chain Rule to relate y to x:

dy dx
dx
dy
=
= f (x) .
dt
dx dt
dt

5. Finally, substitute appropriate values of variables (if required).

10

Further Calculus
Examples 3A

(i) Air is blown into a spherical soap bubble at a rate of 10 cm3 s1 (cubic cm per second).
When its radius is 1.5 cm, how fast is
(a) its radius

and

(b) its surface area changing with time?

Let the bubble have volume V , radius r and surface area S.

The information in the question tells us V = 10 cm3 s1 .
(a) We seek r.

Volume is related to the radius via

V =

4 3
r
3

dV
= 4r 2 .
dr

Using the formula for related rates:

dV
V =
r = 4 r 2 r ,
dr

and re-arranging r =

V
.
4 r 2

Given that we require the rate when V = 10 and r = 1.5,

r =

10
10
0.35 cm s1 .
2 =
4(1.5)
9

Surface area of a sphere is related to the radius via

(b) We seek S.
S = 4 r 2 ,
We found in (a) that r =

dS
= 8 r.
dr

10
when r = 1.5, therefore
9

10
40
S = 8 r r = 8 1.5
=
cm2 s1
9
3
at that instant.
(ii) Water is poured at a rate of 3 m3 per minute into an inverted conical tank. If the
tank has depth 10 m and top radius 2.5 m, how quickly is the depth of water changing
when it is 8 m?
r 2 h
.)
(A cone of height h and base radius r has volume
3
Let be the angle of the cone. Let h(t), r(t) and V (t) be the depth, top radius
and volume of water in the tank at time t, respectively. The question tells us that
V = 3 m3 per minute.

11

Further Calculus
2.5

Then
tan =

r
2.5
=
10
h

r=

1
h.
4

10

Therefore V can be re-written in terms of height h only :

h

1
1
h
3
V = r 2 h =
h =
h.
3
3
16
48

Using the formula for related rates:

2
dV
h =
h h
V =
dh
16

16V
16 3
48
h =
= 2
2 =
2
h
h
h

(since V = 3).

48
= 0.75 m per minute.
When h = 8, h =
64
More Examples in Lectures

12

Further Calculus

Exercises:

Related Rates

1.

Oil spills from a tanker to form a circular slick. If the radius of the slick increases at a
rate of 0.3 m s1 , how fast is its area increasing when the radius is 100 m?

2.

A trough is 3 m long. Its ends are equilateral triangles of side 1 m. If water flows in at
a rate of 0.5 m3 per minute, how fast is the water level rising when it is 0.3 m deep?

3.

The pressure P and volume V of a gas satisfy Boyles law P V = C (constant). If V

increases at a rate of 10 cm3 per minute, at what rate is P changing when V = 2 litres
and P = 2 atmospheres.

4.

A 10m ladder leans against a wall. The bottom slips out at a rate of 1 m s1 . How fast
is the top moving down the wall when it is 6 m from the ground? At what rate is the
angle of inclination of the ladder to the horizontal then changing?

5.

A police helicopter H hovers stationary at a height of 1 mile above a straight motorway.

The pilot sees a car C on the road and, with radar, determines that the distance from
H to C is 1.5 miles, decreasing at a rate 55 m.p.h. Is the car driver speeding (assuming
a motorway speed limit of 70 m.p.h.)?

6.

A lecturer of height 5 ft 6 ins walks at 3 ft per second away from a lamp of height
16 ft 6 ins. At what rate is his shadow lengthening, and how fast is the tip of his
shadow moving?

7.

One car travels north at 40 m.p.h. and another car travels east at 60 m.p.h., on straight
roads that cross at right angles. How fast are the cars approaching each other when
they are, respectively, 8 miles south and 6 miles west of the junction?

8.

Sand falls onto a conical pile at a rate of 0.1 m3 s1 . The radius of the base of the pile
is always equal to half its height. How fast is the height increasing when the pile is
(a) 1 m high?
(b) 2 m high?

9.

A spherical block of ice melts such that its radius r decreases at a constant rate. Show
that, at any instant, the rate of decrease of its volume is r/2 times the rate of decrease
of its surface area.

10.

A drive wheel, centre O, radius 0.5 m, rotates at 30 rpm as shown. The connecting rod
QP has length 2 m. How fast is the piston P moving when OP = 2 m?
Q
2

0.5

piston
drive wheel

13

Further Calculus

3.2

Small variations and Error Analysis

y

y=f(x)
(x1 , y1)

Let (x0 , y0 ) be a point on a curve y = f (x).

Suppose that when x0 increases to x1 = x0 + x,
y0 increases to y1 = f (x1 ) = f (x0 + x) = y0 + y.

y
(x0 , y0 )

Then since the derivative

y=f(x)
(x1 , y1)

dy
at (x0 , y0 ) is defined as
dx

f (x0 + x) f (x0 )
dy
= lim
=
x0
dx
x
dy x
dx

(x0 , y0 )
x

we expect that

dy
y

dx
x

lim

(y0 + y) y0
x

lim

y
,
x

x0

x0

for x small.

This gives rise to the following formula which allows us to calculate approximately the change
in the variable y, denoted by y, corresponding to a small change , x, in the variable x:

Small variations
y

dy
x
dx

when x is small.

Some terminology:
The absolute change in y is y.
The relative change in y is

y
.
y0

The percentage change in y is

y
y0

100%.

14

Further Calculus
Examples 3B
1

(i) Estimate 62 3 .
1

Let y = x 3 . When x = 64 we know that y = 4. These are equivalent to the values

(x0 , y0 ) described above.
Without using a calculator, what happens to the value of y when x changes from
x0 = 64 to x1 = 62 = 64 + x, where x = 62 64 = 2 ?
We know that
value

y =

1 32
x .
3

At the point x0 = 64, y0 = 4, this derivative has

y (x0 ) =

1
3

1
1
=
.
16
48

Hence, from the formula the corresponding change in y is given approximately by

y

1
dy
x = y (x0 ) x =
dx
48

(2) =

1
= 0.0417.
24

(This represents the change in y as x changes from 64 down to 62.)

