RT Notes

RESEARCH TECHNIQUES (ARC-411)
VII SEM - B.Arch
RESEARCHTECHNIQUES
Definitions
Importance
Fourmethodsofknowing
Scienceandresearch.
FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE MANIPAL UNIVERSITY, MANIPAL
LECTURE 1

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Meaning of research
Search for Knowledge
Scientific and Systematic search for pertinent information on a
specific topic
Advanced Learners dictionary of Current
English, Oxford 1952, p 1069 lays down the
meaning of research:
a careful investigation or inquiry

specially through search for new facts
in any branch of knowledge

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The Chambers Dictionary, lays down the meaning of research

'a careful search; a systematic investigation towards increasing the
sum of knowledge' in a particular field of interest.
L.V. Redman and A. V. H. Mory in their book The Romance of
Research (1923) define research: Systematized effort to gain new
knowledge.
According to Clifford Woody research comprises ..defining and
redefining problems; formulating hypotheses or suggested solutions;
collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions and
reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to
determine whether they fit the formulating hypotheses

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IMPORTANCE:
Allprogressisbornofinquiry.Increasedamountsofresearchmake
progresspossible.
Logicalhabitofthinkingandorganizationdevelops
Appliedresearchdevelops.
Itformsthebasisforallgovernmentpoliciesinoureconomicsystem.
problemsolvinginoperationalandplanninginbusinessindustry.
Solvingsocialresearchproblems.

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Knowledge
What is Knowledge?????
Knowledge is a familiarity with
someone or something, which
can include facts, information,
descriptions, or skills acquired
through experience or
education.

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SourcesofKnowledge
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Means of acquiring knowledge

Mysticism:
The mystical method for acquiring knowledge is the method that relies upon
myth and illusion in accepting what is true.
Examples are the use of magic, spiritualism, supernaturalism, or legend in
convincing others of the truth.
Usually this method creates false information and fabricated conclusions that
are exceedingly biased and deceitful.
One should exercise extreme caution when obtaining information derived
from this method.

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Authority:
The authoritarian method for acquiring knowledge is when people with
accepted sense of authority or status deliver the knowledge.
This method could be useful or harmful depending on the trustworthiness of
the deliverer.
The authority of experts or specialists in a certain field will provide knowledge
that people outside the field will depend upon.
Examples include specialized physicians, specialized engineers, etc. Usually
those experts have used scientific methods to acquire their knowledge, which
they pass along.
However, when a person delivers knowledge without having a trustworthy
authority, then the knowledge gained is greatly hampered.

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Tradition:
Is when knowledge about how the world works is passed along through the
ages and beliefs of a particular culture or sub-culture.
In this case you rely on cultural beliefs and values about what most people
would consider acceptable.
This method is useful in the sense that you do not have to start from scratch for
the quest for knowledge, but rather you can rely on earlier beliefs and known
facts to build upon new knowledge.
However, this method could very well be detrimental if you do not challenge
cultural beliefs or accepted knowledge.
In this case the advancement of the world would be severely jeopardized.

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Intuition:
Is when knowledge is accumulated merely on your intuition rather than on
substantial facts.
This method could obviously be problematic if you build conclusions upon
intuitions that turn out to be unreliable or untrue.
On the other hand, intuition could be a very useful starting point for future
research by providing ideas predicting possible outcomes, which could be
followed by a rigorous investigation--the scientific method.

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Science:
The scientific method, which is the method generally accepted to bring out
the truth of world matters, is a series of systematic and rigorous investigative
procedures in an attempt to eliminate bias and develop explanations of events.
Science is distinguished from nonscientific activities in that science
organizes facts, formulate laws and theories, and is subject to empirical
testing.

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Research and Scientific method

The two terms, research and scientific method, are closely related.
an inquiry into the nature of, the

reasons for, and the consequences of any particular set
of circumstances, whether these circumstances are
experimentally controlled or recorded just as they
occur. Further, research implies the researcher is
interested in more than particular results; he is
interested in the repeatability of the results and in their
extension to more complicated and general situations.
Research, can be termed as
(Bernard Ostle and Richard W. Mensing, Statistics in Research, .

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The following table compares scientific and nonscientific methods of inquiry.

Nonscientific
Scientific
casualactivity
consciousactivity
unplannedinquiry
deliberateinquiry
generalizationerrors
replicationispossible
illogicalreasoningaccepted
followslogicalreasoning
carelesswithmistakes
takesprecautions
informalornoobservations
systematicobservations

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RESEARCHTECHNIQUES
SignificanceofresearchinArchitecture
Socialresearch
Interdisciplinaryapproach
EnvironmentBehaviorresearch.
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IMPORTANCE OF THIS COURSE IN ARCHITECTURE
The course is geared towards assisting students to understand

the role of research in the design process and training them to
perform research projects that would help them improve their
design decisions.
The ultimate goal would be a better design outcome that is
acceptable by the users, appropriate to the context, sensitive to
the environment, aesthetically pleasing, and safe.

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The design process

Architecture is concerned with maximizing the cost benefits of
providing the building fabric (in terms of building system and
environmental system) to meet the requirement of the occupants (as
defined by the activity/behaviour system and organisational objective).
BPRU (1972)
Building Performance, Building Performance Research Unit, Applied Science, London.
In broad terms, the design process is the procedure adopted by

the designer to turn a given situation into a presumably better one.
Architecture has among its main goals the design of new
buildings and communities for people.

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The design process has been a hot topic for debate among
architects particularly regarding the best "way" to design.
Many have written about their views on the process of design.
In simple terms, design involves a cyclical process of three main
stages: analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.
As a designer you are faced with a problem which requires
analysis, then you initiate possible solutions for the problem, then
you evaluate the alternatives to decide on the best solution. The
results could very well affect the original analysis or problem,
hence the cyclical nature of the design process.

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ANALYSIS
EVALUATION
SYNTHESIS
Or as per *John Zeisel (1984)

The design process
is
1. Analysis
Problem statement analyzing the problem
Imaging - creating a vision of the

definition of the design problem
2. Synthesis
Solution - producing
one or more tentative
solutions
Presenting - communicating your ideas

to yourself and others
3. Evaluation
Criticism - critiquing
the tentative solutions
Testing - reviewing, critiquing and

examining the presented products for
evaluation, appraisal, refutation, and
judgment

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As a consequence of growing concern about the future of global

environment, building designers are being urged to design
climatically responsive buildings and to consider the
environmental impact of their designs.
The former issue draws attention to the climatically responsive
design of building envelope (design goal) can be defined in
terms of design objectives such as "thermal comfort," solar
control," "economy," "lighting," etc. These objectives must be
satisfied to achieve the design goal.

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The performance variables, such as air/surface temperatures,

shading efficiency, daylight factors, air exchanges and cost, must
acquire values within certain ranges which will satisfy the
objectives.
These ranges may be stated in specific terms as constraints or in
general directional terms as targets.
The design variables, such as lengths and widths of walls and
openings, materials properties of each component, must be
assigned some values to collectively describe a design (system).
More generally, performance variables are related to the required
functions and design variables to the form or structure of the
design.

VII SEM - B.Arch
PASSIVE
DESIGN OF
BUILDING
ENCLOSURE
THERMAL COMFORT
SOLAR CONTROL
DAYLIGHTING
NATURAL VENTILATION
COST, AESTHETICS
WATERPROOFING
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INTERNAL AIR/SURFACE
TEMPERATURES
SHADING EFFICIENCY
DAYLIGHT FACTORS, GLARE
AIRCHANGE
SURFACE AREA
WALL SYSTEM
ROOF SYSTEM
FLOOR SYSTEM
APERTURES, SHADING

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The crux of design process lies in the correct mapping between

the design and performance variables so as to achieve the
objectives/goals.
A performance variable is often influenced by more than one
design variable.
The converse is also true: one design variable is likely to
influence more than one performance variable, for instance the
opening in building skin may influence the daylight admitted
inside but also the solar heat gain and the light distribution.
The performance and decision variables interact in a very
complex way and the relationship between them is not always
obvious.

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Conceptually it can be represented as follows (Coyne 1990):

The design or performance variable cannot be considered in
isolation during the design process.
On the other hand, neither human designer nor computers can
handle all of these variables and their interactions simultaneously.
Designers are therefore faced with the challenge to devise a
design process that divides the overall task into more manageable
subtasks by focusing on selected variables at any time, while
allowing for due consideration of interaction and dependencies.

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In building design, this decomposition into sub problems occurs in

two main forms:
1. The overall process is divided into phases (such as conceptual,
preliminary, and detailed design)where each phase
concentrates on a limited set of design variables which are
indicated by the specific scale at which a building is
considered in that phase; only those design variables
2. Within a phase, design follows the widely accepted ternary
steps of analysis, synthesis and evaluation. A cycle is implied
in which the solution is revised and improved by reexamining
the analysis until the objectives are satisfied.

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Social research:
Social research refers to research conducted by social scientists, which
follows a systematic plan. Social research methods can generally vary
along a quantitative/qualitative dimension.

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Environmentbehaviorresearch:
Physical
Social

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Environment behavior studies are about the interrelationships

between behavior and properties of the man-made environment
Understanding how people use and value the spatial
environment is the key to planning sites that fit human
purposes (Lynch, 1962).

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Research in architecture
Specific
research
areas
in
architecture
include
Social,
Technological,
Environmental, Cultural, Organizational, Design, and Educational.
Social Research examines the people who inhabit and use the spaces of
architecture.
Technological Research studies the physical materials, methods, elements,

systems, and science of architecture and the design and construction processes.
Environmental Research investigates the physical context of architecture,

opening timely questions about the influence of society on environment.

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Research in architecture
Cultural Research studies place-making and the norms of the inhabitants

of natural and built places past, present, and future
Organizational Research examines the ways in which individuals and

teams collaborate in the practice of architecture and in the client
organizations.
Educational Research examines the pedagogies of architecture and related

fields.

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Discussion on Dissertation
Broad areas for examining in architecture:
Architectural theories & issues in architecture
Design approaches & construction techniques
Aspects of architectural history
Historical development of Buildings
Ideas, movements and applications in architecture

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Discussion on Dissertation
Preliminary Submission:
Name
Email & mobile number
Topic/ area of research
Objectives (what you intend to do?)
Background (what has been done on the same?)
Methodology (How do you propose to do?)

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RESEARCHTECHNIQUES
Introduction to Research process flow chart.
Research approaches- inductive and deductive.
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Research approaches- inductive and deductive.
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RESEARCHTECHNIQUES
Objectives of research
Motivation in research
Ethics to be considered in research
Principles of good research
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Objectives of Research
To discover answers to questions through the application of
scientific procedures.
The main aim of the research is to find out the truth which is
hidden and which has not been discovered as yet.
Though each research study has its own specific purpose,
research objectives may be categorized into a number of
following broad groupings:

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1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to

achieve new insights into a phenomenon.
-(exploratory or formulative research)
2. To portray the characteristics of a particular
individual, situation or group.
-(descriptive research)

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3.To determine the frequency with which

something occurs or with which it is associated
with something else (diagnostic research)
4. To test a hypothesis of causal relationship
between
variables
(hypothesis-testing
research)

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MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH
What makes people to undertake research? This is a

question of fundamental importance.
The possible motives for doing research may be either one or
more of the following:
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential
benefits;
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved
problems, i.e., concern over practical problems initiates
research; to perform research operations.

