ENGINEERING REPORT

An Experimental Study of the Effect of Some Design

Parameters on Crossflow Turbine Efficiency

L..

by

Nadim M. Aziz
Venkappayya R. Desai

Department of Civil Engineering

[
r

Clemson University
Clemson, South Carolina

29634

Prepared for Department of Energy. Bonneville Power Administration. Portland. Oregon

L
l

lW-91

DEPARTMENT OF
CIVIL ENGINEERING

CLE:M:SON

UNJ:><ERSJ:TY

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

This report includes the results of the experimental study conducted at Clemson
Hydraulics

Laboratory.

Clemson

University.

DOE-Bonneville Power Administration Funding.

Clemson.

South

Carolina

under

The project involved a laboratory

investigation of the effect of certain parameters on the efficiency of the crossflow turbine.

The study involved constructing models of crossflow turbines with variety of number
of runner blades. angle of water entry to the runner. and inner-to-outer diameter runner
ratios.

Nozzles were also constructed for the experiments and have a spiral back wall to

enhance the acceleration of water into the runner. The flow rate was measured by means
of a calibrated orifice meter. total head by a Pitot tube. torque and rotational speed by
means of a dynamometer and a controller.

All together 27 runners were tested with three nozzles.

Combinations of these

runners and nozzles covered the entire scope of the project. The results of the experiments
clearly indicate that efficiency increased with increase in the number of blades. Moreover.
a range was determined for the most effiCient angle of attack (angle of water entry into to
the runner). This range was between 20 and 28 degrees. In addition. as a result of these
experiments. it was determined that 0.68 is the most effiCient inner-to-outer diameter
ratio of the runners tested.

Obviously. there are many related issues but are outside the scope of this project that
should be resolved in terms of improving cross flow turbine efficiency. Some of these will
be addressed in the continuation study on crossflow turbine at Clemson University.

An Experimental Study Of the Effect of Some Design Parameters

On Crossflow Turbine Efficiency

Table Of Contents

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY. ....... . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . ..... . . . ...... . . .. . ..........

.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
LIST OF TABLES

LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF SYMBOLS

..
.

..... .. . ..... ..... . ..... ............ .. ........... 2

...

..

..

Introduction

CHAPTER 2.

Review Of Literature

CHAPTER 3.

Equipment And Model Components

CHAPTER 4.

Description Of Experimental Procedures

CHAPTER 5.

Analysis Of Results, Conclusions,

CHAPTER 1.

REFERENCES

.. .

. 6
9

to

.. ............................. .. . ....... 14
.

..... ............. ...... .. 24

.

. 32

And Recommendations ......... . .................. . ..... ..

.

40

.. ... . .... .. . . . ..... . ....... . .. . .. . . ... ........................ 48

APPENDIX A

Tables . .... ....... ............... ...................... ... .. . A l

APPENDIX B

Figures . . . . .................... . .... . ..................... . .. B I

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This work was supported by the Department of Energy,

Administration under grant No. DE-FG79-89BP96489.

Bonneville

Power

The views, opinions and/or

fmdings contained in this report are those of the authors and should not be construed as
an official Department of Energy position, policy, or decision, unless so deSignated by
other documentation.

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.

Nozzle details . . ..... ...... . .... . .. ...... . . . . .. .. .. . . . ........ . . .... . 29

Table 2. Runner Details

Table 3.

30

Summary of flow conditions ....... . ....... .... ... ... ...... . .. .. . . ... 38

Table 4. Maximum efficiencies for each runner ................ ............... 43

Table A-I. Automatic speed control for runner I

A-I

Table A-2. Automatic speed control for runner 2

A-I

Table A-3. Automatic speed control for runner 3

A-2

Table A-4. Automatic speed control for runner 4

A-2

Table A-5. Automatic speed control for runner 5

A-3

Table A-B. Automatic speed control for runner 6

A-3

Table A-7. Automatic speed control for runner 7

A-4

Table A-8. Automatic speed control for runner 8

A-4

Table A-9. Automatic speed control for runner 9

A-5

Table A-10. Automatic speed control for runner 10

..

Table A-ll. Automatic speed control for runner II

. ..

..

Table A-12. Automatic speed control for runner 12

. .

A-B

Table A-13. Automatic speed control for runner 13

..

...

...

A-7

Table A-14. Automatic speed control for runner 14

. ..

Table A-15. Automatic speed control for runner 15

..

..

Table A-16. Automatic speed control for runner 16

..

Table A-I7. Automatic speed control for runner 17

. .

. .

Table A-19. Automatic speed control for runner 19

. ..
.

Table A-20. Automatic speed control for runner 20

.....

..

..

Table A-I8. Automatic speed control for runner 18

Table A-21. Automatic speed control for runner 21 ..