1

Our approximate value for 62 3 is therefore given by

1

62 3 = y1 = y0 + y 4 0.0417 = 3.9583.
(ii) The cross-sectional area of a circular bore hole is to be accurate to within 5%. To what
accuracy does the drill have to be manufactured, i.e. what % error is allowed in the
radius of the drill?
Area of the bore hole produced by the drill: A = r 2
hole.
dA
Using the formula,
A
r = 2r r.
dr
2r r
r
A

= 2 ,
so that
Therefore
2
A
r
r

 

 r 
 A 

  5%,


5%,
we
must
have
2
i.e.
Since 
 r 
A 

where r is the radius of the


 

 A 
 

 2  r  .
 A 
 r 
 
 r 
  2.5%.
 r 

One More Example in Lectures

15

Further Calculus

3.3

Linear approximation

It is possible to approximate the values of the function y = f (x) near to a fixed point x = x0
by a linear function in the following way:
we saw in the last section that at point x = x0 + x,
y = y0 + y

where y0 = f (x0 ) and y

dy
x = f (x0 ) x.
dx

So y f (x0 ) + f (x0 ) x, and since x = x0 + x we have

Linear approximation
y f (x0 ) + f (x0 ) (x x0 )

for x near x0 .

This is of the form y = y0 + m (x x0 ), i.e. a straight line.

Therefore it is called the linear approximation to f (x) near x0 .

Close to (x0 , y0 ) the curve y = f (x) and straight line y = f (x0 ) + f (x0 ) (x x0 ) appear
very similar.
y

The straight line is a good approximation for

the curve.
However, further away from (x0 , y0 ) the straight
line and the curve diverge, and their values are
very different.

y=f(x)
y=f(x0 ) + f(x0 ) (x x0)

(x0 , y0 )
x
O

16

Further Calculus
Examples 3C

(i) Find the linear approximation to

The formula tells us that

f (x) = 5ex1 +

3
sin(x)

near x = 1.

f (x) f (x0 ) + f (x0 ) (x x0 ), where x0 = 1.

f (x) = 5ex1 + 3 cos(x),

and

f (x0 ) = f (1) = 5 + 0 = 5,

f (x0 ) = f (1) = 5 3 = 2.

Therefore
f (x) 5 + 2(x 1) = 3 + 2x,
i.e. y = f (x) looks like the line y = 3 + 2x near x = 1.
More Examples in Lectures

17

Further Calculus

Exercises:
1.

Small Variations and Linear Approximation

Find an approximation to
(a)

82

(b) (0.102)1

(c) sin

 31 
180

(d) tan1 (0.98).

2.

Find an approximation to

3.

A pipe of diameter 4 m is covered by 74 mm of insulation. What is the approximate

increase in the cross sectional area of the pipe?

4.

A cube with each side of length l is given a coat of paint of thickness t. Estimate the
volume of the painted cube if l = 20 mm and t = 0.3 mm.

5.

Newtons law of gravitation states that the force F of attraction between two particles
having masses m1 and m2 is given by F = Gm1 m2 /s2 where G is a constant and s is
the distance between the particles. If s = 20 cm, find approximately the change in s
that will increase F by 10%.

6.

The period T of a pendulum in seconds (i.e. the time for it to make one full swing)
is given by T 2 = 4 2 L/g where L is the length of the pendulum in metres and g =
9.81 m s2 . Find

99 and hence find an approximation to

11.

(a) the length of the pendulum whose period is T = 1 s, and

(b) the approximate change T in T if this pendulum is lengthened by 5 mm.
7.

The volume V of a sphere is measured by estimating its radius r.

(a) If the error in r is 1%, what is the percentage error in V ?
(b) The maximum error allowable in V is 1 mm3 . What is the maximum radius for
which the method may be used if r has an error of 1%.

8.

For each of the following functions find the linear approximation near the given point
x0 :

(a) cos x, x0 =
(b) x3 + ln x, x0 = 1
2

1
(c)
(d) ex+1 + x5 + 1, x0 = 0.
x + , x0 = 4
x

18

Further Calculus

3.4

Curve sketching

3.4.1 Stationary Points

dy
> 0, and y is decreasing as x
On a curve y = f (x), y is increasing as x increases where
dx
dy
< 0.
increases where
dx
dy
So the curve is flat where
= 0. Thus
dx

A point at which

dy
= 0 is called a stationary point (SP).
dx

A stationary point is
a maximum turning point (Max TP), or
a minimum turning point (Min TP), or
a horizontal point of inflection (PI),
as illustrated in the following diagrams.

max
PI

min

PI

19

Further Calculus
3.4.2 The Nature of Stationary Points
The criterion

dy
= 0 identifies stationary points on the curve y = f (x).
dx

There are two tests to identify the nature of these points.

A test for max/min stationary (or turning) points using first derivatives:
Near a stationary point x = a (so that
if
if
if

dy
< 0 for x < a and
dx
dy
> 0 for x < a and
dx
dy
dx

dy
= 0 at x = a):
dx

dy
> 0 for x > a,
dx

then x = a gives a min TP

dy
< 0 for x > a,
dx

then x = a gives a max TP

has the same sign on either side of x = a,

x
MIN for y

dy
dx

slope

dy
dx

slope

dy
dx

slope

+
/

x
MAX for y

then x = a gives a PI

PIs

dy
dx

slope

+
/

20

Further Calculus
The second test relies on the idea of concavity.

If y > 0 at x = a then the curve lies above its tangent at x = a, and the curve is said
to be concave up at x = a.
If y < 0 at x = a then the curve lies below its tangent at x = a and the curve is said
to be concave down at x = a.
If y = 0 at x = a then further investigation is required.

concave up

concave down

Hence, we can derive a test for the nature of a stationary point based on the sign of the
second derivative.

A test using the second derivative

y = 0 and y > 0 at x = a
y = 0 and y < 0 at x = a

y = 0 and y = 0 or is undefined at x = a :

min TP at x = a
max TP at x = a
further investigation is required.