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3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;

4. Desire to be of service to society;
5. Desire to get respectability.
However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people
to undertake research studies.
Many more factors such as directives of government, employment
conditions, curiosity about new things, desire to understand
relationships, social thinking and awakening, and the like may as
well motivate people .

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Principles of Good Research

Many criteria exist for good research. From a methodological
point of view, the following are the main criteria.
1. Reliability:
The dependability and trustworthiness of the research
(measurements, findings, etc.).
A reliable measure is a measure that yields consistent
assessments among different occasions for one researcher or
among different researchers under the same conditions.

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2. Validity:
The soundness and correctness, accuracy and precision, of the
information provided in the research.
A valid measurement is a measurement that correctly measures
what it is it intended to measure.
3. Generalizability:
The ability of the research to be generalized or widely applied
to larger populations or settings or situations.

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4. Utility:
The potential for research to be used in improving the status
quo and as a basis for action or purpose.
This criterion is about the degree of usability of research in
policy-making and decision-making.
Other criteria's are
The research should have a clear statement of research aims,
which defines the research question.

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There has to be an information sheet for participants, which sets

out clearly what the research is about, what it will involve and
consent is obtained in writing on a consent form prior to research
beginning.
The methodology has to be appropriate to the research question.
Good research can often use a combination of methodologies,
which complement one another.
The research should be carried out in an unbiased fashion. As far
as possible the researcher should not influence the results of the
research in any way. If this is likely, it needs to be addressed
explicitly and systematically.

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From the beginning, the research should have appropriate and

sufficient resources in terms of people, time, transport, money
etc. allocated to it.
The people conducting the research should be trained in
research and research methods and this training should provide:
Knowledge around appropriate information
techniques
An understanding of research issues
An understanding of the research area
gathering

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Ethics in research
Conducting research in a proper and authentic way is
essential.
Among the concerns that each researcher should be aware
of is to maintain the highest level of ethics in research.
Deception in all its forms must be avoided. Ethics is
involved while preparing for research, while conducting
research, and while reporting research.

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Ethics while preparing research

Usually we need to inform the people acting as subjects in our
study that they are actually participating in your study.
They should be aware that they are subjects of your study.
We do not have to tell them the specific objectives of the study
as this may influence their responses and your measurements.
In certain cases we have to have a written permission of our
subjects; this is called informed consent.

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Ethics while conducting research

If your research involves studying people, you have to be
sure that no harm (physical or emotional) will happen to them
as a result of your measurements or data gathering process.

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Ethics while reporting research

When writing the results of your study, you need to honestly
and carefully report the procedures taken to gather and analyze
the data.
You need to have adequate information in your report that
another researcher would be able to repeat the same study using
the information provided.

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When referring to previous work, citations should be carefully

and correctly written.
Plagiarism (coping) must be avoided. Plagiarism occurs
when you quote from another source without acknowledging
that source.
Plagiarism is considered cheating and is a serious offence in
the research arena.

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Question to be prepared with..

Is there any potential risk or harm to participants or yourself? If
so, what are the potential risks and what do you intend to do to
reduce them?
How will you obtain informed consent?
Where informed consent is unable to be provided, what will you
do?
How will your research comply with equal opportunities?
How will participants be given the opportunity to complain?

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Will you be insured against professional negligence claims?

How will you deal with complaints made against you by
participants?
How will you deal with any sensitive or criminal matters that
may be raised in the course of your research?
What follow-up support will be available to participants should
they require it?

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RESEARCHTECHNIQUES
CLASSIFICATIONS OF RESEARCH
Research types or methods can be classified in

several ways based upon different criteria.
The following are some of the classifications of
various research types.

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Based upon purpose of research
1. Exploratory research
2. Descriptive research
3. Analytical research
4. Explanatory research
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Exploratory research:
Research that seeks to make an initial investigation of a problem

Descriptive research:
Research that seeks to describe a problem and recognize what is happening or has
occurred about the problem.
Analytical research:
The researcher has to use facts or information already available, and analyze these to
make a critical evaluation of the material.
Explanatory research:
Research that seeks to explain the causes of a particular problem and answer why a
phenomenon or a problem has occurred the way it did.

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Based upon the relation with the real world

1.Fundamental (or basic or pure) research:
Research that seeks to resolve basic and fundamental
problems regardless of whether or not the researcher
seeks direct impact on everyday life.
Gathering knowledge for knowledges sake is termed
pure or basic research.

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2.Applied (or action) research:

Research that seeks to resolve actual everyday life
problems or real life issues by influencing change and
help take action towards resolving the problem.
Research aimed at certain conclusions (say, a solution)
facing a concrete social or business problem is an
example of applied research.

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Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate

problem facing a society or an industrial/business organisation,
whereas fundamental research is mainly concerned with
generalizations and with the formulation of a theory.
The central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for
some pressing practical problem, whereas basic research is
directed towards finding information that has a broad base of
application and thus, adds to the already existing organized body
of scientific knowledge.

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Based upon the type of data collected in the study

1. Quantitative research:
Research that relies upon quantitative-type data

(usually statistical-type study).
Quantitative research is based on the measurement

of quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena
that can be expressed in terms of quantity.

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2.Qualitative research:
Research that relies upon qualitative-type data.
Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned
with qualitative phenomenon, i.e. phenomena relating
to or involving quality or kind.
Qualitative research is specially important in the
behavioural sciences where the aim is to discover the
underlying motives of human behaviour.

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Based upon type of ideas or theory

1. Conceptual research :
It is related to some abstract idea(s) or theory.
It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to

develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones.

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2. Empirical research:
It relies on experience or observation alone, often
without due regard for system and theory.
It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions
which are capable of being verified by observation or
experiment.
It is an experimental type of research. In such a research
it is necessary to get at facts firsthand, at their source,
and actively to go about doing certain things to stimulate
the production of desired information..

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Based upon the kind of evidence or source data

1. Primary research:
Research that relies on newly collected and

innovatively generated first-hand data
2. Secondary research:
Research that relies upon existing references and
data previously collected second-hand data

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Based upon the role of the hypothesis of the

study (purpose)
1. Formulative research:
Research that seeks to build up theory or

knowledge about a particular phenomenon or
problem

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2. Verification research:
Research that seeks to verify, test, confirm,
corroborate, prove, substantiate, authenticate a theory
or assumption about a particular phenomenon or
problem, or refute, contradict, and disprove such a
theory or assumption

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Based upon type of relationship between the variables of

the study
1. Experimental research:
Research that seeks to establish a causal relationship between

variables. This type is sometimes called true experimental
research.
2. Quasi-experimental research:
Research that seeks to establish a less-than-causal relationship
between variables. This type is sought after when experimental
research is not possible

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3. Correlation research:
Research that seeks to establish the existence of a
relationship, connection, or association among
variables that is not a causal relationship, but good
enough for the purpose of the study.

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Based upon status of evidence (in existence or not) and

upon possible degree of controlling the conditions under
which the collection of data are to take place
1. Historical research:
A research type used when the evidence data is in existence
but simply needs to be located and evaluated.
2. Descriptive research:
A research type used when the evidence data needs to be
generated and collected (it is not in existence yet) and when
controlling the conditions surrounding the generation of
evidence is not possible.

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Based upon the nature of the research question

1. Descriptive research: Research that seeks to investigate
and examine a problem
2. Relational research: A correlational research that seeks to
explore the relationships between variables
3. Causal research: An experimental research that seeks to
explore the causal relationship between variables

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Based upon true control of events surrounding the

collection of data
1. Experimental research (includes true experiments
of all kinds)
2. Non-experimental research (includes historical,
descriptive, correlational, and quasi-experimental
research types)

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Based upon research context or strategy

1. Case study research: Research that focuses upon one
case study for gathering data
2. Survey research: Research that focuses upon a group
of subjects for gathering data
3. Experimental research: Research that focuses upon
conducting an experiment for gathering data

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Based upon units of analysis

1. Individual: Research that focuses upon individuals for
the collection of data
2. Groups: Research that focuses upon groups of
individuals for the collection of data
3. Organizational: Research that
organizations for the collection of data
focuses
upon

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4. Artifacts: Research that focuses upon physical

things for the collection of data
5. Phenomena: Research that focuses upon nonphysical things for the collection of data

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L - Based upon the time dimension

1. Cross-sectional research: Research conducted and
data collected at one point in time (usually exploratory
and descriptive)
2. Longitudinal research: Research conducted and data
collected over an extended period of time.
Trend studies focus on studying changes of general
population over time.
Cohort studies focus on studying changes of relatively
specific subpopulations over time. Panel studies focus on
studying the same set of people over time.

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Based upon the data collection techniques used

1. Observational research: Research that includes
naturalistic,
participant,
or
physical
traces
observational techniques
2. Survey research: Research
questionnaires or interviews
that
includes

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3. Archival research: Research that includes

using existing documents
4. Experimental research: Research that includes
the use of experiments of any type

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Quantitativeresearch
Surveyresearch:providesaquantitativeornumericdescriptionoftrends,
attitudesofapopulationbystudyingasampleofthatpopulation.
Itincludescrosssectionalandlongitudinalstudiesusingquestionnairesof
structuresinterviewsfordatacollection,withtheintentofgeneralizingfroma
sampletoapopulation.
Experimentalresearch:seekstodetermineifaspecifictreatmentinfluencesan
outcome.Theimpactisassessedbyprovidingaspecifictreatmenttoonegroup
andwithholdingiffromanotherandthendetermininghowbothgroupsscored
onanoutcome.

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Qualitative research
Ethnography: is a strategy of inquiry in which the researcher studies an
intact cultural group in a natural setting over a prolonged period of time by
collecting, primary, observational and interview data. The research process is
flexible and typically evolves contextually in response to the lived realities
encountered in the field setting.
Grounded theory: is a strategy of inquiry in which the researcher derives a

general, abstract theory of a process, action or interaction grounded in the
views of participants.
This process involves using multiple stages of data collection and the
refinement and interrelationship of categories of information.

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Casestudies:areastrategyofinquiryinwhichtheresearcher
exploresindepthaprogram,event,activity,processoroneor
moreindividuals.
Phenomenologicalresearch:
Itisastrategyofinquiryinwhichtheresearcheridentifiesthe
essenceofhumanexperiencesaboutaphenomenonas
describedbyparticipants.
Understandingthelivedexperiencesmarksphenomenologyasa
philosophyaswellasamethod.

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Narrativeresearch:isastrategyofinquiryinwhichthe
researcherstudiesthelivesofindividualsandasksoneor
moreindividualstoprovidestoriesabouttheirlives.
Mixedmethods
Sequential:expandonthefindingsofonemethodwith
anothermethod.
Beginningwithqualitativeinterviewforexploratory
purposedandfollowedbyquantitative,surveymethod
withalargesamplestogeneralizeresultstoapopulation.

