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Lithiumionbattery
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Alithiumionbattery(sometimesLiionbatteryor
LIB)isamemberofafamilyofrechargeablebattery
typesinwhichlithiumionsmovefromthenegative
electrodetothepositiveelectrodeduringdischargeand
backwhencharging.Liionbatteriesuseanintercalated
lithiumcompoundasoneelectrodematerial,comparedto
themetalliclithiumusedinanonrechargeablelithium
battery.Theelectrolyte,whichallowsforionic
movement,andthetwoelectrodesaretheconsistent
componentsofalithiumioncell.
Lithiumionbatteriesarecommoninconsumer
electronics.Theyareoneofthemostpopulartypesof
rechargeablebatteriesforportableelectronics,witha
highenergydensity,nomemoryeffect,andonlyaslow
lossofchargewhennotinuse.Beyondconsumer
electronics,LIBsarealsogrowinginpopularityfor
military,electricvehicleandaerospaceapplications.[6]
Forexample,lithiumionbatteriesarebecominga
commonreplacementfortheleadacidbatteriesthathave
beenusedhistoricallyforgolfcartsandutilityvehicles.
Insteadofheavyleadplatesandacidelectrolyte,the
trendistouselightweightlithiumionbatterypacksthat
canprovidethesamevoltageasleadacidbatteries,sono
modificationtothevehicle'sdrivesystemisrequired.

Lithiumionbattery

AnexampleofaLiionbattery
(usedontheNokia3310mobilephone)
Specificenergy

100265Wh/kg[1][2]
(0.360.95MJ/kg)

Energydensity

250620Wh/L[2]
(0.902.23MJ/L)

Specificpower

~250~340W/kg[1]

Charge/discharge
efficiency

8090%[3]

Chemistry,performance,costandsafetycharacteristics
varyacrossLIBtypes.Handheldelectronicsmostlyuse

Energy/consumer
price

2.5Wh/US$

LIBsbasedonlithiumcobaltoxide(LiCoO2),which
offershighenergydensity,butpresentssafetyrisks,
especiallywhendamaged.Lithiumironphosphate(LFP),
lithiummanganeseoxide(LMO)andlithiumnickel
manganesecobaltoxide(NMC)offerlowerenergy
density,butlongerlivesandinherentsafety.Such
batteriesarewidelyusedforelectrictools,medical
equipmentandotherroles.NMCinparticularisaleading
contenderforautomotiveapplications.Lithiumnickel
cobaltaluminumoxide(NCA)andlithiumtitanate
(LTO)arespecialtydesignsaimedatparticularniche
roles.

Selfdischargerate

8%at21C
15%at40C
31%at60C
(permonth)[4]

Cycledurability

4001200cycles
[5]

Nominalcellvoltage

NMC3.6/3.7V,
LiFePO43.2V

Lithiumionbatteriescanbedangerousundersomeconditionsandcanposeasafetyhazardsincethey
contain,unlikeotherrechargeablebatteries,aflammableelectrolyteandarealsokeptpressurized.Because
ofthisthetestingstandardsforthesebatteriesaremorestringentthanthoseforacidelectrolytebatteries,
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requiringbothabroaderrangeoftestconditionsandadditionalbatteryspecifictests.[7][8]Thisisin
responsetoreportedaccidentsandfailures,andtherehavebeenbatteryrelatedrecallsbysomecompanies.

Contents
1Terminology
2History
2.1Beforecommercialintroduction
2.2Fromcommercialintroduction
3Construction
3.1Shapes
4Electrochemistry
4.1Electrolytes
5Chargeanddischarge
5.1Chargingprocedure
5.2Chargingathighandlowtemperatures
6Production
7Specifications
8Materialsofcommercialcells
8.1Positiveelectrode
8.2Negativeelectrode
8.3Diffusion
9Uses
10Selfdischarge
11Batterylife
11.1Conditioning
11.2Multicelldevices
12Safety
12.1Environmentalconcernsandrecycling
12.2Recalls
12.3Transportrestrictions
13Research
14Seealso
15References
16Bibliography
17Externallinks
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Terminology
Althoughtheword"battery"isacommontermtodescribeanelectrochemicalstoragesystem,international
industrystandardsdifferentiatebetweena"cell"anda"battery".[8][9]A"secondarycell"isabasic
electrochemicalunitthatcontainsthebasiccomponents,suchaselectrodes,separator,andelectrolyte.In
thecaseofsecondarylithiumioncells,thisisthesinglecylindrical,prismaticorpouchunit,thatprovides
anaveragepotentialdifferenceatitsterminalsof3.7VforLiCoO2and3.3VforLiFePO4.A"secondary
battery"or"batterypack"isacollectionofcellsorcellassemblieswhicharereadyforuse,asitcontainsan
appropriatehousing,electricalinterconnections,andpossiblyelectronicstocontrolandprotectthecells
fromfailure.[10][11]Inthisregard,thesimplest"battery"isasinglecellwithperhapsasmallelectronic
circuitforprotection.
Inmanycases,distinguishingbetween"cell"and"battery"isnotimportant.However,thisshouldbedone
whendealingwithspecificapplications,forexample,batteryelectricvehicles,where"battery"mayindicate
ahighvoltagesystemof400V,andnotasinglecell.
Theterm"module"isoftenusedasanintermediatetopology,withtheunderstandingthatabatterypackis
madeofmodules,andmodulesarecomposedofindividualcells.[11]

History
Beforecommercialintroduction
LithiumbatterieswerefirstproposedbyM.S.Whittingham,nowat
BinghamtonUniversity,whileworkingforExxoninthe1970s.[12]
Whittinghamusedtitanium(IV)sulfideandlithiummetalasthe
electrodes.Batterieswithmetalliclithiumelectrodespresented
safetyissues,aslithiumisahighlyreactiveelementitburnsin
normalatmosphericconditionsbecauseofthepresenceofwaterand
oxygen.[13]Asaresult,researchmovedtodevelopbatterieswhere,
insteadofmetalliclithium,onlylithiumcompoundsarepresent,
beingcapableofacceptingandreleasinglithiumions.
Vartalithiumionbattery,Museum