21

Further Calculus
Examples 3D

(i) Find the stationary points of y = x4 + 4x3 2x2 12x and identify their nature.
dy
= 4x3 + 12x2 4x 12 = 4(x + 3)(x + 1)(x 1).
Here
dx
There are SPs where

dy
= 0, i.e. at x = 3, 1, 1 where y = 9, 7, 9 respectively,
dx

and no points where y is not defined.

x

dy
dx

slope

/
MIN

\
MAX

+
/

MIN

Alternatively, using the 2nd derivative test y = 12x2 + 24x 4 :

x
3
1
1

y
0
0
0

y
108 72 4 >0
12 24 4 <0
12 + 24 4 >0

type
min
max
min
More Examples in Lectures

22

Further Calculus
3.4.3 Asymptotes

An asymptote to a curve is a straight line that the curve approaches far away from the
origin.
The line y = b is a horizontal asymptote (HA) to a curve y(x) if
y b as x and/or y b as x .
The line x = a is a vertical asymptote (VA) to a curve y(x) if either
lim y =

or

xa+

lim y = .

xa

In particular, if
y=

p(x)
q(x)

with q(a) = 0, p(a) 6= 0 then x = a is a VA.

The line y = mx + c is an inclined asymptote (IA) to a curve y(x) if

y(x) (mx + c) 0 as x or as x .
In this case the curve approaches (or looks like) the straight line y = mx + c as
x .
y
VA

min

IA

max
y=mx+c
O
a
HA

Note: the graph of a function y = f (x) can never cross a VA!

Further Calculus

23

Examples 3E

(i)

3
0 as x , so y = 0 is a HA.
x+1
Also, y as x 1 , so x = 1 is a VA.
y =

5
2+
2
2
2x + 1
3
as x +, and y
as x .
=

. So y
(ii) y =
3x + 4
3 3x + 4
3
3
2
Therefore y = is a HA.
3
4
4
Also, y as x , so x = is a VA.
3
3

6 + x5 + x32
6
6x2 + 5x + 3

(iii) y =
= 2 as x , so y = 2 is a HA.
=
7
2
3x + 7
3
3 + x2
Note that 3x2 + 7 cannot be zero, so there is no VA.

(iv)

y =

x2 1 + 2
(x 1)(x + 1) + 2
2
x2 + 1
=
=
= x+1+
.
x1
x1
x1
x1

Denominator is zero when x = 1; this is a VA. As x 1 , y .

2
As x , y (x + 1) =
0 and y behaves like y = x + 1.
x1
So y = x + 1 is an IA.

(v)

3
x2 + 4x 9
= x+6+
.
x2
x2
3
0 as x , and so y = x + 6 is an IA.
Therefore, y (x + 6) =
x2

Also y as x 2 so x = 2 is a VA.
y=

24

Further Calculus
3.4.4 Sketching a Curve

You are familiar with the graphs of linear functions y = mx + c (straight lines) and graphs
of quadratic functions y = ax2 + bx + c (parabolae). A reasonable sketch of the graph of
a function allows you to see how the function behaves as the independent variable changes.
The features that we have considered above (stationary points and asymptotes) are often
sufficient to enable us to obtain good sketches of the graphs of other functions.

To sketch the curve y = f (x):

1. Find points where the curve cuts the coordinate axes,
i.e. find y when x = 0, and also solve y = f (x) = 0.
2. Find stationary points (i.e. solve f (x) = 0) and identify their nature as MAX,
MIN or PIs.
3. Find any asymptotes and identify how the curve approaches the asymptotes.
4. Choose appropriate scales for the x and y axes to accommodate the features
identified in 13 and plot these features.
5. Given that the function f (x) is continuous and differentiable everywhere else,
you should now be able to complete the sketch by joining up the features with
a smooth curve.

Examples 3F
(i) Sketch the curve
y=

x3
.
x2 3

When x = 0, y = 0 and vice versa. Therefore the curve cuts the axes only at (0, 0).
Now,
y =
so y = 0 when x = 0, 3

(x2 3)3x2 x3
(x2 3)2

2x

9
(and y = 0, ).
2

x2 (x2 9)
,
(x2 3)2

25

Further Calculus
x

dy
dx

slope

MAX

PI

/
MIN

Also, by polynomial division, we have

y =

3x
x(x2 3) + 3x
=
x
+
x2 3
x2 3

so
yx=
giving y = x as an IA.

3x
0
3

x2

as x ,

Denominator is zero when x2 3 = 0, so there are VAs at x =

3 and x = 3.

The following sign table gives the behaviour of the function ( ) as the VA is
approached.
x
y

3
ND

0
+ 0

3
ND

Now, having chosen suitable scales and plotted the above features, we can complete
the graph:
10

10

More Examples in Lectures

26

Further Calculus

Exercises:
1.

Curve Sketching

Find and classify the stationary points of the following:

(a) y = 2x2 7x + 4

(b) y = 3x x2 + 7

(d) y = x3 3x2 + 3x + 3

(g) y = x x + 3

(e) y = 3x5 10x3

x1
(h) y = 2
x + 2x + 4
3
(k) y = x 3x2 24x 3
x
(n) y =
(1 + x2 )

(j) y = x2 5x + 8
(m) y = x2 + x2

(c) y = x3 x2 x + 1
4
(f) y = x +
x
4
(i) y =
cos (2x)
(l) y = 4x2 + x1

(o) y = x 3 2x

(p) y = ex .

2.

Show that the function y = x + ln

2x 1

(x + 1)
and a minimum turning point at x = 2.

has a maximum turning point at x =

3.

Determine the nature of the stationary point at x = 0 of

4.

Find the turning points between x = 0 and x = 2 of

5.

Sketch the following curves:

(a) y 2 = x
(c)

6.

y = (sin x) ln(1 x).

y = ex sin x.

(b) y 2 = x + 2

y 2 = x2 (x + 2)

(d) y 2 = (x + 2)(x 1)(x 2).

Find the limits as x and x of the following:

(a)

y=

2
x

(d) y =

3
x +2
x2 + 2
y=
x

(b) y =
3x
x2 + 7

(e)

x+1
2x 1

y = x2 + 2x x.

(c) y =
(f)

3
2

27

Further Calculus
7.