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Concurrentmixedmethods:
Convergesquantitativeandqualitativedatainorderto
provideacomprehensiveanalysisoftheresearchproblem.
Transformativemixedmethods:providesaframeworkfor
topicsofinterest,methodsforcollectingdata,and
outcomesorchangesanticipatedbythestudy.

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RESEARCHTECHNIQUES
CLASSIFICATIONS OF RESEARCH
Research types or methods can be classified in

several ways based upon different criteria.
The following are some of the classifications of
various research types.

VII SEM - B.Arch
Based upon purpose of research
1. Exploratory research
2. Descriptive research
3. Analytical research
4. Explanatory research
LECTURE 1

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LECTURE 1
Exploratory research:
Research that seeks to make an initial investigation of a problem

Descriptive research:
Research that seeks to describe a problem and recognize what is happening or has
occurred about the problem.
Analytical research:
The researcher has to use facts or information already available, and analyze these to
make a critical evaluation of the material.
Explanatory research:
Research that seeks to explain the causes of a particular problem and answer why a
phenomenon or a problem has occurred the way it did.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Based upon the relation with the real world

1.Fundamental (or basic or pure) research:
Research that seeks to resolve basic and fundamental
problems regardless of whether or not the researcher
seeks direct impact on everyday life.
Gathering knowledge for knowledges sake is termed
pure or basic research.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
2.Applied (or action) research:

Research that seeks to resolve actual everyday life
problems or real life issues by influencing change and
help take action towards resolving the problem.
Research aimed at certain conclusions (say, a solution)
facing a concrete social or business problem is an
example of applied research.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate

problem facing a society or an industrial/business organisation,
whereas fundamental research is mainly concerned with
generalizations and with the formulation of a theory.
The central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for
some pressing practical problem, whereas basic research is
directed towards finding information that has a broad base of
application and thus, adds to the already existing organized body
of scientific knowledge.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Based upon the type of data collected in the study

1. Quantitative research:
Research that relies upon quantitative-type data

(usually statistical-type study).
Quantitative research is based on the measurement

of quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena
that can be expressed in terms of quantity.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
2.Qualitative research:
Research that relies upon qualitative-type data.
Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned
with qualitative phenomenon, i.e. phenomena relating
to or involving quality or kind.
Qualitative research is specially important in the
behavioural sciences where the aim is to discover the
underlying motives of human behaviour.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Based upon type of ideas or theory

1. Conceptual research :
It is related to some abstract idea(s) or theory.
It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to

develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones.

VII SEM - B.Arch
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2. Empirical research:
It relies on experience or observation alone, often
without due regard for system and theory.
It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions
which are capable of being verified by observation or
experiment.
It is an experimental type of research. In such a research
it is necessary to get at facts firsthand, at their source,
and actively to go about doing certain things to stimulate
the production of desired information..

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Based upon the kind of evidence or source data

1. Primary research:
Research that relies on newly collected and

innovatively generated first-hand data
2. Secondary research:
Research that relies upon existing references and
data previously collected second-hand data

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Based upon the role of the hypothesis of the

study (purpose)
1. Formulative research:
Research that seeks to build up theory or

knowledge about a particular phenomenon or
problem

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
2. Verification research:
Research that seeks to verify, test, confirm,
corroborate, prove, substantiate, authenticate a theory
or assumption about a particular phenomenon or
problem, or refute, contradict, and disprove such a
theory or assumption

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Based upon type of relationship between the variables of

the study
1. Experimental research:
Research that seeks to establish a causal relationship between

variables. This type is sometimes called true experimental
research.
2. Quasi-experimental research:
Research that seeks to establish a less-than-causal relationship
between variables. This type is sought after when experimental
research is not possible

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
3. Correlation research:
Research that seeks to establish the existence of a
relationship, connection, or association among
variables that is not a causal relationship, but good
enough for the purpose of the study.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Based upon status of evidence (in existence or not) and

upon possible degree of controlling the conditions under
which the collection of data are to take place
1. Historical research:
A research type used when the evidence data is in existence
but simply needs to be located and evaluated.
2. Descriptive research:
A research type used when the evidence data needs to be
generated and collected (it is not in existence yet) and when
controlling the conditions surrounding the generation of
evidence is not possible.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Based upon the nature of the research question

1. Descriptive research: Research that seeks to investigate
and examine a problem
2. Relational research: A correlational research that seeks to
explore the relationships between variables
3. Causal research: An experimental research that seeks to
explore the causal relationship between variables

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Based upon true control of events surrounding the

collection of data
1. Experimental research (includes true experiments
of all kinds)
2. Non-experimental research (includes historical,
descriptive, correlational, and quasi-experimental
research types)

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Based upon research context or strategy

1. Case study research: Research that focuses upon one
case study for gathering data
2. Survey research: Research that focuses upon a group
of subjects for gathering data
3. Experimental research: Research that focuses upon
conducting an experiment for gathering data

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Based upon units of analysis

1. Individual: Research that focuses upon individuals for
the collection of data
2. Groups: Research that focuses upon groups of
individuals for the collection of data
3. Organizational: Research that
organizations for the collection of data
focuses
upon

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
4. Artifacts: Research that focuses upon physical

things for the collection of data
5. Phenomena: Research that focuses upon nonphysical things for the collection of data

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
L - Based upon the time dimension

1. Cross-sectional research: Research conducted and
data collected at one point in time (usually exploratory
and descriptive)
2. Longitudinal research: Research conducted and data
collected over an extended period of time.
Trend studies focus on studying changes of general
population over time.
Cohort studies focus on studying changes of relatively
specific subpopulations over time. Panel studies focus on
studying the same set of people over time.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Based upon the data collection techniques used

1. Observational research: Research that includes
naturalistic,
participant,
or
physical
traces
observational techniques
2. Survey research: Research
questionnaires or interviews
that
includes

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
3. Archival research: Research that includes

using existing documents
4. Experimental research: Research that includes
the use of experiments of any type

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Quantitativeresearch
Surveyresearch:providesaquantitativeornumericdescriptionoftrends,
attitudesofapopulationbystudyingasampleofthatpopulation.
Itincludescrosssectionalandlongitudinalstudiesusingquestionnairesof
structuresinterviewsfordatacollection,withtheintentofgeneralizingfroma
sampletoapopulation.
Experimentalresearch:seekstodetermineifaspecifictreatmentinfluencesan
outcome.Theimpactisassessedbyprovidingaspecifictreatmenttoonegroup
andwithholdingiffromanotherandthendetermininghowbothgroupsscored
onanoutcome.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Qualitative research
Ethnography: is a strategy of inquiry in which the researcher studies an
intact cultural group in a natural setting over a prolonged period of time by
collecting, primary, observational and interview data. The research process is
flexible and typically evolves contextually in response to the lived realities
encountered in the field setting.
Grounded theory: is a strategy of inquiry in which the researcher derives a

general, abstract theory of a process, action or interaction grounded in the
views of participants.
This process involves using multiple stages of data collection and the
refinement and interrelationship of categories of information.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Casestudies:areastrategyofinquiryinwhichtheresearcher
exploresindepthaprogram,event,activity,processoroneor
moreindividuals.
Phenomenologicalresearch:
Itisastrategyofinquiryinwhichtheresearcheridentifiesthe
essenceofhumanexperiencesaboutaphenomenonas
describedbyparticipants.
Understandingthelivedexperiencesmarksphenomenologyasa
philosophyaswellasamethod.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Narrativeresearch:isastrategyofinquiryinwhichthe
researcherstudiesthelivesofindividualsandasksoneor
moreindividualstoprovidestoriesabouttheirlives.
Mixedmethods
Sequential:expandonthefindingsofonemethodwith
anothermethod.
Beginningwithqualitativeinterviewforexploratory
purposedandfollowedbyquantitative,surveymethod
withalargesamplestogeneralizeresultstoapopulation.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Concurrentmixedmethods:
Convergesquantitativeandqualitativedatainorderto
provideacomprehensiveanalysisoftheresearchproblem.
Transformativemixedmethods:providesaframeworkfor
topicsofinterest,methodsforcollectingdata,and
outcomesorchangesanticipatedbythestudy.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
RESEARCHTECHNIQUES
LITERATUREREVIEW

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Step 2. Reviewing the literature

Essential preliminary task in order to acquaint yourself
with the available body of knowledge in your area of
interest.
Literature review is integral part of entire research
process and makes valuable contribution to every
operational step.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
There are occasions when we cannot depend upon

knowledge we already possess. Something comes up, and
we must seek new information in order to know what to
do
Eg: tour to a place

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
The information coming out of the research should have the

following attributes:
The information should add a specific topic of
(Abstract)
inquiry
The research result on this topic of inquiry ought to find its

place in a larger domain of relevant literature.
When completed the research should be able to stand on
its own for the use of others.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Reviewing literature can be time-consuming, daunting

and frustrating, but is also rewarding.
Its functions are:
a. It Brings clarity and focus to the research problem;
b. Improves the methodology;
c. Broadens researchers knowledge;
d. Contextualize the findings.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
a. Bring clarity and focus to the research problem;

The process of reviewing the literature helps you to
understand the subject area better and thus helps you
to conceptualize your research problem clearly and
precisely.
It helps you to understand the relationship between
your research problem and the body of knowledge in
the area.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
b. Improves the methodology:

A literature review tells you if others have used
procedures and methods similar to the ones that you
are proposing, which procedures and methods have
worked well for them, and what problems they have
faced with them.
Thus the researcher will be better positioned to select
a methodology that is capable of providing valid answer
to the research questions.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
c. Broaden your knowledge base in your research

area:
It ensures you to read widely around the subject area
in which you intend to conduct your research study.
As you are expected to be an expert in your area of
study, it helps fulfill this expectation.
It also helps you to understand how the findings of
your study fit into the existing body of knowledge.

VII SEM - B.Arch
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d.Contextualise your findings:

How do answers to your research questions compare with
what others have found?
What contribution have you been able to make in to the
existing body of knowledge?
How are your findings different from those of others?
For you to be able to answer these questions, you need to
go back to your literature review. It is important to place
your findings in the context of what is already known in
your field of enquiry.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Literature review as an exploratory system:

We define the literature as a body of information, existing
in a wide variety of stored formats, that the conceptual
relevance for a particular topic of inquiry.
The literature therefore has fluid boundaries; its scope

depends on the topic of enquiry.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
A systematic exploration of the literature should address;

1.
2.
3.
4.
What are the key sources

What are the theories?
What are the major issues and debated o the topic?
What are the main questions and problems that have
been addressed to date?