Reversibleintercalationingraphite[14][15]andintercalationinto
Autovision,Altlussheim,Germany
cathodicoxides[16][17]wasdiscoveredinthe1970sbyJ.O.
BesenhardatTUMunich.Besenhardproposeditsapplicationinlithiumcells.[18][19]Electrolyte
decompositionandsolventcointercalationintographiteweresevereearlydrawbacksforbatterylife.
AtOxfordUniversity,England,in1979,JohnGoodenoughandKoichiMizushimademonstrateda
rechargeablecellwithvoltageinthe4Vrangeusinglithiumcobaltoxide(LiCoO2)asthepositive
electrodeandlithiummetalasthenegativeelectrode.[20]Thisinnovationprovidedthepositiveelectrode
materialthatmadeLIBspossible.LiCoO2isastablepositiveelectrodematerialwhichactsasadonorof
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lithiumions,whichmeansthatitcanbeusedwithanegativeelectrodematerialotherthanlithiummetal.
Byenablingtheuseofstableandeasytohandlenegativeelectrodematerials,LiCoO2openedawholenew
rangeofpossibilitiesfornovelrechargeablebatterysystems.
In1977,SamarBasudemonstratedelectrochemicalintercalationoflithiumingraphiteattheUniversityof
Pennsylvania.[21][22]Thisledtothedevelopmentofaworkablelithiumintercalatedgraphiteelectrodeat
BellLabs(LiC6)[23]toprovideanalternativetothelithiummetalelectrodebattery.
In1980,RachidYazamidemonstratedthereversibleelectrochemicalintercalationoflithiumin
graphite.[24][25]Theorganicelectrolytesavailableatthetimewoulddecomposeduringchargingwitha
graphitenegativeelectrode,slowingthedevelopmentofarechargeablelithium/graphitebattery.Yazami
usedasolidelectrolytetodemonstratethatlithiumcouldbereversiblyintercalatedingraphitethroughan
electrochemicalmechanism.ThegraphiteelectrodediscoveredbyYazamiiscurrently(20110320)the
mostcommonlyusedelectrodeincommerciallithiumionbatteries.
In1983,MichaelM.Thackeray,Goodenough,andcoworkersidentifiedmanganesespinelasapositive
electrodematerial.[26]Spinelshowedgreatpromise,givenitslowcost,goodelectronicandlithiumion
conductivity,andthreedimensionalstructure,whichgivesitgoodstructuralstability.Althoughpure
manganesespinelfadeswithcycling,thiscanbeovercomewithchemicalmodificationofthematerial.[27]
Asof2013,manganesespinelwasusedincommercialcells.[28]
In1985,AkiraYoshinoassembledaprototypecellusingcarbonaceousmaterialintowhichlithiumions
couldbeinsertedasoneelectrode,andlithiumcobaltoxide(LiCoO2),whichisstableinair,asthe
other.[29]Byusingmaterialswithoutmetalliclithium,safetywasdramaticallyimproved.LiCoO2enabled
industrialscaleproductionandrepresentsthebirthofthecurrentlithiumionbattery.
In1989,GoodenoughandArumugamManthiramoftheUniversityofTexasatAustinshowedthatpositive
electrodescontainingpolyanions,e.g.,sulfates,producehighervoltagesthanoxidesduetotheinduction
effectofthepolyanion.[30]

Fromcommercialintroduction
Theperformanceandcapacityoflithiumionbatteriesincreasesasdevelopmentprogresses.
In1991,SonyandAsahiKaseireleasedthefirstcommerciallithiumionbattery.
In1996,Goodenough,AkshayaPadhiandcoworkersproposedlithiumironphosphate(LiFePO4)andother
phosphoolivines(lithiummetalphosphateswiththesamestructureasmineralolivine)aspositiveelectrode
materials.[31]
In2002,YetMingChiangandhisgroupatMITshowedasubstantialimprovementintheperformanceof
lithiumbatteriesbyboostingthematerial'sconductivitybydopingitwithaluminium,niobiumand
zirconium.Theexactmechanismcausingtheincreasebecamethesubjectofwidespreaddebate.[32]

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In2004,Chiangagainincreasedperformancebyutilizingiron(III)phosphateparticlesoflessthan100
nanometersindiameter.Thisdecreasedparticledensityalmostonehundredfold,increasedthepositive
electrode'ssurfaceareaandimprovedcapacityandperformance.Commercializationledtoarapidgrowth
inthemarketforhighercapacityLIBs,aswellasapatentinfringementbattlebetweenChiangand
Goodenough.[32]
Asof2011,lithiumionbatteriesaccountedfor66%ofallportablesecondary(i.e.,rechargeable)battery
salesinJapan.[33]
InJune2012,JohnGoodenough,RachidYazamiandAkiraYoshinoreceivedthe2012IEEEMedalfor
EnvironmentalandSafetyTechnologiesfordevelopingthelithiumionbattery.
By2013,thelithiumrechargeablebatteryhadprogressedtoalithiumvanadiumphosphatebatteryto
increaseenergyefficiencyintheforwardandreversereaction.
In2014,JohnGoodenough,YoshioNishi,RachidYazamiandAkiraYoshinowererecognizedbythe
NationalAcademyofEngineeringforpioneeringandleadingthegroundworkfortodayslithiumion
battery.[34]
In2014,commercialbatteriesfromAmpriusCorp.reached650wH/l(20%higherthanbefore),usinga
siliconanode,andwerebeingdeliveredtosmartphonemanufacturers.[35]