For each of the following functions,

(i) find the intercepts with the coordinate axes,
(ii) find and classify the stationary points,
(iii) find any asymptotes,
(iv) plot the features found in (i)-(iii) and hence complete a sketch of the graph of
the function.
(a)

y = x2 3x 4

(d)

y=

(g)

1
x +1
x3
y=
x1
2

x+2
2
x + 2x 3
1
(m) y = x2 + 2
x
(j)

y=

(b) y = x3 x2
x
x +1
2x + 3
(h) y =
3x 1

(e)

y=

2x2 + x 3
x+2

(n) y = x x + 2

(k)

y=

(c)

y=

(f)

y=

1
x+4
1

(i)

(x 2)
x
y= 2
x 1

(l)

y =x+

1
x

(o) y = x ex .

28

Further Calculus

3.5

Optimisation

At a point x = a, a curve y = f (x) has

a local maximum if

f (x) f (a) for all x close to a

a local minimum if f (x) f (a) for all x close to a,

and has
a global maximum if f (x) f (a) for all x in the domain of f
a global minimum if f (x) f (a) for all x in the domain of f .
Maxima and minima are referred to as extrema .

Optimisation means finding the best (or most appropriate) value of some variable. Often
this is a maximum value (profit, output) or a minimum value (energy, cost). So optimisation
usually involves identifying the global maximum or the global minimum of a function.
Maximum and minimum turning points are always local (and may be global) maxima and
minima, respectively, but there are other ways that extrema can occur.

Examples 3G
(i) y = |x|, < x < , has a global minimum at x = 0, but this is not a TP since
dy
is not defined at x = 0. This function does not have a global maximum.
dx

The following is a useful result giving us sufficient conditions for a function to have global
extrema and also tells us where extrema (both local and global) can occur.

29

Further Calculus

If f is a continuous function defined on a closed, finite interval [a, b], then global
maxima/minima exist.
Points to be checked when looking for the global max/min of the
function are:
points where f (x) = 0
points where f (x) is not defined

(e.g. corners)

end points of the domain, a and b.

Examples 3H
(i) The curve
y=
has

3x3 ,
x2 6x + 8,

2 x < 1
1x4

dy
= 0 at x = 3 (where y = 1), and at x = 0 (where y = 0).
dx

dy
However, the function has a global max y = 3 (at x = 1, a corner, where
does
dx
not exist), and global min y = 24 (at x = 2, an end-point of the domain).
dy
= 0, has not detected the global max/min.
dx
We must check stationary points AND any other critical values of x, i.e. the end points
and points where f (x) is not defined (x = 1).
The test for SPs,

2
O

4
x

30

Further Calculus

If f (x) is not continuous, or is defined on a non-closed or non-finite interval, then we must

work harder to find the global maximum or minimum (usually by having a good understanding of the shape of the graph).

To solve optimisation problems:

1. Identify and name variables: a sketch of the physical situation will often help.
2. Decide the variable to be optimised (e.g. y), and a variable that can be
controlled or chosen (e.g. x).
3. Form an equation relating x and y,

e.g. y = f (x).

4. Determine the domain of the function f , i.e. the set of all possible values of x.
5. Consider critical points: stationary points within domain; end points of
domain; points where function is not differentiable.
6. If the function f (x) is continuous on a closed finite interval, then identify the
global maximum or minimum by evaluating the function at all critical points
(i.e. SPs, end points and points where f (x) is not defined).
7. Otherwise, identify the nature of the stationary points and locate the global
maximum or minimum (if it exists) from a good understanding of the shape of
the graph.

31

Further Calculus
Examples 3I

(i) Find the global extrema of the function f (x) = 2x3 3x2 12x + 10 on the domain
3 x 3.
We have a continuous function on a closed domain.
f (x) = 6x2 6x 12 = 6(x + 1)(x 2) = 0 x = 1 or 2.
f (1) = 17, f (2) = 10.
At the end points of the closed interval, f (3) = 35 and f (3) = 1.
There are no points in the domain where the function is not differentiable.
Thus, the global maximum is the largest of these values : 17 at x = 1 ; this SP must
be a Max TP.
The global minimum is 35 at the end point x = 3.
(ii) A rectangular metal plate with dimensions 4m by 2m has squares cut from its corners,
and is then folded up to make an open box. What size is the box that has maximum
volume?

2
x
x
4

Let the squares have sides x m, with 0 < x < 1. (The domain is not closed: If x = 0
then we cannot construct a box from the rectangular plate; if x = 1 then, we are left
with no ends to fold up.) The volume of the box V (x)m2 is given by
V (x) = (4 2x)(2 2x)x = 4(x3 3x2 + 2x),
so
V (x) = 4(3x2 6x + 2),

V (x) = 24(x 1).

At a SP, V (x) = 0 so
x =

36 24
12
3
= 1
= 1
,
6
6
3

3
satisfies 0 < x < 1.
3
At this point V < 0, so it gives a MAX TP.

but only x = 1

32

Further Calculus

Since V (x) is continuousand differentiable for 0 < x < 1 and V 0 as x 0 or 1,

3
gives the absolute max.
we can see that x = 1
3
The required box has dimensions (in metres)

2 3
3
2 3
2+
by
by 1
3
3
3
and
Vmax

8 3 3
=
m.
9

(iii) A farmer wishes to enclose a rectangular field of 80,000 m2 , one side of which is a wall
(and so does not require to be fenced). Find the dimensions for the field to use the
least fencing.
Let sides of field be x metres and y metres, as
shown.
Then amount of fencing used, F metres, is given
by
F = 2x + y.

We know that the required area is 80000 m2 , so

xy = 80000 y =

80000
.
x

Writing the amount of fencing in terms of x only,

F (x) = 2x +
At SP,

80000
,
x

F (x) = 0

F (x) = 2
x = 200 ,

80000
,
x2

y=

F (x) =

160000
x3

(x > 0).

80000
= 400 .
200

Since F > 0, this SP is a MIN TP, and there are no other SPs.
Also, F (x) is continuous and differentiable on 0 < x < with F (x) + as x 0
and as x , so it is clear that this minimum TP gives the absolute min. Thus we
have two sides of length 200 m and one of length 400 m.
More Examples in Lectures

33

Further Calculus

Exercises:

Optimisation

1.

A stone is thrown with speed V = 20 m s1 at an angle to the horizontal and lands a

distance R away. Given that R = (V 2 /g) sin (2) (0 /2), where g ( 10 m s2 )
is the gravitational acceleration, find the value of that makes R a maximum and
determine this maximum value of R.