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1

VII SEM - B.Arch
Diagrammatic structure of a research study:
LECTURE 1

VII SEM - B.Arch
Literaturereviewfordesigners
andresearchers
Ex:Kevinlynch
LECTURE 1

VII SEM - B.Arch
Uses of literature
review
1.Using literature
review to identify the
research question
(eg: Kevin Lynch
theory in other cities)
2.Using literature
review to focus on the
topic of enquiry
LECTURE 1

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Using literature review to understand an ideas genetic roots:

(Historical back ground)
Using literature to understand the current conceptual landscape


VII SEM - B.Arch
General tactics: Facts and ideas
LECTURE 1

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LECTURE 1

VII SEM - B.Arch
Primaryandsecondarysources:
Methodologybytheoryandapplication:
LECTURE 1

VII SEM - B.Arch
Specific tactics:
Where to go: resources:
What to do: organization and retrieval
LECTURE 1

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Procedure for reviewing the literature:

i)
search for existing literature in your area of study;
ii) review the literature selected;

iii) develop a theoretical framework;
iv) develop a conceptual framework.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Search for existing literature:

To effectively search for literature in your field of enquiry, it
is imperative that you have in mind at least some idea of
broad subject area and of the problem you wish to
investigate, in order to set parameters for your search.
Next compile a bibliography for this broad area. Sources
are:
1. books
2.journals

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
BOOKS
comprise a central part of any bibliography.
Advantage-material published generally is of good quality
and the findings are integrated with other research to form a
coherent body of knowledge.
Disadvantage-material is not completely up to date, as it
can take a few years between the completion of a work and
publication in the form of a book.
Search for books in your area of interest, prepare a final list,
locate these books in the libraries or borrow from other
sources.
Examine their content, if contents are not found to be
relevant to your topic, delete it from your reading list.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
JOURNALS
Journals provide you with the most up-to-date information,
even though there is a gap of two to three years between
the completion of a research project and the publication
in a journal.
As with books, you need to prepare a list of journals for
identifying literature relevant to your study.
This can be done as follows:
-locate the hard copies of the journal that are appropriate to
your study;
- use the internet
- look at the index of research abstracts in the relevant field
to identify and read the articles.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Whichever method you choose, first identify the journals

you want to look at in more detail for your review of
literature.
Select the latest issue, examine its content page to see if
there is an article of relevance to your research topic.
If you feel a particular article is of relevance to you, read
its abstract.
If you think you are likely to use it, photocopy or prepare
a summary and record it for reference for later use.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Review the literature selected:

After identifying books and articles as useful, the next
step is to start reading them critically to pull together
themes and issues that are associated.
If you do not have a theoretical framework of themes in
mind to start with, use separate sheets of paper for each
article or book.
Once you develop a rough framework, slot the findings
from the material so far reviewed into that framework,
using a separate sheet of paper for each theme of that
framework.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
As you read further, go on slotting the information where

it logically belongs under the theme so far developed.
You may need to add more themes as you go.
Read critically with particular reference to the following
aspects:
Note whether the knowledge relevant to your theoretical
framework is confirmed beyond doubt.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Note the theories put forward, the criticisms of these

and their basis, the methodologies adopted and the
criticisms of them.
Examine to what extent the findings can be
generalized to other situations.
Ascertain the areas in which little or nothing is knownthe gaps that exist in the body of knowledge.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Develop a theoretical framework:

As you have limited time it is important to set parameters
by reviewing the literature in relation to some main themes
pertinent to your research topic.
As you start reading the literature, you will realize that it
deals with a number of aspects that have a direct `and
indirect bearing on your research topic.
Use these aspects as a basis for developing your
theoretical framework.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Until you go through the literature you cannot develop a

theoretical framework and until you have developed a
theoretical framework, you cannot effectively review the
literature.
Literature pertinent to your study may deal with two types
of information:
- universal;
- more specific( i.e. local trends or specific program)
In writing about such information you should start with the
general information, gradually narrowing down to the
specific.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Writing up the literature reviewed:

In order to comply with the first function of literature review
i.e. to provide theoretical background to your study:
List the main themes that have emerged while reading
literature.
Convert them into subheadings. These subheadings
should be precise, descriptive of the theme in question, and
follow a logical progression.
Now, under each subheading, record the main findings with
respect to the theme in question, highlighting the reasons
for and against an argument if they exist, and identify
gaps and issues.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
In order to comply with the second function of literature

review
i.e. contextualizing the findings of your study- requires you
to very systematically compare your findings with those
made by others.
Quote from these studies to show how your findings
contradict, confirm or add to them.
It places your findings in the context of what others have
found out.
This function is undertaken when writing about your
findings i.e. after analysis of your data.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
THE BIBLIOGRAPHY
The bibliography should give a clear, complete description of the sources
that were
used while preparing the report.
It is an alphabetical list as per the authors surname.
1. For a Book
Surname of author, name or two initials, Title taken from titlepageunderlined or in italics, Edition (if more than one), volume if more than
one, place of publication, publishers, date on title page or copyright date.
e.g. Kothari, C.R., Research Methods-Methods and

Techniques,1989,New Delhi :Wiley Eastern Limited,4835/24
Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi 110 006.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
RESEARCHTECHNIQUES
HYPOTHESES

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Constructing hypotheses:
As a researcher you do not know about a phenomenon, but you
do have a hunch to form the basis of certain assumption or
guesses.
You test these by collecting information that will enable you to
conclude if your hunch was right.
The verification process can have one of the three outcomes.
Your hunch may prove to be:
1. right
2. partially right
3. wrong.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Without this process of verification, you cannot

conclude anything about the validity of your
assumption.
Hence, a hypotheses is a hunch, assumption,
suspicion, assertion or an idea about a phenomenon,
relationship or situation, the reality or truth of which
you do not know.
A researcher calls these assumptions/ hunches
hypotheses and they become the basis of an
enquiry.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
In most studies the hypotheses will be based upon

your own or someone elses observation.
Hypotheses bring clarity, specificity and focus to a
research problem, but are not essential for a study.
You can conduct a valid investigation without
constructing formal hypotheses.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Definitions of hypothesis
Hypotheses are single tentative guesses, good hunches assumed
for use in devising theory or planning experiments intended to be
given a direct experimental test when possible. (Eric Rogers,
1966)
A hypothesis is a conjectural statement of the relation between
two or more variables. (Kerlinger, 1956)
Hypothesis is a formal statement that presents the expected
relationship between an independent and dependent
variable.(Creswell, 1994)
A research question is essentially a hypothesis asked in the form
of a question.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
It is a tentative prediction about the nature of the relationship

between two or more variables.
A hypothesis can be defined as a tentative explanation of the
research problem, a possible outcome of the research, or an
educated guess about the research outcome.(Sarantakos, 1993:
1991)
Hypotheses are always in declarative sentence form, and they
relate, either generally or specifically , variables to variables.
An hypothesis is a statement or explanation that is suggested by
knowledge or observation but has not, yet, been proved or
disproved.(MacleodClark J and Hockey L 1981)

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
The functions of hypotheses:

The formulation of hypothesis provides a study with focus. It
tells you what specific aspects of a research problem to
investigate.
A hypothesis tells you what data to collect and what not to
collect, thereby providing focus to the study.
As it provides a focus, the construction of a hypothesis
enhances objectivity in a study.
A hypothesis may enable you to add to the formulation of a
theory.
It enables you to specifically conclude what is true or what is
false.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in

clear terms the working hypothesis or hypotheses.
Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to
draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences.
As such the manner in which research hypotheses are
developed is particularly important since they provide the focal
point for research.
They also affect the manner in which tests must be conducted
in the analysis of data and indirectly the quality of data which is
required for the analysis.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
In most types of research, the development of working

hypothesis plays an important role.
Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of
research in hand because it has to be tested.
The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by
delimiting the area of research and to keep him on the right
track.
It sharpens his thinking and focuses attention on the more
important facets of the problem.
It also indicates the type of data required and the type of
methods of data analysis to be used.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
How does one go about developing working hypotheses?

The answer is by using the following approach:
(a) Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem,
its origin and the objectives in seeking a solution;
(b) Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the
problem for possible trends, peculiarities and other clues;
(c) Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on
similar problems; and
(d) Exploratory personal investigation which involves original
field interviews on a limited scale with interested parties and
individuals with a view to secure greater insight into the practical
aspects of the problem.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Thus, working hypotheses arise as a result of apriori thinking about the subject, examination of the
available data and material including related studies
and the counsel of experts and interested parties.
Working hypotheses are more useful when stated in
precise and clearly defined terms.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
It may as well be remembered that occasionally we

may encounter a problem where we do not need
working hypotheses, specially in the case of
exploratory or formulative researches which do not
aim at testing the hypothesis.
But as a general rule, specification of working
hypotheses is another basic step of the research
process in most research problems.

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LECTURE 1

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Should express a relation between two or more variables.

Is A related to B?
Should be clearly stated and unambiguously in question form.
Ex:How do incentives affect the performance?(Question form)
The problem is to question the relation between incentives and
performance.(Statement form)
Should be such as to imply possibilities of empirical testing.
Metaphysical questions, unrelated variables, not measurable and
indefinable variables cannot be tested.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Hypothesis needs to be structured before the datagathering and interpretation phase of the research:

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
A null hypothesis is a statement that there is no actual

relationship between variables. (Ho or Hn)
A null hypothesis may read, There is no difference
between..
Ho states the opposite of what the experimenter would expect or
predict.
The final conclusion of the investigator will either retain a null
hypothesis or reject a null hypothesis in favor of a alternative
hypothesis.
Not rejecting Ho does not really mean that Ho is true. There
might not be enough evidence against Ho.
Example:
There is no significant difference in the anxiety level of
children of High IQ and those of low IQ.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
An alternative hypothesis is a statement that suggests a

potential outcome that the researcher may expect. (H1or Ha)
Comes from prior literature or studies.
It is established only when a null hypothesis is rejected.
Often an alternative Hypothesis is the desired conclusion of the
investigator.
The two types of alternative hypothesis are:
Directional Hypothesis
Non-directional Hypothesis.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Directional Hypothesis
Is a type of alternative hypothesis that specifies the direction
of expected findings.
Sometimes directional hypothesis are created to examine the
relationship among variables rather than to compare groups.
Directional hypothesis may read,is more than.., will be
lesser..
Example:
Children with high IQ will exhibit more anxiety than children
with low IQ

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Non-directional Hypothesis.
Is a type of alternative hypothesis in which no definite
direction of the expected findings is specified.
The researcher may not no what can be predicted from the
past literature.
It may read, ..there is a difference between..
Example:
There is a difference in the anxiety level of the children of
high IQ and those of low IQ.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
DERIVATION OF HYPOTHESIS
Inductive:
Researcher notes the observations of behavior, thinks about the
problem, turns to literature for clues, makes additional
observations, derives probable relationships, and the hypothesizes
an explanation.
Hypothesis is then tested.
May be limited in scope.
Can lead to unconnected findings, which could explain little about
the research.
Observations Study Probable relationship Hypothesis Theory

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
DERIVATION OF HYPOTHESIS
Deductive:
Researcher begins by selecting a theory, derives a hypothesis
leading to deductions derived through symbolic logic or
mathematics.
These deductions are then presented in the from of statements
accompanied by an argument or a rationale for the particular
proposition.
Theories are not speculations but are previously known facts.
Process is a technique to test the adequacy of the theory.
Theory Hypothesis Study & Deduction Statement

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS
Formulation of Hypothesis differs with the method of research
conducted.
Qualitative method.
Quantitative method.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
QUALITATIVE METHOD
The enquirer uses research questions, not objectives or hypothesis.
The enquirer poses a central question, which is being examined in
the study in the most general form-the broadest question that can
be asked in a study.
Several sub-questions are raised related to the central question to
narrow the focus of study but to leave the questioning at an open
end.
They are under continual review and restructuring along the
course of research.
Questions begin with what, how
They focus on a single concept.
The questions use non-directional terminology.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
QUANTITATIVE
The researcher uses questions and hypothesis to compose and focus
the purpose of study.
Hypothesis or research questions:
1.May be used to compare the variables.
2.May be used to relate the variables.
3.May be used to describe the variables.
The research follows from a test of theory and the question and the
hypothesis or the research questions are included in the theory.
Independent and dependant variables are measured separately.
Not a combination of both. Either a research questions or a
hypothesis.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Generality and Specificity of Hypotheses

Ex: Too General creativity is the function of the self-actualization
of the individual.
Cannot be tested!
The more specific the problem or hypothesis, the clearer are its
testing implications.
Ex: Too specific The speed of reading depends on the size of type.
Too thin for study!