Construction
Thethreeprimaryfunctionalcomponentsofalithiumionbattery
arethepositiveandnegativeelectrodesandelectrolyte.Generally,
thenegativeelectrodeofaconventionallithiumioncellismade
fromcarbon.Thepositiveelectrodeisametaloxide,andthe
electrolyteisalithiumsaltinanorganicsolvent.[36]The
electrochemicalrolesoftheelectrodesreversebetweenanodeand
cathode,dependingonthedirectionofcurrentflowthroughthecell.
Themostcommerciallypopularnegativeelectrodeisgraphite.The
positiveelectrodeisgenerallyoneofthreematerials:alayered
oxide(suchaslithiumcobaltoxide),apolyanion(suchaslithium
ironphosphate)oraspinel(suchaslithiummanganeseoxide).[37]

Cylindrical18650lithiumiron
phosphatecellbeforeclosing

Theelectrolyteistypicallyamixtureoforganiccarbonatessuchas
ethylenecarbonateordiethylcarbonatecontainingcomplexesof
lithiumions.[38]Thesenonaqueouselectrolytesgenerallyusenoncoordinatinganionsaltssuchaslithium
hexafluorophosphate(LiPF6),lithiumhexafluoroarsenatemonohydrate(LiAsF6),lithiumperchlorate
(LiClO4),lithiumtetrafluoroborate(LiBF4)andlithiumtriflate(LiCF3SO3).
Dependingonmaterialschoices,thevoltage,energydensity,lifeandsafetyofalithiumionbatterycan
changedramatically.Recently,novelarchitecturesusingnanotechnologyhavebeenemployedtoimprove
performance.
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Purelithiumishighlyreactive.Itreactsvigorouslywithwatertoformlithiumhydroxideandhydrogengas.
Thus,anonaqueouselectrolyteistypicallyused,andasealedcontainerrigidlyexcludesmoisturefromthe
batterypack.
LithiumionbatteriesaremoreexpensivethanNiCdbatteriesbutoperateoverawidertemperaturerange
withhigherenergydensities.Theyrequireaprotectivecircuittolimitpeakvoltage.
Fornotebooksorlaptops,lithiumioncellsaresuppliedaspartofabatterypackwithtemperaturesensors,
voltageconverter/regulatorcircuit,voltagetap,batterychargestatemonitorandthemainconnector.These
componentsmonitorthestateofchargeandcurrentinandoutofeachcell,capacitiesofeachindividualcell
(drasticchangecanleadtoreversepolaritieswhichisdangerous),[39]temperatureofeachcellandminimize
theriskofshortcircuits.[40]

Shapes
Liioncells(asdistinctfromentirebatteries)areavailableinvarious
shapes,whichcangenerallybedividedintofourgroups:[41]
Smallcylindrical(solidbodywithoutterminals,suchasthose
usedinlaptopbatteries)
Largecylindrical(solidbodywithlargethreadedterminals)
Pouch(soft,flatbody,suchasthoseusedincellphones)
Prismatic(semihardplasticcasewithlargethreaded

NissanLeaf'slithiumionbattery
pack.

terminals,suchasvehicles'tractionpacks)
Cellswithacylindricalshapearemadeinacharacteristic"swissroll"manner(knownasa"jellyroll"inthe
US),whichmeansitisasinglelongsandwichofpositiveelectrode,separator,negativeelectrodeand
separatorrolledintoasinglespool.Themaindisadvantageofthismethodofconstructionisthatthecell
willhaveahigherseriesinductance.
Theabsenceofacasegivespouchcellsthehighestgravimetricenergydensityhowever,formanypractical
applicationstheystillrequireanexternalmeansofcontainmenttopreventexpansionwhentheirstateof
charge(SOC)levelishigh,[42]andforgeneralstructuralstabilityofthebatterypackofwhichtheyarepart.
Since2011,severalresearchgroupshaveannounceddemonstrationsoflithiumionflowbatteriesthat
suspendthecathodeoranodematerialinanaqueousororganicsolution.[43]
In2014,Panasoniccreatedthesmallestliionbattery.Itispinshaped.Ithasadiameterof3.5mmanda
weightof0.6g.[44]

Electrochemistry
Theparticipantsintheelectrochemicalreactionsinalithiumionbatteryarethenegativeandpositive
electrodeswiththeelectrolyteprovidingaconductivemediumforLithiumionstomovebetweenthe
electrodes.
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Bothelectrodesallowlithiumionstomoveinandoutoftheirinteriors.Duringinsertion(orintercalation)
ionsmoveintotheelectrode.Duringthereverseprocess,extraction(ordeintercalation),ionsmoveback
out.Whenalithiumionbasedcellisdischarging,thepositiveLithiumionmovesfromthenegative
electrode(usuallygraphite)andentersthepositiveelectrode(lithiumcontainingcompound).Whenthecell
ischarging,thereverseoccurs.
Usefulworkisperformedwhenelectronsflowthroughaclosedexternalcircuit.Thefollowingequations
showoneexampleofthechemistry,inunitsofmoles,makingitpossibletousecoefficient .
Thepositiveelectrodehalfreactionis:[45]

Thenegativeelectrodehalfreactionis:

Theoverallreactionhasitslimits.Overdischargesupersaturateslithiumcobaltoxide,leadingtothe
productionoflithiumoxide,[46]possiblybythefollowingirreversiblereaction:

Overchargeupto5.2voltsleadstothesynthesisofcobalt(IV)oxide,asevidencedbyxraydiffraction:[47]

Inalithiumionbatterythelithiumionsaretransportedtoandfromthepositiveornegativeelectrodesby
3+

4+

oxidizingthetransitionmetal,cobalt(Co),inLi1xCoO2fromCo toCo duringcharge,andreduced

4+

3+

fromCo toCo duringdischarge.Thecobaltelectrodereactionisonlyreversibleforx<0.5,limiting

thedepthofdischargeallowable.ThischemistrywasusedintheLiioncellsdevelopedbySonyin1990.
Thecell'senergyisequaltothevoltagetimesthecharge.EachgramoflithiumrepresentsFaraday's
constant/6.941or13,901coulombs.At3V,thisgives41.7kJpergramoflithium,or11.6kWhperkg.
Thisisabitmorethantheheatofcombustionofgasoline,butdoesnotconsidertheothermaterialsthatgo
intoalithiumbatteryandthatmakelithiumbatteriesmanytimesheavierperunitofenergy.