2.

When a patient takes x mg of a certain drug, his blood pressure decreases by an amount
D = x2 (200 x), 0 x 200. Find the amount of drug that causes the greatest
decrease in blood pressure.

3.

In an auto-catalytic reaction starting with 20 g of a substance, the rate r of the reaction

is proportional to both the amount x of product formed and the amount (20 x) of
the original substance left. Thus r = kx(20 x) where k is a positive constant. For
what value of x is r a maximum and what is this maximum rate?

4.

A circular cylindrical can of Phizz Pop is to contain 500 cm3 of the drink. The
material used to make the top and bottom of the can costs twice as much per square
centimetre as the material used to make the sides. What height and radius should the
can have to minimize the costs?

5.

If x+ y = 1, find the values of x and y that minimize:

6.

Find a point on the curve y 2 x2 = 1 closest to the point (2, 0).

7.

A silo is to be made in the form of a cylinder surmounted by a hemisphere. The cost

of construction per square metre of surface area is twice as great for the hemisphere as
for the cylinder. Determine the dimensions to be used if the volume is fixed and the
cost of construction is to be a minimum. (Neglect the thickness of the silo and any
waste involved in its construction.)

8.

A long rectangular sheet of metal, 40 cm wide, is to be made into a rain gutter by

turning up two sides at right angles to the sheet. How many centimetres should be
turned up to give the gutter its greatest capacity? (Ignore the end pieces.)

9.

An oil pipeline will connect two points A and B which are three miles apart and on
opposite banks of a straight river, one mile wide. Part of the pipeline will run in a
straight line under water from A to a point C on the opposite bank and then above
ground from C to B. If the cost per mile of running the pipeline under water is four
times the cost per mile of running it above ground, find the location of C that will
minimize the cost. (Ignore the slope of the river bed.)

(a) x2 + y 2,

(b) x2 y 2 .

34

Further Calculus
10.

A woman in a rowing boat is 2 miles from shore. She wants to get home, 10 miles
along the shore, as soon as possible.
10
O

She can run at 10mph and row at 8mph.

2

Where should she choose landing point A so that her

route from her position B to her home H is quickest,
and what is the minimum time?

y
river

11.

An open box with a square base is to be made so that its volume is 1 m3 . What is the
minimum surface area of the five sides?

12.

What is the size of the cylinder of largest volume

that can be cut from a sphere of radius a?

a
h

13.

The strength of a certain rectangular beam is proportional to the breadth and to the
square of its depth. What are the dimensions of the strongest beam whose crosssectional diagonal is p mm?

14.

A street of length 60 m has a lamp at each end. The lamps are identical except that
one lamp is 8 times brighter than the other. Find the position of the dullest point on
the street if the brightness of the lamp at some point is inversely proportional to the
square of the distance from it.

15.

If a small object is placed at a distance u in front of a thin lens of focal length f (< u),
the distance of the image behind the lens is v, where 1/u + 1/v = 1/f . Show that the
minimum distance between the image and the object is 4f .

16.

A page of print is to contain 16,000 mm2 of printed area, with a margin of 40 mm at

the top and bottom and a margin of 25 mm at each side. Find the dimensions of the
page of the smallest area that fulfils these requirements.

A wall 2 2 m high is 1 m from the vertical wall of a house. Find the length of the
shortest ladder that will reach over the wall to touch the house.

17.
18.

The cost per hour of running a train is proportional to 100 + v 2 /36, where v m.p.h. is
the average speed on a trip. Find the speed v that makes the trip Glasgow-London
cheapest. (Take the distance Glasgow-London to be 400 miles.)

35

Further Calculus

Summary and important points:

Derivatives as evaluations of rates of change and gradients.
The definition of a derivative:
f (x) = lim

h0

f (x + h) f (x)
h

Use of the Table of Standard Derivatives

The Linearity Rule:
d
[f (x) + g(x)] = f (x) + g (x)
dx
The Product Rule:
i
d h
f (x) g(x) = f (x) g(x) + f (x) g (x) .
dx
The Quotient Rule:


f (x) g(x) f (x) g (x)
d f (x)
h
i
=
.
2
dx g(x)
g(x)
Derivative of composite functions: the Chain Rule

i


d h
f g(x)
= f g(x) g (x).
dx

Higher Derivatives.

Implicit Differentiation.
Parametric differentiation:

dy
y
=
.
dx
x

Derivatives of inverse, exponential and logarithmic functions.

36

Further Calculus

Summary (contd)
Related rates.
Small variations and error analysis: y

dy
x ;
dx

absolute, relative and percentage changes.

The linear approximation of function y = f (x) at a point x = x0 ,
y f (x0 ) + f (x0 )(x x0 ).
Stationary points (SP) (points where
If
If

dy
= 0).
dx

dy
d2 y
= 0 and 2 > 0 at x = a then there is a minimum SP at x = a.
dx
dx
d2 y
dy
= 0 and 2 < 0 at x = a then there is a maximum SP at x = a.
dx
dx

Horizontal, vertical and inclined asymptotes.

Curve sketching.
Local and Global Extrema: these occur where
of the domain or at points where
Optimisation problems.

dy
= 0 or at end points
dx

dy
is not defined.
dx

37

Further Calculus

Area between curves

Recap: The definition of a definite integral was motivated as a means of calculating the
area between a curve y = f (x) for f (x) 0 and the x-axis.

f(x r )

1111
0000
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111

( )r

xr

y=f(x)

The area is approximated as shown by the sum of areas of rectangles of height f (xr ) and
ba
, that is,
width x =
n
n
X
X
n
(A)r =
f (xr ) x
A
r=1

r=1

(a Riemann sum). Taking more and more strips (i.e. letting x 0) we get better and
better approximations to the area and so
A = lim

n
X

f (xr )x =

f (x) dx.