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
TESTINGTHE HYPOTHESIS
Hypothesis tests are procedures for making rational decisions about
the reality of effects.
Tools for testing Hypotheses:
Data Collection
Ideas
Expert opinions
Deductions

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Testing a hypothesis involves

Deducing the consequences that should be observable if the
hypothesis is correct.
Selecting the research methods that will permit the observation,
experimentation, or other procedures necessary to show whether or
not these do occur.
Applying this method and gathering the data that can be analyzed
to indicate whether or not the hypothesis is supported.
There are two possibilities:
Nothing Happened the Null Hypothesis(H)
Something Happened the Alternative Hypothesis(H1)

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
TESTING THE HYPOTHESIS
TYPE I AND TYPE II ERRORS

Type I error:
Rejection of a true null hypothesis is called the type I error.
The subsequent results might not produce the result observed in the original
investigation.
Leads to changes that are unwarranted.
Type II error:
Retention of false null hypothesis is called the type II error.
The ultimate truth remains unknown although evidence might support an
alternative hypothesis.
Leads to maintenance of a status quo when a change is warranted.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Negative Findings
Even if hypotheses are not confirmed, they have
power.(Kerlinger, 1956)
Negative findings are as important as positive ones, since they
cut down ignorance and sometimes point up fruitful hypotheses
and lines of investigation. It acts as a guiding factor for future
research in that field.
Hypothesis cannot be proved or disproved; but only supported or
not supported. (Ary, p.85)

VII SEM - B.Arch
RESEARCHTECHNIQUES
LECTURE 1

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
What is research design?

When constructing a building there is no point ordering
materials or setting critical dates for completion of project stages
until we know what sort of building is being constructed.
The rest decision is whether we need a high rise office building,
a factory for manufacturing machinery, a school, a residential
home or an apartment block.
Until this is done we cannot sketch a plan, obtain permits, work
out a work schedule or order materials.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Research design `deals with a logical problem and not a

logistical problem' (Yin, 1989: 29).
Before a builder or architect can develop a work plan or order
materials they must first establish the type of building required,
its uses and the needs of the occupants.
The work plan follows from this. Similarly, in social research
the issues of sampling, method of data collection (e.g.
questionnaire, observation, document analysis), design of
questions are all subsidiary to the matter of `What evidence do I
need to collect?'

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Too often researchers design questionnaires or begin

interviewing far too early before thinking through what
information they require to answer their research questions.
Without attending to these research design matters at the
beginning, the conclusions drawn will normally be weak and
unconvincing and fail to answer the research question.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Basics of research design

Designing research is similar in many ways to
designing
buildings
in
architecture.
In
architecture, you design an architectural project by
creatively suggesting ways of how your project
will look like when built.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
In research, you design a research project by

creatively and methodically suggesting ways of how
your research project will proceed until it is
completed or "built".
Research design may be different from architectural
design in that the former relies more on substantive
information and less on artistic talents and skills.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Designing research is basically deciding on the

conceptual structure of the exact steps or procedures that
you need to conduct, in order to successfully carry out
the research objectives.
In the research process, designing the research comes in
following the problem identification stage.
To be able to design a research, you need to have
established a good research question or have formulated
a good problem statement, and preferably have carried
out the literature review.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
sometimes you need to draft the design of the

research project to check the possibilities of
conducting it before actually spending the effort on
the literature review.
However, conducting the literature review may
assist you in revising your research design by
overcoming obstacles occurring in the previous
research for example.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
The function of research design

To ensure that the evidence obtained enables us to
answer the initial question as unambiguously as
possible.
Obtaining relevant evidence entails specifying the
type of evidence needed to answer the research
question, to test a theory, to evaluate a programme or
to accurately describe some phenomenon.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
In other words, when designing research we need to

ask: given this research question (or theory), what
type of evidence is needed to answer the question (or
test the theory) in a convincing way?
The function of research design is to provide for the
collection of relevant information with minimal
expenditure of effort, time and money.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Preparing the research design:

The research problem having been formulated in clear
cut terms, the researcher will be required to prepare a
research design, i.e., he will have to state the conceptual
structure within which research would be conducted.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Research purposes may be grouped into four

categories,
(i) Exploration
(ii) Description & Diagnostic
(iii)Hypotheses testing (experimental).
A flexible research design is which provides opportunity for
considering many different aspects of a problem, it is
considered appropriate if the purpose of the research study is
that of exploration.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
But when the purpose happens to be an accurate

description of a situation or of an association between
variables, the suitable design will be one that
minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the
data collected and analyzed, available for the purpose.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
The preparation of research design, appropriate for a

particular research problem, involves the consideration
of the following :
1. Objectives of the research study.
2. Method of Data Collection to be adopted
3. Source of informationSample Design
4. Tool for Data collection
5. Data Analysis-- qualitative and quantitative
6. The cost factor
7. The time factor
8. The availability and skills of the researcher and his
staff .

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
The important features of a research design are as

under:
i. It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of
information relevant to the research problem.
ii. It is a strategy specifying which approach will be
used for gathering and analyzing the data.
iii. It also includes the time and cost budgets since most
studies are done under these two constraints.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
In brief, research design must, at least, contain

(a) A clear statement of the research problem
(b)Procedures and techniques to be used for gathering
information
(c)The population to be studied; and
(d)Methods to be used in processing and analyzing
data.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Basic components of research design are

Hypotheses (definition and formulation)
Variables (types, definitions, relationships
between variables, and measuring variables)
Sampling (types and procedures).

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
The definition of a variable:

An image, perception or concept that can be measured
hence capable of taking on different values- is called a
variable.
Research Variables
A variable is "a name for something that is thought to
influence a particular state of being in something else ....
a special kind of concept that contains within it a notion
of degree or differentiation" (Hoover, 1980, pp.22).
Examples of variables are heat, pressure, temperature,
age, etc.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Types of variables
Variables come in different types depending upon their role in
the research.
1. The independent variable is the variable that influences
another variable (the dependent variable).
2. The dependent variable is the one influenced by another
variable (the independent variable).
3. The extraneous variable is the independent variable that is
not related to the purpose of study, but may affect the dependent
variable.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
for eg. Studying the effect of sunshine heat on heat

gain in buildings: heat sunshine is the independent
variable , heat gain in buildings is the dependent
variable.
Studying the effect of building style on user
preferences: building style is the independent variable,
user preference is the dependent variable

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
An independent variable in one study can become the

dependent variable in another study.
Whatever effect is noticed on dependent variable as a
result of extraneous variable (s) is technically
described as an experimental error.
A study must always be so designed that the effect
upon the dependent variable is attributed entirely to
the independent variable(s), and not to some
extraneous variable or variables.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Operationalizing variables
Variables need to be clearly defined and in a way that
permits some kind of measurement.
The operational definition of a variable must retain the
meaning of the original variable and allow possible
measurement using the available resources.
Any variable can be operationalized in different ways
depending upon the hypotheses and focus of the study.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Measurement of variables
Variables vary, but they may vary in different ways.
Some vary in terms of differences of degree such as temperature
or height, others vary in terms of differences in rank or order
others vary in terms of differences in variety such as nationality
or religion, others vary in simply whether they exist or not.
These different ways of variation represent what is known as
"levels of measurements" for variables.
The following table summarizes the four
measurements (adapted from Hoover, 1980, pp.96).
levels
of

VII SEM - B.Arch
Level
of
LECTURE 1
measurement Allowable
properties
variable
Examples
Nominal
Classification
ethnicity, race, religion,

gender, marital status,
occupation,
group
affiliation
Ordinal
classification & order
social class, socioeconomic

standing, formal education
Interval
classification & order &

setting standard units of Biblical time, temperature
distance (zero is arbitrary)
Ratio
classification & order &

setting standard units of income,
distance & locate absolute distance
(true) zero
age,
weight,

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
The nominal or classificatory scale:

A nominal scale enables the classification of
individuals, objects or responses into subgroups based
on a common/shared property or characteristic.
A variable measured on a nominal scale may have
one, two or more subcategories depending upon the
extent of variation.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
For example, water or tree have only one

subgroup, whereas the variable gender can be
classified into two sub-categories: male and female.
Hotels can be classified into ---- sub-categories.
The sequence in which subgroups are listed makes
no difference as there is no relationship among
subgroups.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
The ordinal or ranking scale:

Besides categorizing individuals, objects, responses
or a property into subgroups on the basis of common
characteristic, it ranks the subgroups in a certain
order.
They are arranged either in ascending or descending
order according to the extent a subcategory reflects
the magnitude of variation in the variable.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
For example, income can be measured either

quantitatively (in rupees and paise) or qualitatively
using subcategories above average, average and
below average
The distance between these subcategories are not
equal as there is no quantitative unit of measurement.
Socioeconomic status and attitude are other
variables that can be measured on ordinal scale.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
The interval scale:

An interval scale has all the characteristics of an
ordinal scale.
In addition, it uses a unit of measurement with an
arbitrary starting and terminating points.
For example,
Celsius scale: 0*C to 100*C
Fahrenheit scale: 32*F to 212*F
Attitudinal scales: 10-20
21-30
31-40 etc

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
The ratio scale:

A ratio scale has all the properties of nominal, ordinal and
interval scales plus its own property
The zero point of a ratio scale is fixed, which means it has a
fixed starting point.
Since the difference between intervals is always measured from
a zero point, this scale can be used for mathematical operations.
The measurement of variables like income, age, height and
weight are examples of this scale.
A person who is 40 year old is twice as old as one who is 20 year
old

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Identifying Variables:
In a research study it is important that the concepts used should
be operationalised in measurable terms so that the extent of
variations in respondents understanding is reduced if not
eliminated.
Techniques about how to operationalise concepts, and
knowledge about variables, play an important role in reducing
this variability.
Their knowledge, therefore is important in fine tuning the
research problem.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
The difference between a concept and a variable:

Concepts are mental images or perceptions and
therefore their meaning varies markedly from
individual to individual.
A concept cannot be measured whereas a variable can
be subjected to measurement by crude/refined or
subjective/ objective units of measurement.
It is therefore important for the concept to be
converted into variables .