A-5

. A-B

A-7

. A-8
A-8
A-9
A-9
A-tO
A-IO
A-ll

Table A-22. Automatic speed control for runner 22

A-ll

Table A-23. Automatic speed control for runner 23

A-12

Table A-24. Automatic speed control for runner 24

A-12

Table A-25. Automatic speed control for runner 25

A-13

Automatic speed control for runner 26

A-I3

Table A-26.

Table A-27. Automatic speed control for runner 27 .... . . . . . . . ................ A-14
Table A-28. Manual speed control for runner 3 ........... . ... ... . . ..... . . .... A-14
Table A-29. Manual speed control for runner 6
Table A-30.

A-15

Manual speed control for runner 12 ............. . . .... .. . . . . .. . .. A-I5

Table A-31. Manual speed control for runner 15 .. ....... . . . . ............. . .. . A-I6
Table A-32. Manual speed control for runner 21 . . . . ... .. . . .... ............. .. A-I6
Table A-33. Manual speed control for runner 24 . ....... .... . .. .. ........... . . A-I7

LIS[ OF FIGURES

FIgure 1.

The cross flow turbine - a two stage turbine. . ...... ...... .... ... .. 11
.

Figure 2. Detailed turbine components and parameters

Figure 3.

Details of runner components

Figure 4. A sample nozzle with spiral back wall

...

. 12

...

.. 26

..

.. . .... 34

Figure 5. Total head versus discharge manometer reading .. . .. .

.

Figure 6. Calibration curve for the Orifice-meter

. 28

.... . . .. .... . ... . . .. . . . . . . .. 35

Figure 7. Sample interpolation for torque and speed data obtained by

manual speed control

Figure 8. Overall Summary of results

41

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 44

Figure 9. Summary of the impact of the angle of attack on efficiency

45

Figure 10. Combined effect of the angle of attack and speed control method.

45

Figure 11. Summary of the impact of the diameter ratio on efficiency

46

Figure 12. Combined effect of the diameter ratio and speed control method
Figure 13.The effect of the number of blades of turbine efficiency

. 47
. 48

Figure B-1. Power output under automatic speed control for runners
with 25 blades and diameter ratio of 0.60. .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B- 1
Figure B-2. Performance under automatic speed control for runners
with 25 blades and diameter ratio of 0.60. ......................... 6-2
Figure B-3. Power output under automatic speed control for runners
with 25 blades and diameter ratio of 0.68. . .. ...... ................ 6-3
Figure B-4. Performance under automatic speed control for runners
with 25 blades and diameter ratio of 0.68. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

B-4

Figure B-5. Power output under automatic speed control for runners
with 15 blades and diameter ratio of 0.60. ........ ... . . . . . . . ....... 6-5
Figure B-B. Performance under automatic speed control for runners
with 15 blades and diameter ratio of 0.60

B-6

Figure B-7. Power output under automatic speed control for runners
with 20 blades and diameter ratio of 0.60. .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . B-7

Figure 8--8. Performance under automatic speed control for runners

with 20 blades and diameter ratio of 0.60. ................ .. ..... .. 8-8

Figure 8-9. Power output under automatic speed control for runners
with 15 blades and diameter ratio of 0.75. . .......... ....... ..... .. 8-9

Figure 8-10. Performance under automatic speed control for runners

with 15 blades and diameter ratio of 0.75 . . .... . ....... .. ... ... 8-10
.

Figure 8- 1 1. Power output under automatic speed control for runners

with 25 blades and diameter ratio of 0.60. . .. .. .. ........... ...... 8-11
Figure 8- 12. Performance under automatic speed control for runners
with 25 blades and diameter ratio of 0.60. ......... ............. .. 8-12

Figure 8-13. Power output under automatic speed control for runners
with 25 blades and diameter ratio of 0.68. .. ... ....... ............ 8-13

Figure 8-14. Performance under automatic speed control for runners

with 25 blades and diameter ratio of 0.68. .. . ... ... ............... 8-14

Figure 8-15. Power output under automatic

(0 and 0) and manual (<l and 0)

control for runners with 25 blades and diameter ratio of 0.68. ..... 8-15
Figure 8-16. Performance under automatic

(0 and 0) and manual (<l and 0)

control for runners with 25 blades and diameter ratio of 0.68 .... . 8-16
Figure 8- 1 7. Power output under automatic

(0 and 0) and manual (<l and 0)

control for runners with 25 blades and diameter ratio of 0.60 . ..... 8-17
Figure 8- 18. Performance under automatic

(0 and 0) and manual (<l and 0)

control for runners with 25 blades and diameter ratio of 0.60 . ... .. 8-18
Figure 8-19. Power output under automatic speed control for runners
with 20 blades and an angle of attack of 28 degrees. ...... .. .....