Electrolytes
ThecellvoltagesgivenintheElectrochemistrysectionarelargerthanthepotentialatwhichaqueous
solutionswillelectrolyze.
Liquidelectrolytesinlithiumionbatteriesconsistoflithiumsalts,suchasLiPF6,LiBF4orLiClO4inan
organicsolvent,suchasethylenecarbonate,dimethylcarbonate,anddiethylcarbonate.Aliquidelectrolyte
actsasacarrierbetweenthepositiveandnegativeelectrodeswhencurrentflowsthroughanexternal
circuit.Typicalconductivitiesofliquidelectrolyteatroomtemperature(20C(68F))areintherangeof
10mS/cm(1S/m),increasingbyapproximately3040%at40C(104F)anddecreasingslightlyat0C
(32F).[48]
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Organicsolventseasilydecomposeonthenegativeelectrodesduringcharge.Whenappropriateorganic
solventsareusedastheelectrolyte,thesolventdecomposesoninitialchargingandformsasolidlayer
calledthesolidelectrolyteinterphase(SEI),[49]whichiselectricallyinsulatingyetprovidessignificantionic
conductivity.Theinterphasepreventsfurtherdecompositionoftheelectrolyteafterthesecondcharge.For
example,ethylenecarbonateisdecomposedatarelativelyhighvoltage,0.7Vvs.lithium,andformsa
denseandstableinterface.[50]
CompositeelectrolytesbasedonPOE(poly(oxyethylene))developedbySyzdeketal.,providearelatively
stableinterface.[51][52]Itcanbeeithersolid(highmolecularweight)andbeappliedindryLipolymercells,
orliquid(lowmolecularweight)andbeappliedinregularLiioncells.
Roomtemperatureionicliquids(RTILs)areanotherapproachtolimitingtheflammabilityandvolatilityof
organicelectrolytes.[53]

Chargeanddischarge
+

Duringdischarge,lithiumionsLi carrythecurrentfromthenegativetothepositiveelectrode,throughthe
nonaqueouselectrolyteandseparatordiaphragm.[54]
Duringcharging,anexternalelectricalpowersource(thechargingcircuit)appliesanovervoltage(ahigher
voltagebutofthesamepolarity)thanthatproducedbythebattery,forcingthecurrenttopassinthereverse
direction.Thelithiumionsthenmigratefromthepositivetothenegativeelectrode,wheretheybecome
embeddedintheporouselectrodematerialinaprocessknownasintercalation.

Chargingprocedure
ThechargingproceduresforsingleLiioncells,andcompleteLiionbatteries,areslightlydifferent.
AsingleLiioncellischargedintwostages:[39]
1. Constantcurrent(CC)
2. Voltagesource(CV)
ALiionbattery(asetofLiioncellsinseries)ischargedinthreestages:
1. Constantcurrent
2. Balance(notrequiredonceabatteryisbalanced)
3. Voltagesource
Duringtheconstantcurrentphase,thechargerappliesaconstantcurrenttothebatteryatasteadily
increasingvoltage,untilthevoltagelimitpercellisreached.
Duringthebalancephase,thechargerreducesthechargingcurrent(orcyclethechargingonandoffto
reducetheaveragecurrent)whilethestateofchargeofindividualcellsisbroughttothesamelevelbya
balancingcircuit,untilthebatteryisbalanced.Somefastchargersskipthisstage.Somechargers
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accomplishthebalancebychargingeachcellindependently.
Duringtheconstantvoltagephase,thechargerappliesavoltageequaltothemaximumcellvoltagetimes
thenumberofcellsinseriestothebattery,asthecurrentgraduallydeclinestowards0,untilthecurrentis
belowasetthresholdofabout3%ofinitialconstantchargecurrent.
Periodictoppingchargeaboutonceper500hours.Topchargingisrecommendedtobeinitiatedwhen
voltagegoesbelow4.05V/cell.
Failuretofollowcurrentandvoltagelimitationscanresultinanexplosion.[55]

Chargingathighandlowtemperatures
ChargingtemperaturelimitsforLiionarestricterthantheoperatinglimits.Lithiumionchemistry
performswellatelevatedtemperaturesbutprolongedexposuretoheatreducesbatterylife.
Liionbatteriesoffergoodchargingperformanceatcoolertemperaturesandmayevenallow'fastcharging'
withinatemperaturerangeof5to45C(41to113F).[56]Chargingshouldbeperformedwithinthis
temperaturerange.Attemperaturesfrom0to5Cchargingispossible,butthechargecurrentshouldbe
reduced.Duringalowtemperaturechargetheslighttemperatureriseaboveambientduetotheinternalcell
resistanceisbeneficial.Hightemperaturesduringchargingmayleadtobatterydegradationandchargingat
temperaturesabove45Cwilldegradebatteryperformance,whereasatlowertemperaturestheinternal
resistanceofthebatterymayincrease,resultinginslowerchargingandthuslongerchargingtimes.[56]
Consumergradelithiumionbatteriesshouldnotbechargedattemperaturesbelow0C(32F).Although
abatterypackmayappeartobechargingnormally,electroplatingofmetalliclithiumcanoccuratthe
negativeelectrodeduringasubfreezingcharge,andmaynotberemovableevenbyrepeatedcycling.Most
devicesequippedwithLiionbatteriesdonotallowchargingoutsideof045Cforsafetyreasons,except
formobilephonesthatmayallowsomedegreeofchargingwhentheydetectanemergencycallin
progress.[57]