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Concept
Variable
Subjectiveimpression
Nouniformityastoits
UnderstandingamongDifferent
people
Assuchcannotbemeasured.
Measurablethoughthedegreeof
precisionvariesfromscaletoscale
andvariabletovariable.
Excellent
gender(male/female)
Highachiever
age(xyearsymonths)
Rich
weight(kg)
Satisfaction
height( cms)
Domesticviolence
Income(Rsperyear)

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Concepts, indicators and variables:

If you are using a concept in your study, you need to consider
its operationalisation- that is, how it will be measured.
For this, you need to identify indicators- a set of criteria
reflective of the concept which can then be converted into
variables.
The choice of indicators for a concept might vary with
researchers, but those selected must have a logical link with the
concept.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1

VII SEM - B.Arch
RESEARCHTECHNIQUES
LECTURE 1

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Sampling Procedures
All the items under consideration in any field of
inquiry constitute a universe or population
A complete enumeration of all the items in the
population is known as a census inquiry. It demands
highest accuracy.
A few items selected from the universe of our study
purposes constitute a sample.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
SAMPLING.
STUDY POPULATION
SAMPLE
TARGET POPULATION
2
1

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Samplevs.Population
Sample
Population

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Sampling is the process of selecting a sample from the

population to conduct the study upon.
The ultimate goal of any sampling procedure is to
ensure that the sample is the best representation of the
population therefore avoiding any bias or negative
influence on the findings of the research.
A sample design is a definite plan determined before
any data are actually collected for obtaining a sample
from a given population or universe.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Samples can be probability samples or nonprobability samples.

Random selection is the best way to ensure an
unbiased representative sample.
Random selection is the basis for probability
sampling procedures.
When random sampling is not possible, non
probability sampling procedures may suffice.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
3 factors that influence sample representative-ness

Sampling procedure
Sample size
Participation (response)
When might you sample the entire population?
When your population is very small
When you have extensive resources
When you dont expect a very high response

VII SEM - B.Arch
2
2
LECTURE 1
SAMPLING BREAKDOWN
Probabilisticsampling
Simple random
Complex random
Systematic sampling
Stratified sampling
Cluster sampling
Multi-stage sampling
Sequential sampling
NonProbabilisticsampling
Deliberate/ convenience/judgment
sampling
Quota sampling

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Probability sampling
1.Simple random sampling
This type of sampling is also known as chance
sampling or probability sampling where each and
every item in the population has an equal chance of
inclusion in the sample and each one of the possible
samples, in case of finite universe, has the same
probability of being selected.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
For example, if we have to select a sample of 300

items from a universe of 15,000 items, then we can
put the names or numbers of all the 15,000 items on
slips of paper and conduct a lottery.
Using the random number tables is another method
of random sampling.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
This procedure gives each item an equal probability

of being selected.
In case of infinite population, the selection of each
item in a random sample is controlled by the same
probability and that successive selections are
independent of one another.
For example, from a randomly selected sample of
1500 people, political pollsters can predict within an
accuracy of 3% how 70 million people will vote.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Random in this context does not mean haphazard,

helter-skelter, or unsystematic, as it does in everyday
usage.
Its meaning is actually closer to unpredictable or
by chance.
Specifically, the word random as used in statistics is
a technical term describing the process by which a
sample is chosen

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
The principle of random sampling is simple:

selection of the sample group must be left to chance,
so that every member of the population and every
combination of members have the same opportunity
of being selected
Define
population
Develop
sampling
frame
Assigneach
unita
number
Randomlyselect
therequired
amountof
random
numbers
Systematically
selectrandom
numbersuntilit
meetsthe
samplesize
requirements

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
2.Complex random sampling

Probability sampling under restricted sampling
technique may result in complex random sampling
designs.
Such designs may as well be called mixed
sampling designs for many of such designs may
represent a combination of probability and nonprobability sampling procedures in selecting a
sample.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
a. Systematic sampling
In some instances the most practical way of sampling is
to select every 15th name on a list, every 10th house on
one side of a street and so on.
Sampling of this type is known as systematic sampling.
An element of randomness is usually introduced into
this kind of sampling by using random numbers to pick
up the unit with which to start.
This procedure is useful when sampling frame is
available in the form of a list.

VII SEM - B.Arch
Define
population
Develop
sampling
frame
LECTURE 1
Decidethe
samplesize
Workout
whatfraction
oftheframe
thesample
size
represents
Select
accordingto
fraction(100
samplefrom
1,000frame
then10%so
every10th unit)
Firstunit
selectby
random
numbers
thenevery
nthunit
selected
(e.g.every
10th)

VII SEM - B.Arch
Systematicsampling
LECTURE 1

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
In such a design the selection process starts by

picking some random point in the list and then every
nth element is selected until the desired number is
secured.
A 4% sample is desired, the first item would be
selected randomly from the first 25% and thereafter
every 25th item would be automatically included in
the sample. 22, 47, 72, 97.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
The systematic sampling is spread more evenly over

the entire population, but if there is a hidden
periodicity in the population, systematic sampling
will prove to be an inefficient method of sampling.
If all elements of universe are ordered in a manner
representative of the total population, i.e., the
population list is in random order, systematic
sampling is considered equivalent to random
sampling.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
b. Stratified sampling
If the population from which a sample is to be drawn
does not constitute a homogeneous group, then stratified
sampling technique is applied so as to obtain a
representative sample.
In this technique, the population is stratified into a
number of non- overlapping subpopulations or strata that
are individually more homogeneous than the total
population.

VII SEM - B.Arch
Definepopulation
LECTURE 1
Developsampling
frameaccording
tocharacteristics
required
Determinethe
proportionof
eachpopulation
variableof
interest
Systematicsampling
methodscanthenbe
followedtoselect
sampleunit

VII SEM - B.Arch
Draw a sample from each stratum
LECTURE 1

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Then sample items are selected from each stratum.

If the items selected from each stratum is based on
simple random sampling the entire procedure, first
stratification and then simple random sampling, is
known as stratified random sampling

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
For example, suppose you are interested in what the

residents of a neighbourhood feel about having a
playground located near where they live.
You are likely to get different answers when
interviewing women, especially women with children,
than when interviewing men.
Stratifying the proportion of men and women you
include in the sample to reflect the proportion of men
and women actually living in the neighbourhood will
reduce error when you project from your sample to the
whole neighbourhood.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
The following three questions arise in stratified

sampling
a) How to form strata?
b) How should items be selected from each stratum?
c) How many items be selected from each stratum or
how to allocate the sample size to each stratum?

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Cluster sampling and area sampling

Cluster sampling involves grouping the population and
then selecting the groups or the clusters rather than
individual elements for inclusion in the sample.
Suppose some departmental store wishes to sample its
credit card holders. It has issued its cards to 15,000
customers.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
The sample size is to be kept say 450. For cluster

sampling this list of 15,000 card holders could be
formed into 100 clusters of 150 card holders each.
Three clusters might then be selected for the sample
randomly.
The sample size must often be larger than the simple
random sample to ensure the same level of accuracy
because in cluster sampling procedural potential for
order bias and other sources of error is usually
accentuated.

VII SEM - B.Arch
Section1
LECTURE 1
Section2
Section3
Section5
Section4

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
The clustering approach can, however, make the

sampling procedure relatively easier and increase the
efficiency of field work, specially in the case of personal
interviews.
Area sampling is quite close to cluster sampling and

is often talked about when the total geographical area of
interest happens to be big one.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Under area sampling we first divide the total area into

a number of smaller non-overlapping areas, generally
called geographical clusters, then a number of these
smaller areas are randomly selected, and all units in
these small areas are included in the sample.
Area sampling is specially helpful where we do not
have the list of the population concerned. It also makes
the field interviewing more efficient since interviewer
can do many interviews at each location.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Multi-stage sampling
This is a further development of the idea of cluster
sampling. This technique is meant for big inquiries
extending to a considerably large geographical area
like an entire country
Under multi-stage sampling the first stage may be to
select large primary sampling units such as states, then
districts, then towns and finally certain families within
towns. If the technique of random-sampling is applied
at all stages, the sampling procedure is described as
multistage random sampling.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Sequential sampling
This is somewhat a complex sample design where the
ultimate size of the sample is not fixed in advance but is
determined according to mathematical decisions on the
basis of information yielded as survey progresses.
This design is usually adopted under acceptance
sampling plan in the context of statistical quality
control.
One can go on taking samples one after another as long
as one desires to do so.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Non-probability sampling
Deliberate/ convenience/judgment sampling
Deliberate sampling is also known as purposive or
non-probability sampling.
This sampling method involves purposive or deliberate
selection of particular units of the universe for
constituting a sample which represents the universe.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
When population elements are selected for inclusion

in the sample based on the ease of access, it can be
called convenience sampling.
If a researcher wishes to secure data from, say,
gasoline buyers, he may select a fixed number of
petrol stations and may conduct interviews at these
stations.
This would be an example of convenience sample of
gasoline buyers.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
At times such a procedure may give very biased results

particularly when the population is not homogeneous.
In judgment sampling the researchers judgment is
used for selecting items which he considers as
representative of the population.
Judgment sampling is used quite frequently in
qualitative research where the desire happens to be to
develop hypotheses rather than to generalise to larger
populations.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Quota sampling
In stratified sampling the cost of taking random
samples from individual strata is often so expensive
that interviewers are simply given quota to be filled
from different strata, the actual selection of items for
sample being left to the interviewers judgment. This
is called quota sampling.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
The size of the quota for each stratum is generally

proportionate to the size of that stratum in the
population.
Quota sampling is thus an important form of nonprobability sampling.
Quota samples generally happen to be judgment
samples rather than random samples.
DATA
COLLECTION
The student should select one of the

methods of collecting the data taking into
consideration the nature of investigation,
objective and scope of the inquiry,
available time and the desired degree of
accuracy.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Data Collection
Primary data can be collected either through experiment
or through survey.
The five methods of human behavior research being
reviewed are:
A. Observation
B. Survey
C. Experiment or Quasi-Experiment
D. Case Study
E. Visual and Content Analysis
Practical Guide to Behavioral Research by B. Sommer and R. Sommer (2001).

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Observation involves the systematic and careful

observation of subjects, objects, or phenomena
in their natural setting.
The technique is particularly useful in the field of
architecture and urban design.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
The question arises whether .quantitative

methods and analysis or using qualitative methods
and analysis?
Keep in mind that design researchers might use
both, and in fact might use multiple methods for
one project.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
The key issue is the research question.

Are you asking a numbers/quantity question (how
many, how much, who does most least, etc.)?
Or, are you asking about the quality or even
variations of the experience.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Design researchers might use statistical analysis,

descriptive analysis, or other techniques to build
conceptual understandings that may be used for
the design situation and practice.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Observation can answer these kinds of questions:

How do environments create opportunities or
obstacles for people such as a place to informally
talk, view entertainment together, or prohibit
communication?
How do people manipulate or change their
surroundings to meet their needs?
What takes place in particular settings?