(1)

r=1

Examples 4A
(i) Find the area of the shaded region under curve y = x x2 .
Area =

=
=

Z


1
0

x x2 dx

x2 x3

2
3

1
0

1
1 1

= .
2 3
6

x
O

(1 , 0)
One More Example in Lectures

38

Further Calculus
Find the area bounded by the x-axis, lines x = 1, x = 4 and curve y =
Area =

=
=

Z


x.

x dx

4

2 32
x
3

2
14
(8 1) =
.
3
3

We now generalise the technique used above to calculate the area between two curves y =
f (x) and y = g(x) where f (x) g(x) for a x b.

y
1111
0000
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
r 1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111

( )r

y=f(x)

f (xr )g(x )

y=g(x)
xr

We will simplify our discussion by describing a typical strip at xr with width x and
height f (xr ) g(xr ) ( 0). The area of the strip is
(A)r = (f (xr ) g(xr ))x.
Note that this is the correct area even if f (xr ) < 0 and/or g(xr ) < 0 as long as f (xr ) g(xr ).
Hence the whole area is given approximately by
A

n
X
r=1

(A)r =

n
X
r=1

(f (xr ) g(xr ))x.

This again is a Riemann sum as in the definition of a definite integral. Taking more and
more strips, i.e. letting x 0, gives better and better approximations, and
Z b
n
X
(f (xr ) g(xr ))x =
A = lim
(f (x) g(x)) dx.
(2)
n

r=1

39

Further Calculus

Example 4B
Find the area A between the parabolae f (x) = x2 4x + 6 and g(x) = 4x x2 .
The curves intersect where
x2 4x + 6 = 4x x2

2(x2 4x + 3) = 0

2(x 3)(x 1) = 0

x = 1 or x = 3.
y

Hence
A =

3
2

[(4x x ) (x 4x + 6)] dx =

(2x2 + 8x 6) dx =

8
.
3

The area between a curve y = f (x) when f (x) < 0 and the x-axis can be regarded as a
special case of the above. In this case the typical strip has an area
(0 f (xr ))x = f (xr )x
and so
A = lim

n
X
r=1

f (xr )x =

f (x) dx =

f (x) dx.

(3)

This will give a positive answer: areas are positive quantities but integrals may be
negative.

Examples 4C

40

Further Calculus
Examples in Lectures

y
d

(A) r

0000000
0000000
1111111
yr 1111111
0000000
1111111
1111111
0000000
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111

x= f(yr )
c

x=f(y)

x
Similarly, to find the area of a region between a curve x = f (y) and the y-axis as shown, we
consider a typical strip of width y parallel to the x-axis. The area of strip is
(A)r = f (yr )y
so an approximation of the area of the region is
n
n
X
X
A
(A)r =
f (yr )y.
r=1

Thus as y 0 we get
A=

r=1

f (y) dy.

(4)

Example 4E
Find the area A shown.

y=x 2

1
x

41

Further Calculus
Here y = x2 , so that x =

A=

y = f (y). So
4

14
2 h 3 i4 2
y 2 = (8 1) = .
y dy =
3
3
3
1

Again we can generalise this technique to calculate the area between two curves x = f (y)
and x = g(y) where f (y) g(y) for c y d. A typical strip of width y parallel to the
x-axis has area
(A)r = (f (yr ) g(yr ))y
so an approximation of the area of the region is
A

n
X

(A)r =

r=1

Thus as y 0 we get
A=

n
X
r=1

(f (yr ) g(yr ))y.

(f (y) g(y)) dy.

(5)

Examples 4F
Examples in Lectures

42

Further Calculus

Exercises: Plane areas

1.

Find the area between the curve y = x2 and the x-axis, from x = 0 to x = 1.

2.

Find the area between the curve y = (2x 1)3 and the x-axis, from x = 0 to x = 1.

3.

Find the areas of the finite regions bounded by the curves:

(a) y =

x, x = 4, y = 0;

(b) y = (2 x)(x + 1), y = 0;

(c) y = (4 x2 )

12

, x = 0, x = 1, y = 0;

(d) y = x2 , y = x3 ;
(e) y = 2 + x x2 , y = x + 1;
(f) y = x2 , x = y 2 ;
(g) y = x3 , x = 0, y = 1, y = 8;
(h) y 2 = 4 x, x = 1;
(i) x = y 2 6y + 5, x = 3.

43

Further Calculus

Volumes of revolution

5.1

Rotation about x-axis

Suppose that we want to find the volume Vx swept out when the area between a curve
y = f (x) 0 and the x-axis for a x b, is rotated fully about the x-axis.

y
y=f(x)
x
a

f (xr )
b

xr

The volume of the disc swept out by the typical strip of width x and height f (xr ) when
it is rotated about the x-axis is
(Vx )r = [f (xr )]2 x
(volume of cylinder is r 2 h) so
Vx

n
X

(Vx )r =

r=1

n
X

[f (xr )]2 x.

r=1

Thus as x 0 we get
Vx =

[f (x)]2 dx.

(1)

Examples 5A
(i) Find Vx for the solid obtained by rotating the region between
g(x) = 0,
about the x-axis.

f (x) = x2 ,

x = 1,

x=2

44

Further Calculus

y=x

x
x=1

Vx =

x=2

2
2

[f (x)] dx =

x5
x dx =
5


2

31
.
5

(ii) Derive the formula for the volume of a sphere of radius a by finding Vx for the solid

obtained by rotating the region between f (x) = a2 x2 and the x-axis between
x = a and x = a.

y
y =

a 2x 2

x=a

x=a

a
2

[f (x)] dx =
(a2 x2 ) dx
a

a
3 a
4
x
= a3 .
= a2 x
3 a 3

Vx =

45

Further Calculus

We can also calculate the volume generated by rotation of the area between the curves
y = f (x) and y = g(x) (f (x) g(x)) around the x-axis.

f(xr ) g(xr )

y=g(x)

1111
0000
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111

y=f(x)
a

xr

The typical strip as shown, rotated about the x-axis generates a circular washer or annulus
(a disc with a hole) with volume
(Vx )r = [f (xr )]2 x [g(xr )]2 x


= [f (xr )]2 [g(xr )]2 x.

Summing and letting x 0 we get

Z
Vx =

[f (x)]2 [g(x)]2 dx.