Production
Industryproducedabout660millioncylindricallithiumioncellsin2012the18650formatisbyfarthe
mostpopularforcylindricalcells.IfTeslameetsitsgoalofshipping40,000ModelSelectriccarsin2014
andifthe85kWhbattery,whichuses7,104ofthesecells,provesaspopularoverseasasitwasintheU.S.,
in2014theModelSalonewouldusealmost40percentofglobalcylindricalbatteryproduction.[58]
Productionisgraduallyshiftingtohighercapacity3,000+mAhcells.Annualflatpolymercelldemandwas
expectedtoexceed700millionin2013.[59]
TeslaMotorsisplanningonbuildingtheworld'slargestLithiumionbatteryfactorycalledthe
Gigafactorybefore2020.Thefactorywouldbeapproximately10,000,000squarefeet(930,000m2)insize
andisplannedtobeabletoproducealargeenoughquantityofcellstobeabletobuild500,000vehicle
batterypacksperyear.[60]

Specifications
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Specificenergydensity:100to250Wh/kg(360to900kJ/kg)[61]
Volumetricenergydensity:250to620Wh/L(900to1900J/cm)[2]
Specificpowerdensity:300to1500W/kg(@20secondsand285Wh/l)[1]
Becauselithiumionbatteriescanhaveavarietyofpositiveandnegativeelectrodematerials,theenergy
densityandvoltagevaryaccordingly.Onaverage,ithasahighcapacityof1200mAh,abatteryvoltageof
7.2Vand8.6Whpercycleofuse.[62]
Theopencircuitvoltageishigherthanaqueousbatteries(suchasleadacid,nickelmetalhydrideand
nickelcadmium).[63]Internalresistanceincreaseswithbothcyclingandage.[63][64]Risinginternal
resistancecausesthevoltageattheterminalstodropunderload,whichreducesthemaximumcurrentdraw.
Eventuallyincreasingresistancemeansthatthebatterycannolongeroperateforanadequateperiod.
Batterieswithalithiumironphosphatepositiveandgraphitenegativeelectrodeshaveanominalopen
circuitvoltageof3.2Vandatypicalchargingvoltageof3.6V.Lithiumnickelmanganesecobalt(NMC)
oxidepositiveswithgraphitenegativeshavea3.7Vnominalvoltagewitha4.2Vmaximumwhile
charging.Thechargingprocedureisperformedatconstantvoltagewithcurrentlimitingcircuitry(i.e.,
chargingwithconstantcurrentuntilavoltageof4.2Visreachedinthecellandcontinuingwithaconstant
voltageapplieduntilthecurrentdropsclosetozero).Typically,thechargeisterminatedat3%oftheinitial
chargecurrent.Inthepast,lithiumionbatteriescouldnotbefastchargedandneededatleasttwohoursto
fullycharge.Currentgenerationcellscanbefullychargedin45minutesorless.

Materialsofcommercialcells
Theincreasingdemandforbatterieshasledvendorsandacademicstofocusonimprovingtheenergy
density,operatingtemperature,safety,durability,chargingtime,outputpower,andcostoflithiumion
batterysolutions.Thefollowingmaterialshavebeenusedincommerciallyavailablecells.Researchinto
othermaterialscontinues.

Positiveelectrode

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Technology

Company

Positiveelectrode
Targetapplication

LithiumNickel
Manganese
ImaraCorporation,Nissan
CobaltOxide
Motor,[65][66]MicrovastInc.
("NMC",
LiNixMnyCozO2)
Lithium
ManganeseOxide
("LMO",
LiMn2O4)

LGChem,[67]NEC,
Samsung,[28]Hitachi,[68]
Nissan/AESC,[69]
EnerDel[70]

UniversityofTexas/Hydro
LithiumIron
Qubec,[71]Phostech
Phosphate
LithiumInc.,Valence
("LFP",LiFePO4) Technology,
A123Systems/MIT[72][73]

Oxygen("Li
Air")

IBM,Polyplus[74]

Date

2008

Benefit
density,output,
safety

Hybridelectricvehicle,cell
phone,laptop

1996 durability,cost

SegwayPersonal
Transporter,powertools,
aviationproducts,
automotivehybridsystems,
PHEVconversions

moderatedensity
(2Ahoutputs70
1996 amperes)operating
temperature>60C
(140F)

Automotive

Energydensity:up
to10,000mAhper
2012 gramofpositive
electrodematerial.
Rechargeable.

Negativeelectrode

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Technology

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Density

Negativeelectrode
Target
Durability Company
application

Date

Comments

Lowcostandgoodenergy
density.Graphiteanodescan
accommodateonelithium
atomforeverysixcarbon
atoms.Chargingrateis
governedbytheshapeofthe
long,thingraphenesheets.
Whilecharging,thelithium
1991 ionsmusttraveltotheouter
edgesofthegraphenesheet
beforecomingtorest
(intercalating)betweenthe
sheets.Thecircuitousroute
takessolongthatthey
encountercongestionaround
thoseedges.[75]

Graphite

Thedominant
negative
electrode
materialused
inlithiumion
batteries.