8-19

Figure 8-20. Performance under automatic speed control for runners

with 20 blades and an angle of attack of 28 degrees. ........... . .. 8-20

Figure 8-2 1. Power output under automatic speed control for runners
with 20 blades and an angle of attack of 24 degrees. ..... .. . ....
.

8-21

[\-22

Figure 8-22. Performance under automatic speed control for runners

with 20 blades and an angle of attack of 24 degrees. . ....... .. ..
.

Figure 8-23. Power output under automatic speed control for runners
with 25 blades and an angle of attack of 32 degrees. ....... . ..... 8-23

Figure 8-24. Performance under automatic speed control for runners

with 25 blades and an angle of attack of 32 degrees. . ............. 8-24

Figure 8-25. Power output under automatic speed control for runners
with 25 blades and an angle of attack of 24 degrees. . ......... .. . 8-25
.

Figure 8-26. Performance under automatic speed control for runners

with 25 blades and an angle of attack of 24 degrees. ... ...... .... 8-26
.

Figure 8-27. Power output under automatic

(0

and

0)

and manual

(Ll and 0)

control

for runners with 25 blades and an angle of attack of 24 degrees. .

Figure 8-28. Performance under automatic

(0

and

0)

(Ll and 0)

and manual

(0

and

0)

and manual

(Ll and 0)

(0

and

0)

and manual

(Ll and 0)

8-28

control

for runners with 25 blades and an angle of attack of 32 degrees.

Figure 8-30. Performance under automatic

8-27

control

for runners with 25 blades and an angle of attack of 24 degrees. .

Figure 8-29. Power output under automatic

. 8-29

control

for runners with 25 blades and an angle of attack of 32 degrees.

8-30

8-31

8-32

...

8-33

...

8-34

Figure 8-3l. Power output under automatic speed control for runners with
a diameter ratio of 0.75 and an angle of attack of 32 degrees.

..

. .

Figure 8-32. Performance under automatic speed control for runners with
a diameter ratio of 0.75 and an angle of attack of 32 degrees.

Figure 8-33. Power output under automatic speed control for runners with
a diameter ratio of 0.68 and an angle of attack of 24 degrees.
Figure 8-34. Performance under automatic speed control for runners with
a diameter ratio of 0. 68 and an angle of attack of 24 degrees.

Figure 8-35. Power output under automatic speed control for runners with
a diameter ratio of 0.60 and an angle of attack of 32 degrees. . . ... 8-35
Figure 8-36. Performance under automatic speed control for runners with
a diameter ratio of 0. 60 and an angle of attack of 32 degrees.

...

8-36

Figure 8-37. Power output under automatic speed control for runners with
a diameter ratio of 0.60 and an angle of attack of 28 degrees.

.... 8-37

Figure 8-38. Performance under automatic speed control for runners with
a diameter ratio of 0.60 and an angle of attack of 28 degrees. . .... 8-38
Figure 8-39. Power output under automatic speed control for runners with
a diameter ratio of 0.60 and an angle of attack of 24 degrees. . .
.

8-39

8-40

Figure 8-40. Performance under automatic speed control for runners with
a diameter ratio of 0.6 and an angle of attack of 24 degrees.

.. .

LIST OF SYMBOLS

Symbol

Description

Unit

01

Runner outer diameter

inch

02

Runner inner diameter

inch

Gravitational acceleration

Head

Nb

Number of blades

Shaft rotational speed

rpm

Blade arc length

inch

So

Throat width

inch

Shaft torque

in-#

Blade thickness

inch

Flow rate

Runner width

13

Angle of blade with runner periphery

degrees

Angle of water entry to runner

degrees

Specific weight of water

A.

Nozzle entry arc

degrees

Blade length arc

degrees

Blade inner radius of curvature

"

Efficiency

ft/sec2
ft

cfs
inch

#/ft3

inch
0/0

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Hydropower is considered one of the most desirable energy resource to be uWized. if it

is as competitive economically as other energy sources.

One economical measure in

hydropower is the efficiency of turbines. which is the subject of the study reported here.
In conventional low head hydroelectric stations, axial turbines such as propeller
turbines or bulb turbine are generally used, and technology for these machines are well
established with suffiCient know-how compiled.

At present, the crossflow turbine is

gaining interest in small and ultra low head establishments because of its remarkably
simple structure. This interest has resulted in several such turbines being used in several
locations around the country.
The crossflow turbine (CF11 is composed of two parts, the runner and the nozzle. The
runner is made of up to two Circular side walls with the blades fIxed to these walls along
the periphery.

The cross-sectional shape of the blades is circular and make a certain

angle with the tangent to the outer periphery. The nozzle. on the other hand. directs the
flow into the runner at a specifIed angle of attack.

The nozzle has a rectangular

cross-section, and its back wall is curved.