(2)

Example 5B
Find the volume of revolution Vx for the finite region between the curves

g(x) = x2 4x + 6 and f (x) = 4x x2 .

y=g(x)

1111111
0000000
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111

y=f(x)
x=1

x=3

46

Further Calculus
The curves intersect where
x2 4x + 6 = 4x x2

2(x2 4x + 3) = 0

2(x 3)(x 1) = 0

x = 1 or x = 3.
Therefore,

Vx = vol. of rev. of f (x) vol. of rev. of g(x)

Z 3
Z 3
2
=
[f (x)] dx
[g(x)]2 dx
1
Z1 3
=
([f (x)]2 [g(x)]2 ) dx.
1

Now
[f (x)]2 [g(x)]2 = (f (x) + g(x))(f (x) g(x)) = 6(8x 2x2 6)
so
Vx =

3

x3
2
3x = 16.
12(4x x 3) dx = 12 2x
3
1
2

47

Further Calculus

5.2

Rotation about y-axis

Suppose that we want to find the volume Vy swept out when an area between a curve y = f (x)
and the x-axis is rotated fully about the y-axis.

y
x
f (xr )

x
xr
When rotated, the strip of width x at xr generates a cylindrical shell of height y = f (xr ),
inside radius xr and thickness x. The volume of the shell is
(Vy )r = (xr + x)2 f (xr ) (xr )2 f (xr )

= ((xr )2 + 2xr x + x2 )f (xr ) (xr )2 f (xr )

= 2xr f (xr )x + f (xr )x2 .

Therefore,
(Vy )r 2xr f (xr )x for x small
and
Vy

n
X
r=1

(Vy )r

Thus as x 0 we get
Vy = 2

n
X

2xr f (xr )x.

r=1

xf (x) dx.

(3)

48

Further Calculus

Example 5C
Find Vy for the solid obtained by rotating the region between
f (x) = x2 ,

g(x) = 0,

x = 1,

x=2

about the y-axis.

y=x

x
x=1

Vy = 2

x=2

xf (x) dx = 2

x4
x dx = 2
4
3

2
1

15
.
2

Again we can generalise this technique to calculate the volume generated by rotation of the
area between the curves y = f (x) and y = g(x) (f (x) g(x)) around the y-axis. The
cylindrical shell of height f (xr ) g(xr ) has volume
(Vy )r 2xr (f (xr ) g(xr )) x
and hence as x 0 we get
Vy = 2

x(f (x) g(x)) dx.

(4)

49

Further Calculus

Exercises: Volumes of revolution

1.

In each of the following, find the volume generated when the finite region bounded by
the given curves is rotated fully about the x-axis:
(a) y = x4 , x = 2, y = 0;
1

(b) y = (4 x2 ) 2 , x = 0, x = 1, y = 0;
(c) y 4 = 16x, x = 1, x = 4, y = 0;
(d) y = x2 , y = 4;
(e) y = x2 + 1, y = x + 3;
(f) y = 4 x2 , y = 2 x;
(g) y = x3 , x = 0, y = 1, y = 8.
2.

In each of the following, find the volume generated when the finite region bounded by
the given curves is rotated fully about the y-axis:
(a) y =

x, x = 4, y = 0;

(b) y = 1/x, x = 1, x = 2, y = 0;
(c) y = x2 5x, y = 0;
(d) y = x3 , x = 0, y = 1, y = 8;
(e) y = x2 , x = y 2.
3.

By considering the line y = ax/h (with a and h constants) derive the formula for the
volume of a cone of height h and base radius a.

4.

Find the volumes of the solids formed by the rotation of the loop of the curve y 2 =
x(4 x)2 fully about (a) the x-axis and (b) the y-axis.

5.

Find the volumes obtained when the finite region bounded by the line x = a and the
parabola y 2 = 4ax is rotated about (a) the line x = a and (b) the line y = 2a.

6.

A bowl (of depth > 2 cm) has the shape of part of a sphere of radius 10 cm. It contains
soup to a depth 2 cm. What is the volume of soup?

7.

A hole of radius 1 is drilled through the centre of a solid sphere of radius 4. What is
the volume of the resulting solid?

50

Further Calculus

Answers to exercises

Implicit differentiation
1. (a)

(i), (ii), (iii)

(b)

(i), (ii), (iii)

(c)

(i), (ii), (iii)

(d)

(i), (ii), (iii)

2. (a)

x2
y2

2
(y 6= 0). The two functions are y = 4x 8.
y

x
(y 6= 0). The two functions are y = 25 x2 .

x
(y 6= 0). The two functions are y = x2 16.
y

1x
(y 6= 2). The two functions are y = 2 8 + 2x x2 .
y2

(y 6= 0)

(b)

(c)

y + 2 xy cos x

2 xy sin y x

(e)

(f)

cos(x + y 2 )
1 2y cos(x + y 2 )

3. (a)
(c)

(2 xy sin y x 6= 0)

y cos(xy) + sin x cos y

x cos(xy) + cos x sin y

(b)

46y 9x 120 = 0

4. (a)

5. (a)

(b)

(b)

(2x + 2y 3xy 2 6= 0)
(d)

3x2 + y 2
1 2xy

(2xy 6= 1)

(x cos(xy) + cos x sin y 6= 0)

(1 2y cos(x + y 2 ) 6= 0)

y + 3x 2 = 0

y(y 2 2)
2x + 2y 3xy 2

11y + 10x 19 = 0

(d) 2y x =
2

cos x cos2 y

(c)

y
2y + x


1+
2


Parametric differentiation
1. (a) Straight line 2y x = 3, from (0, 1) to (4, 3).
(b) Straight line 2y x = 3, from (1, 1) to (3, 3).
(c) Circle, centre at the origin, radius 1. As t varies from 0 to 2, the circle is traced
out clockwise, starting from (1, 0).
(d) Circle, centre (3, 2), radius 1. As t varies from 0 to , the circle is traced out
anticlockwise, starting from (4, 2).

51

Further Calculus
2. (a)

1
4t

1
cosec t
2

(b)

(c)

t2 1
2t

1 + t2
t2 1

(d)

3. 2 sin 2t, 2 cos 2t, 2

The speed is always 2, so the particle never comes to rest.
4. (a)

1
1
cosec t,
cosec3 t
4
16
3
3
2t 1
2(t 3t + 1)
, 3
2
t (2t 1)
t (2t 1)3

1, 0

(d)

(b)

(c)

5. y = x 1, y + x 3 = 0

Related rates
1. 60 m2 s1 ( 188.5 m2 s1 ).
2.