Lithium
Titanate
("LTO",
Li4Ti5O12)

Toshiba,
Altairnano

automotive
(Phoenix
Motorcars),
electricalgrid
(PJM
Interconnection
output,chargingtime,
Regional
Transmission 2008 durability(safety,operating
temperature5070C
Organization
(58158F))[78]
control
area,[76]United
States
Departmentof
Defense[77]),
bus(Proterra)

Energ2[79]

Consumer
electronics

Sony

Consumer
Largercapacitythanacell
electronics
2005 withgraphite(3.5Ah18650
(SonyNexelion
typebattery)
battery)

Amprius[80]

Smartphones,
Usessiliconandother
providing1850 2013 electrochemicals.Energy
mAhcapacity
density

9,000

HardCarbon
Tin/Cobalt
Alloy

Silicon/Carbon

Volumetric:
580Wh/l

2013 greaterstoragecapacity

Diffusion
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Theionsintheelectrolytediffusebecausetherearesmallchangesintheelectrolyteconcentration.Linear
diffusionisonlyconsideredhere.Thechangeinconcentration,c,asafunctionoftime,t,anddistance,x,is,
c/t=D/*c/x
Thenegativesignindicatestheionsareflowingfromhighconcentrationtolowconcentration.Inthis
equation,Disthediffusioncoefficientforthelithiumion.Ithasavalueof7.51010m/sintheLiPF6
electrolyte.Thevaluefor,theporosityoftheelectrolyte,is0.724.[81]

Uses
Liionbatteriesprovidelightweight,highenergydensitypowersourcesforavarietyofdevices.Topower
largerdevices,suchaselectriccars,connectingmanysmallbatteriesinaparallelcircuitismore
effective[82]andmoreefficientthanconnectingasinglelargebattery.Suchdevicesinclude:
Portabledevices:theseincludemobilephonesandsmartphones,laptopsandtablets,digitalcameras
andcamcorders,electroniccigarettes,handheldgameconsolesandtorches(flashlights).
Powertools:Liionbatteriesareusedintoolssuchascordlessdrills,sanders,sawsandavarietyof
gardenequipmentincludingwhippersnippersandhedgetrimmers.
Electricvehicles:BecauseoftheirlightweightLiionbatteriesareusedforpropellingawiderange
ofelectricvehiclessuchasaircraft,[83][84][85]electriccars,Pedelecs,hybridvehicles,advanced
electricwheelchairs,radiocontrolledmodels,modelaircraftandtheMarsCuriosityrover.
Liionbatteriesareusedintelecommunicationsapplications.Secondarynonaqueouslithiumbatteries
providereliablebackuppowertoloadequipmentlocatedinanetworkenvironmentofatypical
telecommunicationsserviceprovider.Liionbatteriescompliantwithspecifictechnicalcriteriaare
recommendedfordeploymentintheOutsidePlant(OSP)atlocationssuchasControlledEnvironmental
Vaults(CEVs),ElectronicEquipmentEnclosures(EEEs),andhuts,andinuncontrolledstructuressuchas
cabinets.Insuchapplications,liionbatteryusersrequiredetailed,batteryspecifichazardousmaterial
information,plusappropriatefirefightingprocedures,tomeetregulatoryrequirementsandtoprotect
employeesandsurroundingequipment.[86]

Selfdischarge
Batteriesgraduallyselfdischargeevenifnotconnectedand
deliveringcurrent.Li+rechargeablebatterieshaveaselfdischarge
ratetypicallystatedbymanufacturerstobe1.52%per
month.[87][88]Therateincreaseswithtemperatureandstateof
charge.A2004studyfoundthatformostcyclingconditionsself
dischargewasprimarilytimedependenthowever,afterseveral
monthsofstandonopencircuitorfloatcharge,stateofcharge
dependentlossesbecamesignificant.Theselfdischargeratedidnot
increasemonotonicallywithstateofcharge,butdroppedsomewhat
atintermediatestatesofcharge.[89]Selfdischargeratesmay
increaseasbatteriesage.[90]
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Alithiumionbatteryfromalaptop
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Forcomparison,theselfdischargerateisover30%permonthforcommonnickelmetalhydride(NiMH)
batteries,[91]droppingtoabout1.25%permonthforlowselfdischargeNiMHbatteries,and10%per
monthinnickelcadmiumbatteries.

Batterylife
Rechargeablebatterylifeisalmostalwaysdefinedasnumberoffullchargedischargecyclesby
manufacturersandtesters.Inadditiontocycling,storingalsodegradesbatteries.Thereasonforbattery
degradationarechemicalchangesoftheelectrodes.Forcycledcells,theageingmechanismisdependenton
theambienttemperatureduringcharging.[92]
Manufacturers'informationimpliesthatthelifeofabatterythatisnotabuseddependsuponthenumberof
chargecyclesitundergoes,specifyingtypicalbatterycapacityintermsofnumberofcycles(e.g.,capacity
droppinglinearlyto80%over500cycles),withnomentionofageofthebattery.[93]ResearchbyProfessor
JeffDahnofDalhousieUniversitysuggeststhiscommonindustrypracticeofmerelycountingcycles,
ignoringtheeffectofage,isapoorpredictorofrealworldbatterylife.Onaverage,itslifetimeconsistsof
1000cycles.[94]Batteryperformanceisrarelyspecifiedovermorethan500cycles.Thismeansthat
batteriesofmobilephones,orotherhandhelddevicesindailyuse,arenotexpectedtolastlongerthan
threeyears.Butitisalsoquitepossibletoobtainlithiumionbatteriesbasedoncarbonanodeswithmore
than10.000cycles.[95]
Batteriesmaylastlongerifnotstoredfullydischarged.Asthebatteryselfdischargesovertime,itsvoltage
graduallydiminishes.Whendepletedbelowthelowvoltagethresholdoftheprotectioncircuit(2.4to2.9
V/cell,dependingonchemistry)itwillbedisconnectedandcannotbefurtherdischargeduntilrechargedif
aprotectioncircuitispresent.Thisisbecauseasthedischargeprogresses,themetalliccontentsofthecell
areplatedontoitsinternalstructurecreatinganunwanteddischargepath.
Therateofdegradationoflithiumionbatteriesisstronglytemperaturedependenttheydegrademuch
fasterifstoredorusedathighertemperatures.Thecarbonnegativeelectrodeofthecellalsogeneratesheat.
Highchargelevelsandelevatedtemperatures(whetherfromchargingorambientair)hastencapacity
loss.[63]Poorventilationmayincreasetemperatures,furthershorteningbatterylife.Lossratesvaryby
temperature:6%lossat0C(32F),20%at25C(77F),and35%at40C(104F).Incontrast,the
calendarlifeofLiFePO4cellsisnotaffectedbyhighchargestates.[96]Theymaybestoredina
refrigerator.[97][98]
Chargingformsdepositsinsidetheelectrolytethatinhibitiontransport.Theincreaseininternalresistance
reducesthecell'sabilitytodelivercurrent.Thisproblemismorepronouncedinhighcurrentapplications.