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
There are three approaches used when observing:

a) Behavioral Observation
b) Behavioral Mapping
c) Trace Observation

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Behavioral Observation
Casual Observation
it occurs without predetermined categories or a
systematic scoring system; it is a quick visual
inspection of activities or the space.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Naturalistic Observation
Sometimes called direct or non participant
observation.
The observer in this type is considered an
OUTSIDER. One can differentiate two types of
naturalistic observation:
the secret outsider
the recognized outsider

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
What to look for?

Zeisel (1984) summarizes the important items to
look for during the observation of environmental
behavior.
They are:
1. Who is: actor
2. Doing what: act
3. With whom: significant others

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
4. In what relationship: describes the

relationship between the actor and the others
such as aural, visual, tactile, olfactory, or
symbolic type relationship
5. In what context: describes the socio
cultural context including the situation and
culture
6. Where (Setting): describes the physical
setting

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Recording devices
Observations can be recorded using photographs, precoded checklists, maps, notations, or videotapes and
movies (Zeisel, 1984).
Mapping observed behavior is a well known technique
called behavioral mapping, which is an annotated diagram
or map of observed behavior.
Notations are basically
observed behavior.
written
description
of the

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
The notation could be in the form of one

sentence to which the researcher can add
comments later.
Pre-coded checklists are ready-made charts
that include expected types of observations and
a designed coding system to be used on the
field.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Systematic Observation
answers a specific research question by systematically
planning the observation and recording of data. It can be
repeated by other researchers.
A scoring system must be developed, usually by casual
observation.
Several observers can be used but they must be trained to
understand the behaviors in the same way.
This increases the reliability (agreement) of the observers.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Participant Observation
Participant observation is when the observer is an INSIDER.
It occurs when the observer becomes part of the
environment and people being studied.
One can differentiate two types of participant observation:
the marginal participant
the full participant

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Concerns with participant observation

A serious ethical concern arises when dealing with
participant observation.
Would the participant observer be considered cheating
on the community that he became involved with?
There are risks to this type of observation such as the
observer can become biased by accidental involvement in
peoples activities.
This can change peoples behaviors, so it is done
infrequently.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Behavioral Mapping
The second type of observation is Behavioral Mapping.
To use behavioral mapping, think about taking a set of plans
with you to a site, sitting down, and noting on the plans
people, their activities, and the location or where
these activities occur.
The plan becomes your map, an actual chart of an area on
which peoples locations and activities are indicated.
Notations are made during observations or later from notes
made while observing.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
This map shows how people actually use the

space, which could be different from the
original intent, what is actually seen and is
evident; occurring over several days and many
times of the day.
Behavioral maps can be place-centered or
person-centered.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Place-centered maps
refer to how people use a specific space.
This type of mapping can be unobtrusive and is good
for public spaces.
Observers watch the actions in a particular behavior
setting and record them on diagrams or plans.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
person-centered maps
It is drawn to study peoples tasks, activities, and
movement throughout the space.
The goal is to learn about a group of individuals whose
activities are charted throughout the day.
It is done on only a few individuals at a time. It can be
obtrusive.

VII SEM - B.Arch
Trackingmuseumusers
LECTURE 1

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Trace Observation
The third type of observation involves observing physical
traces.
This means you systematically look at environments for
evidence of earlier activity or other indicators that people
were there and interacted with one another or with the
environment.
This method is used to see how people actually use a
space.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
This type of research is critical to the designer

because it gives you an opportunity to know what
often goes unsaid by clients and users.
There are two types of traces that are measured,
erosion and accretion.
Observation of physical traces is a particularly
useful techniques in architecture and urban design.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Erosion traces
It is shown by deterioration or wear that provides a look
at the usage pattern.
The physical environment has been worn down such as
an indentation on a step where everyone has put their
foot over time, or the upholstery on only one chair in a
seating arrangement is badly worn and you realize that
that chair is the only one with a view to the outdoors.
Both situations beg the question, what does this mean?

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Accretion traces
It is build-up of a residue or an interaction.
These traces are added to the environment and show how
the user has changed an environment (Sommer & Sommer,
2001).
For example, people may move chairs closer together in a
study area so they can interact as a group, or may leave
trash on the floor .

VII SEM - B.Arch
Colors / water balloons left in park on

a day after Holi indicate the use of
the park for cultural activities despite
The restrictions laid by the park
authority.
LECTURE 1
Stone slabs from the park seats

ripped off and vandalized indicate the
lack of spatial as well as social control
on the the restrictions laid down by
the park managers.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Use of trace measures has several advantages:

There is no observer when the people use the space so
its unobtrusive.
The observer can look at the space anytime and over many
days.
The observer can return to the space to see the trace
again or to show others.
The trace can be documented through photographs or
video.
It is an inexpensive and easy method to yield interesting
information.
It is a good way to explore a research problem (Sommer &
Sommer, 2001).

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Use of trace measures also has several disadvantages:

The researcher can read too much into a trace. One visit
may see a one-timeonly occurrence; therefore, the visit
must be repeated to confirm the use initiating the trace.
It yields a tremendous amount of data, which can delay
you in your quest for answers

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
An example of this type of research is often seen when an

architect/designer is working with way finding issues in a
facility.
When you see handmade, taped-up signs directing people
to a spot, you know there is a problem with signage.
Equally you know how the workers in the space view
circulation and the best way to find something/someplace
from their viewpoint.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
What to look for?

Zeisel (1984) summarizes the important items to look for
during the observation of physical traces. They are:
1. By-products of use: including signs of erosions,
leftovers, and missing traces
2. Adaptations for use: including props, separations, and
connections

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
3. Displays of self: including personalization,

identification, and group membership
4. Public messages: including official, unofficial, and
illegitimate signs
5. Context: understand how traces clarify the context
and how the context clarifies the traces

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Recording devices
Observations can be recorded using photographs,
drawings, annotated diagrams, or counting (Zeisel,
1984).
Comparing Observation Techniques The following is a
chart summarizing the qualities of each technique
(adapted from Zeisel, 1984).

VII SEM - B.Arch
Naturalistic
LECTURE 1
Participant
Trace
emphatic(feelforthe
character)
emphatic(feelforthe
character)
imageable (suggestsideas)
Direct
Direct
easy
variablyintrusive
unobtrusive
unobtrusive(noinfluence
onbehavior)
Dynamic
Dynamic
durable(donotquickly
disappear)
Environment behavior studies are about the

interrelationships
between behavior and
properties of the man-made environment .
Understanding how people use and value the
spatial environment is the key to planning sites
that fit human purposes (Lynch, 1962).
Purely verbal methods(such as a questionnaire

)might fail to tap the feelings and behavior of very
young children and are not suitable for studying
illegal and illegitimate activities. Similarly there
might be a difference between what people say
and what people do.
People may not be able to articulate or

describe
the
architectural
setting
characteristics desired by them. But with help
of tools such as photos /simulations they can
be assisted to express their choice.
Hester (1975) listed various observational

techniques to study interaction between the users
and the space
Activity Observation: Straightforward recording of
what people do in a space.
Interaction Observation: It provides a more
complete picture of how certain activities occur in a
social context.
Ecology Observation and mapping: It combines
activity as well as interaction observation by
considering activities, interactions, actual settings
and influence of each on the other.
Sampling Observations
Deciding the timing and duration of observations

is important.
Behavioral observations can be sampled into two
ways - The event sampling and time sampling.
In event sampling the researcher observes the
field only at those times when a particular event of
interest is scheduled.
In time sampling, systematic observations, at
different points in time are carried out.
Behavioral / Activity Mapping

Behavior mapping is a specific technique developed with
in environment-behavior studies, to register, analyze and
present data about the behaviour of people in direct
relation with their physical environment (van Andel, 1994).
Behavior mapping is a systematic observation technique
for documenting the use of a specific space or location
(Driskell, 2002).
Actual mapping and map-making is seen as a qualitative
bridge between research and design.
Nature of Data collected by Observation Methods

Observation can result into data which is
oIn form of maps
oIn form of counts
oIn form of descriptions
All the three types of data need to be analyzed
using different methods.
Maps
These have to be content analyzed.
Techniques such as map overlays can help in
identifying the patterns existing in the field.
Counts
Counting (of persons/ number of occurrences)
helps in quantifying the observations and employing
statistical procedures which in turn strengthens the
observations and helps in identifying patterns in
the data.
Descriptions
Qualitative field notes help in describing the
phenomenon.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Survey method
Survey research is a method of descriptive research used
for collecting primary data based on verbal or written
communication with a representative sample of individuals or
respondents from the target population.
Survey research studies large and small populations (or
universe) by selecting and studying samples chosen from
the population to discover the relative incidence ,
distribution and interrelations of sociological and
psychological variables.

VII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 1
Types of surveys
Surveys are classified by the methods of obtaining
information
1.
2.
3.
4.
Through personal interviews

Through telephone interviews
By mailing questionnaires
Panel techniques
AUD
VII SEM - B.Arch
SURVEY
Panel techniques
A sample of respondents is
,interviewed and studied at later.
selected
The panel technique enables the researcher to

study changes in behavior and attitude.
FACULTY OFARCHITECTURE, MANIPAL UNIVERSITY, MANIPAL
AUD
VII SEM - B.Arch
SURVEY
Telephone interviews
Little to recommend beyond speed and low cost.
Especially when the interviewer is unknown to the
respondent, they are limited by possible nonresponsive on
cooperativeness and by reluctance to answer more than
simple superficial questions.
This type can sometime be useful in obtaining information
essential to a study.
Principal defects is the inability to obtain detailed
information
AUD
VII SEM - B.Arch
SURVEY
mailing questionnaires
This method is popular
But it has serious drawbacks unless it is used in conjunction
with other techniques
Two of these defects are possible lack of response and the
inability to check the response given
Responses returns of less than 40% or 50% are common.
As a result of low returns in mail questionnaire valid
generalizations cannot be made.
AUD
VII SEM - B.Arch
SURVEY
Personal interviews
Direct, face-to-face Interview:
Interviewer and interviewee see and talk to each other
face-to-face.
Includes In-home/In-office Interview Appointment first, Face
to face Interview needs Skill
Mall Intercept Interview
Interview outside home, in supermarkets,
departmental stores, other public places
AUD
VII SEM - B.Arch
SURVEY
The interview
The interview is a face to face interpersonal role situation in
which one person , the interviewer asks a person being
interviewed, the respondent, questions designed to obtain
answers pertinent to the research problem.
In the standardized interviews, the
sequence and their wording are fixed.
questions,
their
Standardized interviews use interview schedules that have

been carefully prepared to obtain information pertinent to
the research problem
AUD
VII SEM - B.Arch
SURVEY
Although the research purposes govern the questions

asked, their sequence and their working are entirely in the
hands of the interviewer.
Interview as a research tool
When information is difficult to get with other methods and
when it is necessary to probe or go deep, the interview
can be valuable.
When a new area is being explored, interviewing may be
useful to obtain detailed hypothesis, variables.
AUD
VII SEM - B.Arch
SURVEY
The interview schedule