1
m s1 ( 0.48 m s1 ).
1.2 3

3.
4.

4
m s1 ;
3

1
rad s1 ( 9.5 s1 ).
6

5. 73.8 m.p.h.
6. 1.5 ft s1 , 4.5 ft s1 .
7. 68 m.p.h.
8. 0.13 m s1; 0.032 m s1 .
10. 1.61 m s1 .

Small variations and linear approximation

1. (a)

9.0556

2. 9.95, 3.317
3. 0.93 m2
4. 8720 mm3
5. 1 cm

(b)

9.8

(c)

0.515

(d)

0.7754

3t 3
,
2 4t

52

Further Calculus
6. (a) 0.2485 m

(b)

0.01 s

7. (a)

3%

(b)

1.996

8. (a)

y=

x
2

(b)

y = 4x 3

(c)

y=

7
3
+ x
4 16

(d)

y = ex + e + 1

Curve sketching



7 17
1. (a) Minimum at
,
4
8


3 37
,
(b) Maximum at
2 4



1 32
(c) Minimum at (1, 0), maximum at ,
3 27
(d) Point of inflection at (1, 4)

(e) Maximum at 2, 8 2 , point of inflection at (0, 0), minimum at
2, 8 2
(f) Maximum at (2, 4), minimum at (2, 4)

(g) Minimum at (2, 2)

r !
7
5
,
2
3

(h) Minimum at

(i) Maximum y = 4 at x = 0, , 2, . . .,

3
minimum y = 4 at x = , , . . .
2
2


5 7
(j) Minimum at
,
2 4
(k) Minimum at (4, 83), maximum at (2, 25)


1
,3
(l) Minimum at
2
(m) Minima at (1, 2) and (1, 2)
(n) Maximum at (1, 2), minimum at (1, 2)
(o) Maximum at (1, 1)
(p) Maximum at (0, 1)
3. Maximum
4. Maximum at
6. (a)
(e)

(b)




1 5/4
1 /4
5
, e
, e
, minimum at
4
4
2
2
0+

as x

1
as x (d) 3 as x , 3+ as x
2
(f) 2 as x , + as x

(c)

53

Further Calculus
7. (a) (i) Intercepts (0, 4), (1, 0) and (4, 0)


3 25
,
(ii) Minimum at
2
4
(iii) No asymptotes.
(b) (i) Intercepts (0, 0) and (1, 0)
(ii) Maximum at (0,0), minimum at
(iii) No asymptotes


1
(c) (i) Intercepts 0,
4
(ii) No stationary points
(iii) HA y = 0,

2
4
,
3 27

VA x = 4

(d) (i) Intercept (0, 1)

(ii) Maximum at (0, 1)
(iii) HA y = 0
(e) (i) Intercept (0, 0)




1
1
, minimum at 1,
(ii) Maximum at 1,
2
2
(iii) HA y = 0
(f) (i) No intercepts
(ii) No SP
(iii) HA y = 0,

VA x = 2

(g) (i) Intercepts (0, 3) and (3, 0)

(ii) No SP
(iii) HA y = 1,
(h) (i)
(ii)
(iii)
(i) (i)

VA x = 1


3
Intercepts (0, 3) and , 0
2
No SP
2
1
HA y = , VA x =
3
3
Intercept (0, 0)

(ii) No SP
(iii) HA y = 0, VA x = 1 and x = 1


2
and (2, 0)
(j) (i) Intercepts 0,
3
(ii) No SP
(iii) HA y = 0, VA x = 1 and x = 3

 

3
3
(k) (i) Intercepts 0, , , 0 and (1, 0)
2
2

54

Further Calculus






1
1
(ii) Minimum at 2 +
6, 7 + 2 6 , maximum at 2
6, 7 2 6
2
2
(iii) VA x = 2, IA y = 2x 3
(l) (i) No intercepts
(ii) Minimum at (1, 2), maximum at (1, 2)

(iii) VA x = 0,

IA y = x

(m) (i) No intercepts

(ii) Minima at (1, 2) and (1, 2)
(iii) VA x = 0
(n) (i) Intercepts (2, 0) and (0, 0)
r !
4 4 2
(ii) Minimum at ,
3 3 3
(iii) No asymptotes
(o) (i) Intercepts (0, 0)


1
(ii) Maximum at 1,
e
(iii) HA y = 0

Optimisation
1.

, 40
4

2.

400
3

3. 10, 100k
20
5
cm
(
13.7
cm),
radius
cm ( 3.4 cm)
1/3
1/3


1 1
5. (a)
, (b) (0, 1) and (1, 0)
,
2 2

6. (1, 2) or (1, 2)

1/3
1/3

3V
V
7. Radius
, height (4 1)
8 2
9 2

4. Height

8. 10
1
9. C is miles ( 0.26 miles) from O (between O and B)
15
10. x =

69
8
miles, minimum time
hours (= 1 hr 9min).
3
60

55

Further Calculus
11. 3 22/3 m2 ( 4.76 m2 ); box has dimensions 21/3 21/3 22/3
r
2
2
4a3
12. Height a, radius
a, volume
3
3
3 3
r
2
2p3
p

, depth
p, strength proportional to
13. Breadth
3
3
3 3
14. 40 m from brighter lamp
16. 200 mm wide, 320 mm high

17. 3 3 m
18. 60 m.p.h.

Plane areas
1.

1
.
3

2.

1
.
4

3. (a)

16
3

(b)

9
2

(c)

1
12

(d)

(e)

4
3

(f)

1
3

(g)

45
4

(h) 4 3

(i) 43 .

Volumes of revolution

tanh1

1. (a)

512
9

(b)

2. (a)

128
5

(b) 2

3.

1
a2 h.
3

4. (a)

64
3

5. (a)

32
a3
15

6.

(c)

112
.
3

7. 20 15.

(b)

2048
.
35

(b)

32
a3 .
3

1
2

625
6

(c)

56
3

(d)

(d)
93
5

256
5

(e)

3
.
10

(e)

117
5

(f)

108
5

(g)

762
.
7