Conditioning
Theneedto"condition"NiCdandNiMHbatterieshasincorrectlyleakedintofolkloresurroundingLiion
batteries.Therecommendationfortheoldertechnologiesistoleavethedevicepluggedinforsevenor
eighthours,eveniffullycharged.[99]Thismaybeaconfusionofbatterysoftwarecalibrationinstructions
withthe"conditioning"instructionsforNiCdandNiMHbatteries.[100]

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Althoughnotcurrentlymainstream,technologyexists[101]thatcanlargelypreventdegradationandeven
reversewhatiscurrentlyacceptedasnormalagingcapacityloss.Suchtechnologyisusedby"batteryOS"
systemonsomeappledevices,forexample.

Multicelldevices
Liionbatteriesrequireabatterymanagementsystemtopreventoperationoutsideeachcell'ssafeoperating
area(overcharge,undercharge,safetemperaturerange)andtobalancecellstoeliminatestateofcharge
mismatches,therebysignificantlyimprovingbatteryefficiencyandincreasingoverallcapacity.Asthe
numberofcellsandloadcurrentsincrease,thepotentialformismatchincreases.Thetwokindsofmismatch
arestateofcharge(SOC)andcapacity/energy("C/E").ThoughSOCismorecommon,eachproblemlimits
packchargecapacity(mAh)tothatoftheweakestcell.

Safety
Ifoverheatedorovercharged,Liionbatteriesmaysufferthermalrunawayandcellrupture.[102]Inextreme
casesthiscanleadtocombustion.Toreducetheserisks,lithiumionbatterypackscontainfailsafecircuitry
thatdisconnectsthebatterywhenitsvoltageisoutsidethesaferangeof34.2Vpercell.[45][91]Lithium
ioncellsareverysusceptibletodamageoutsidetheallowedvoltagerangethatistypicallywithin(2.5to
3.65)VformostLFPcells.Exceedingthisvoltagerangeresultsinprematureageingofthecellsand,
furthermore,resultsinsafetyrisksduetothereactivecomponentsinthecells.[103]Whenstoredforlong
periodsthesmallcurrentdrawoftheprotectioncircuitrymaydrainthebatterybelowitsshutoffvoltage
normalchargersmaythenbeuseless.Manytypesoflithiumioncellscannotbechargedsafelybelow
0C.[104]
Othersafetyfeaturesarerequiredineachcell:[45]
Shutdownseparator(foroverheating)
Tearawaytab(forinternalpressure)
Vent(pressurerelief)
Thermalinterrupt(overcurrent/overcharging)
Thesedevicesoccupyusefulspaceinsidethecells,addadditionalpointsoffailureandirreversiblydisable
thecellwhenactivated.Theyarerequiredbecausethenegativeelectrodeproducesheatduringuse,while
thepositiveelectrodemayproduceoxygen.Thesedevicesandimprovedelectrodedesignsreduce/eliminate
theriskoffireorexplosion.Further,thesefeaturesincreasecostscomparedtonickelmetalhydride
batteries,whichrequireonlyahydrogen/oxygenrecombinationdevice(preventingdamageduetomild
overcharging)andabackuppressurevalve.[105]Contaminantsinsidethecellscandefeatthesesafety
devices.
Shortcircuitingabatterywillcausethecelltooverheatandpossiblytocatchfire.Adjacentcellsmaythen
overheatandfail,possiblycausingtheentirebatterytoigniteorrupture.Intheeventofafire,thedevice
mayemitdenseirritatingsmoke.[106]Thefireenergycontent(electrical+chemical)ofcobaltoxidecellsis
about100to150kJperAh,mostofitchemical.[39][107]
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Replacingthelithiumcobaltoxidepositiveelectrodematerialinlithiumionbatterieswithalithiummetal
phosphatesuchaslithiumironphosphateimprovescyclecounts,shelflifeandsafety,butlowerscapacity.
Asof2006these'safer'lithiumionbatteriesweremainlyusedinelectriccarsandotherlargecapacity
batteryapplications,wheresafetyiscritical.[108]
Lithiumionbatteries,unlikeotherrechargeablebatteries,haveapotentiallyhazardouspressurised
flammableelectrolyte,andrequirestrictqualitycontrolduringmanufacture.[109]Afaultybatterycancause
aseriousfire.Faultychargerscanaffectthesafetyofthebatterybecausetheycandestroythebattery's
protectioncircuit.Whilechargingattemperaturesbelow0C,thenegativeelectrodeofthecellsgetsplated
withpurelithium,whichcancompromisethesafetyofthewholepack.Batterypackswhicharenot
brandedbyareputablemanufacturermaynotbebuilttothesamesafetystandardasbrandedones.
Whilefireisoftenserious,itmaybecatastrophicallyso.Inabout2010largelithiumionbatterieswere
introducedinplaceofotherchemistriestopowersystemsonsomeaircraftasofJanuary2014therehad
beenatleastfourseriouslithiumionbatteryfires,orsmoke,ontheBoeing787passengeraircraft,
introducedin2011,whichdidnotcausecrashesbuthadthepotentialtodoso.[110][111]