The planning and writing of an interview schedule is an art
Three kinds of information are included in most schedules
9Face sheet (identification)
9Information, census(sociological)
9Problem information
Two types of schedule items are in common use
9Fixed alternative (or closed)
9Open end(or open)
AUD
VII SEM - B.Arch
SURVEY
A questionnaire
[also called research instrument]

Data
collection
instrument used for
gathering data;
A
formalized
schedule of an
assembly
of
a
carefully formulated
questions;
Six important functions

Converts research objectives
into specific questions
Standardizes the questions
Keeps respondents motivated
to complete the research
Serve as a permanent record
Speed-up the process of data
analysis
Reliability and validity purposes
AUD
VII SEM - B.Arch
SURVEY
Questionnaire Development Process

S te p s in a Q u e s t io n n a ir e D e v e lo p m e n t P r o c e s s
D e te r m in e
S u rvey
O b je c tiv e s
D e c id e D a ta
C o lle c tio n
M e th o d s
P re -d e s ig n a c tiv itie s
P o s t-d e s ig n a c tiv itie s

T a b u la te a n d
A n a ly z e D a ta
a n d F in a liz e
R ep o rt
G a th e r D a ta
U s in g th e
Q u e s tio n n a ir e
Q u e s t io n
D e v e lo p m e n t
Q u e s tio n
E v a lu a tio n
b y R esea rch er
a n d b y C lie n t
P retest th e
Q u e s t io n n a
ir e
R e v is e ,
F in a liz e ,
and
D u p lic a t e
D e s ig n
a c tiv itie s
AUD
VII SEM - B.Arch
SURVEY
Basic Question Formats

V arious Q uestion Form ats
Basic
Q uestion Form ats
O pen-ended
Q uestions
C losed-ended
Q uestions
Scaled
Q uestions
Basic
O pen-ended
Q uestions
D ichotom ous
Q uestions
Labeled
Q uestions
Probing
Q uestions
M ultiple-C hoice
R esponses
U nlabeled
Q uestions
C larifying
Q uestions
Single-coded
M ultiple-coded
AUD
VII SEM - B.Arch
SURVEY
Open ended questions are those that supply a frame of

reference for respondents answers, but put a minimum of
restrain on the answers and their expressions.
They are flexible, they have possibilities of depth.
They enable the interviewer to clear up misunderstandings
through probing.
They enable the interviewer to ascertain respondents lack of
knowledge, to detect ambiguity to encourage cooperation
and achieve rapport, and to make better estimates of
respondents true intentions beliefs and attitudes.
AUD
VII SEM - B.Arch
SURVEY
A special type of open ended question is the funnel type.

In a funnel type a set of questions directed towards
getting information on a single set of related topics.
The funnel starts with a broad questions and narrow down
progressively to the important specific points.

VIII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 25
OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS: Questions to which respondents

give their responses freely, according to their own will.
Basic Open Ended Questions.
Q. What do you particularly like about Lipton Tea?

______________________________________________________________________________
Q. Why are you unwilling to buy a cellular phone when it is available in the market?
________________________________________________________________________
Probing Questions
Q. What do you particularly like about Johnson & Johnson baby oil?
__________________________________________________________________________
PROBE: Anything else?
314
MANIPAL SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE AND PLANNING, MANIPAL UNIVERSITY, MANIPAL
AUD
VII SEM - B.Arch
SURVEY
Fixed alternative item offer the respondent a choice among

two or more alternatives eg. Yes or no, disagree or agree.
Usually the third alternative being dont know or undecided
is added.
Advantages of achieving greater uniformity of measurement
and thus greater reliability.
Disadvantage of being superficial, without probe they do
not ordinarily get beneath the response surface.
AUD
VII SEM - B.Arch
SURVEY
CLOSED-ENDED QUESTIONS: Questions to which respondents

are required to answer from set of alternative responses provided by the
researcher. Could be dichotomous or multiple choice.
Dichotomous Questions With No Neutral Response

_________________________________________________
Q.Do you have a cellular phone?
Yes ...................................... 1 without neutral
No ...................................... 2 response
Dichotomous Questions With Neutral Response
Q.Is it likely that you will purchase a cellular phone in the next
six months?
Yes ...................................... 1 with neutral
No ...................................... 2 response
Not Sure .............................. 3
316
AUD
VII SEM - B.Arch
SURVEY
Single- and multi-coded multiple choice questions
_____________________________________________________________________
Q. On an average, how much do you spend on newspapers, books and magazines in a
month? (Please check one from the following responses.)
Less than $15 ...................................
Between $16 & $30 .......................
Between $31 & $45 .......................
Between $46 & $60 .......................
$60 or more ...................................
1
2
3
4
5
Single-coded
question
Q. Which of the following household appliances does your household have?

(Please check as many responses that are applicable to you.)
TV
LCD
PC
Fax
1
.2
3
4
VCR
5
Microwave
. 6
Cellular phone .7
Others
.8
Specify ____________
Multi-coded
question
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
__
AUD
VII SEM - B.Arch
SURVEY
A third type of schedule item is the scale item

A scale is a set of verbal items to each of which is
an individual responds by expressing degrees of
agreement or disagreement or some other mode
of response.
AUD
VII SEM - B.Arch
SURVEY
Scaling questions
Scaling questions are special types of closed-ended questions.
They include, among others, the following categories of questions.
Behavioral/Attitudinal questions
Buying-intent questions
Agree-Disagree questions
Preference questions
Ranking questions
Semantic differential questions
Constant-sum questions
The questions can be labeled or unlabeled

319
AUD
VII SEM - B.Arch
Type of
Scaled
Questions
Unlabeled
scaledresponse
question
Labeled
scaledresponse
question
Labeled and Unlabeled Scaling Questions

Examples
Advantages
Disadvantages
On a scale of 1 to 7,
how would you rate
the IBM Thinkpad on
ease of operation?
1. Allows a respondent to
express the degree of
his/her intensity of
feelings.
2. Easy to administer and
code.
Do you disagree
1. Allows a respondent to
strongly, disagree,
express the degree of
agree, or agree strongly his/her intensity of
with the statement,
feelings.
IBM laptops are a
2. Easy to administer and
better value than
code.
Compaq laptops?
3. Respondents can relate
to the scale.
320
SURVEY
Respondents
may not relate to
the scale well.
Scale may be
forced or
overly detailed.
AUD
VII SEM - B.Arch
SURVEY
Considerations in choosing a question format

Nature of the property being measured
Subjective Vs objective
Previous research studies
Need for comparison with past studies
Data Collection Mode
Telephone/face-to-face-interview/mail
Scale level desired
Statistical analysis
Ability of the respondents
AUD
VII SEM - B.Arch
SURVEY
Phrasing and Sequencing of Questions

PHRASING
Focus on a single issue
or topic
Ask precise questions
using respondents core
vocabulary
Avoid
use of vague words
asking leading or loaded
questions
estimation questions
double barreled
questions
presumptuous questions
SEQUENCING
Start with simple opening
questions
Place
broad-based questions
first;
more specific and narrow
questions and difficult,
sensitive, embarrassing
questions should come
later(Funnel approach)
Classification questions
last.
Transition from one topic to

another should be smooth

VIII SEM - B.Arch
LECTURE 25
Criteria of question writing:

Is the question related to the research problem and the
research objective?
Is the type of questions right or appropriate?
Is the questions a leading question?
does the question demand personal knowledge and
information that the respondents resist
Is the question loaded with social desirability
MANIPAL SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE AND PLANNING, MANIPAL UNIVERSITY, MANIPAL
AUD
VII SEM - B.Arch
SURVEY
Questionnaire Layout
Provide sufficient spaces

Use prominent print for instructions
Use filtered questions
Do not slit the same question over two pages
Number the questions
Layout should facilitate editing and coding

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RESEARCH TECHNIQUES (ARC-411)

VII SEM - B.Arch

FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE MANIPAL UNIVERSITY, MANIPAL

RESEARCH TECHNIQUES (ARC-411)

a careful investigation or inquiry

FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE MANIPAL UNIVERSITY, MANIPAL

RESEARCH TECHNIQUES (ARC-411)

The Chambers Dictionary, lays down the meaning of research

FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE MANIPAL UNIVERSITY, MANIPAL

RESEARCH TECHNIQUES (ARC-411)

FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE MANIPAL UNIVERSITY, MANIPAL

RESEARCH TECHNIQUES (ARC-411)

RESEARCH TECHNIQUES (ARC-411)

FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE MANIPAL UNIVERSITY, MANIPAL

RESEARCH TECHNIQUES (ARC-411)

Means of acquiring knowledge

FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE MANIPAL UNIVERSITY, MANIPAL

RESEARCH TECHNIQUES (ARC-411)

FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE MANIPAL UNIVERSITY, MANIPAL

RESEARCH TECHNIQUES (ARC-411)

FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE MANIPAL UNIVERSITY, MANIPAL

RESEARCH TECHNIQUES (ARC-411)

FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE MANIPAL UNIVERSITY, MANIPAL

RESEARCH TECHNIQUES (ARC-411)

FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE MANIPAL UNIVERSITY, MANIPAL

RESEARCH TECHNIQUES (ARC-411)

Research and Scientific method

an inquiry into the nature of, the

Research, can be termed as

(Bernard Ostle and Richard W. Mensing, Statistics in Research, .

FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE MANIPAL UNIVERSITY, MANIPAL

RESEARCH TECHNIQUES (ARC-411)

The following table compares scientific and nonscientific methods of inquiry.

FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE MANIPAL UNIVERSITY, MANIPAL

RESEARCH TECHNIQUES (ARC-411)

FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE MANIPAL UNIVERSITY, MANIPAL

RESEARCH TECHNIQUES (ARC-411)

IMPORTANCE OF THIS COURSE IN ARCHITECTURE

The course is geared towards assisting students to understand

FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE MANIPAL UNIVERSITY, MANIPAL

RESEARCH TECHNIQUES (ARC-411)

The design process

Building Performance, Building Performance Research Unit, Applied Science, London.

In broad terms, the design process is the procedure adopted by

FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE MANIPAL UNIVERSITY, MANIPAL

RESEARCH TECHNIQUES (ARC-411)

FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE MANIPAL UNIVERSITY, MANIPAL

RESEARCH TECHNIQUES (ARC-411)

Or as per *John Zeisel (1984)

Problem statement analyzing the problem

Imaging - creating a vision of the

Presenting - communicating your ideas

Testing - reviewing, critiquing and

FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE MANIPAL UNIVERSITY, MANIPAL

RESEARCH TECHNIQUES (ARC-411)

As a consequence of growing concern about the future of global

FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE MANIPAL UNIVERSITY, MANIPAL

RESEARCH TECHNIQUES (ARC-411)

The performance variables, such as air/surface temperatures,

RESEARCH TECHNIQUES (ARC-411)

FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE MANIPAL UNIVERSITY, MANIPAL

RESEARCH TECHNIQUES (ARC-411)

The crux of design process lies in the correct mapping between