Environmentalconcernsandrecycling
SinceLiionbatteriescontainlesstoxicmetalsthanothertypesofbatterieswhichmaycontainleador
cadmium[45]theyaregenerallycategorizedasnonhazardouswaste.Liionbatteryelementsincludingiron,
copper,nickelandcobaltareconsideredsafeforincineratorsandlandfills.Thesemetalscanberecycled,
butmininggenerallyremainscheaperthanrecycling.[112]Atpresent,notmuchisinvestedintorecycling
Liionbatteriesduetocosts,complexitiesandlowyield.Themostexpensivemetalinvolvedinthe
constructionofthecelliscobalt.Lithiumironphosphateischeaperbuthasotherdrawbacks.Lithiumisless
expensivethanothermetalsused.Themanufacturingprocessesofnickelandcobaltforthepositive
electrodeandalsothesolvent,presentpotentialenvironmentalandhealthhazards.[113][114]

Recalls
InOctober2004KyoceraWirelessrecalledapproximately1millionmobilephonebatteriestoidentify
counterfeits.[115]
InDecember2005Dellrecalledapproximately22,000laptopcomputerbatteries,and4.1millioninAugust
2006.[116]Approximately10millionSonybatteriesusedinDell,Sony,Apple,Lenovo,Panasonic,Toshiba,
Hitachi,FujitsuandSharplaptopswererecalledin2006.Thebatterieswerefoundtobesusceptibleto
internalcontaminationbymetalparticlesduringmanufacture.Undersomecircumstances,theseparticles
couldpiercetheseparator,causingadangerousshortcircuit.[117]
InMarch2007computermanufacturerLenovorecalledapproximately205,000batteriesatriskof
explosion.InAugust2007mobilephonemanufacturerNokiarecalledover46millionbatteriesatriskof
overheatingandexploding.[118]OnesuchincidentoccurredinthePhilippinesinvolvingaNokiaN91,
whichusedtheBL5Cbattery.[119]

Transportrestrictions
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IATAestimatesthatoverabillionlithiumcellsareflowneach
year.[107]
Themaximumsizeofeachbattery(whetherinstalledinadeviceor
assparebatteries)thatcanbecarriedisonethathasanequivalent
lithiumcontent(ELC)notexceeding8grammesperbattery.Except,
thatifonlyoneortwobatteriesarecarried,eachmayhaveanELC
ofnotmorethan25grammeseach.[120]TheELCforanybatteryis
foundbymultiplyingtheamperehourcapacityofeachcellby0.3
JapanAirlinesBoeing787lithium
andthenmultiplyingtheresultbythenumberofcellsinthe
cobaltoxidebatterythatcaughtfirein
[120]
battery.
Theresultantcalculatedlithiumcontentisnottheactual
2013
lithiumcontentbutatheoreticalfiguresolelyfortransportation
purposes.Whenshippinglithiumionbatterieshowever,ifthetotal
lithiumcontentinthecellexceeds1.5g,thepackagemustbemarkedasClass9miscellaneoushazardous
material.
Althoughdevicescontaininglithiumionbatteriesmaytransportedincheckedbaggage,sparebatteriesmay
beonlytransportedincarryonbaggage.[120]Theymustbeprotectedagainstshortcircuiting,andexample
tipsareprovidedinthetransportregulationsonsafepackagingandcarriagee.g.,suchbatteriesshouldbe
intheiroriginalprotectivepackagingor,"bytapingovertheexposedterminalsorplacingeachbatteryina
separateplasticbagorprotectivepouch".[120][121]Theserestrictiondonotapplytoalithiumionbattery
thatisapartofawheelchairormobilityaid(includinganysparebatteries)towhichaseparatesetofrules
andregulationsapply.[120]
Somepostaladministrationsrestrictairshipping(includingEMS)oflithiumandlithiumionbatteries,
eitherseparatelyorinstalledinequipment.SuchrestrictionsapplyinHongKong,[122]Australiaand
Japan.[123]
On16May2012,theUnitedStatesPostalService(USPS)bannedshippinganythingcontainingalithium
batterytoanoverseasaddress,afterfiresfromtransportofbatteries.[124]Thisrestrictionmadeitdifficultto
sendanythingcontaininglithiumbatteriestomilitarypersonneloverseas,astheUSPSwastheonlymethod
ofshipmenttotheseaddressesthebanwasliftedon15November2012.[125]
TheBoeing787Dreamlineruseslargelithiumcobaltoxide[126]batteries,whicharemorereactivethan
newertypesofbatteriessuchasLiFePO4.[127]

Research
Researchersareworkingtoimprovetheresearchmethods,powerdensity,safety,cycledurability,recharge
time,cost,flexibilityandothercharacteristicsofthesebatteries.ResearchersatIBMIndiahavecomeup
withanexperimentalpowersupplyusinglithiumioncellsfromdiscardedlaptopbatterypacksforusein
unelectrifiedregionsindevelopingnations.[128]

Seealso
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Researchinlithiumionbatteries
Lithiumairbattery
Lithiumbattery
Lithiumsulfurbattery
Lithiumpolymerbattery
Lithiumironphosphatebattery
Lithiumionmanganeseoxidebattery
Lithiumionflowbattery
Lithiumtitanatebattery
Lithiumvanadiumphosphatebattery
Potassiumionbattery
Nanowirebattery
Solidstatelithiumionbattery
Aluminiumionbattery
Listofbatterysizes
Listofbatterytypes
Listofenergydensities

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