The crossflow turbine is a two-stage turbine in which water leaving the nozzle strikes
the blades at the fIrst stage as shown in Figure 1. Some of the flow is entrained between
the blades and is called the uncrossed flow. The remaining water crosses the inside of the
runner, thus the term cross flow) and strikes additional blades before leaving the runner
completely.
The efficiency of the cross flow turbine was observed to vary with the amount of cross
flow. It was also observed that effIciency also varies with the number of blades in the
runner, the angle of attack. and the inner- to outer-<liameter ratio of the runner. Figure 2
shows details of the runner and is used here as a defInition sketch for the parameters used
in this study.

10

NOZZLE

1st

SiAGE

:'<--J..r'-- FLOW

ENTRAINED
WITIN
THE

2nd

RUNNER
STAGE

Figure 1. The crossflow turbine

11

a two stage turbine.

.

BLADES

-b-

A----,
I

SECTION 88

50-3.86"

BLADE ANGLE

-o1

__

8 ---' 1

+- BLADES

r
02

/'
,'

/6--/

TURBINE

8LADE

SHAFT

:.J

--

--- ---

BLADES
SECTION AA

Figure 2. Detailed turbine components and parameters

12

The main goal of the project was to perform efficiency improving tests under different
possible combinations of several parameters. The experimental study was conducted at
the Clemson Hydraulics Laboratory in Clemson University and used turbines and nozzles
manufactured out of Plexiglas.
In the remaining chapters of this report, a detailed review of literature is presented
regarding the crossflow turbine use and its efficiencies.

Chapter 3 describes the

equipment and the turbine and nozzle models used in this research.

Some of the

equipment was borrowed from Ryobi Motor Product, Inc of Easley, South Carolina. Time
limitations on the use of this equipment restricted exploratory testing of additional factors
on the performance of the turbine. The experimental procedure and parameters are
explained in Chapter 4, and the results, conclusions and some recommendations are
presented in Chapter 5.

13

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

The literature available on the crossflow turbine spans about a century. right from the
day it was invented by the Australian engineer A.G.M. MitchelL This literature can be
conveniently grouped into feasibility studies, theoretical studies, and experimental
studies. Some of the most recent articles are discussed in this chapter.
The crossflow turbine has been found to be economical for power generation in many
situations.

Chappell (1983) indicated that crossflow turbines manufactured out of

standard 'Plexiglas' plastic pipes or sheets can substantially reduce the cost of materials.
manufacturing, and repairs. For micro-hydropower plants (less than 100 kw in capacity).
Chappell claIms that the savings on the capital costs are in the order of about 50% or
$700/kw. Simpson (1983) lists some other favorable conditions for the installation of
crossflow turbines. He specifically mentions the case of an existing dam with adequate
flow rates, as the best site for installing a crossflow turbine. This is attributed to the fact
that crossflow turbines, can handle a wide range of flow rates and head values. and is
simple in construction and capable of self-cleaning.

Simpson concludes that these

reasons make the crossflow turbine an excellent turbine for run-of-stream hydropower
plants with head values of more than 5 feet.
The advantages of crossflow turbines in general and the crossflow turbines with
partitioned

runners

in particular are discussed by Hothersall (1984J.

In the case of

can

be obtained by

crossflow turbines specific speed in the range of 40-200 SI units

varying only the turbine width. For this, Hothersall (1984J suggests the use of partitioned
runners which can handle flow fluctuations effectively. and clalms that the normalized
cost/kw in crossflow turbines having a constant power output of 100 kw is minimum
when the head is between 30 to 40 meters.
The British-based charity. the Intermediate Technology Development Group (ITDGJ
(1985). made some effort to take the crossflow turbine technology to developing countries.
It found that the crossflow turbines are the most suitable to be manufactured in Nepal.

14

Pakistan, and Thailand. Its mission to Nepal succeeded in setting up a locally managed
company for the manufacturing of crossflow turbines which can provide power for rice
mills, grain mills, oil extruders, and domestic electrical requirements of the communities
in the vicinity.
Thapar and Albertson (1984) found that crossflow turbines are free from cavitation
but are susceptible to wear when excessive silt or sand particles are present in the water.
They also state that the general maintenance is less complex than for other types of
turbines as the runners are self-deaning.

However, the only factor not in favor of

crossflow turbines is their higher floor space requirement, but the less complex structure
and less cost will compensate for that.
Pazout (1984), lists two non-traditional enterprises of Czechoslovakia which were
successful in starting turbine production within a very short time, namely Metaz Tynek
and KovopodnikBrno. These flrms produceBanki or crossflow turbines ofB Universal
Type for capacities up to 30 kw. Pazout (1984) argues that the advantage of these turbines
is that the design version can be installed very quickly and without changing the existing
weir structures. Refurbished plants will use the original technological equipment if it is
still capable of operation, and gradually it will be replaced with new installations.
Smith (1985) discusses the technical design and the use of the crossflow turbine in
the context of a hydroelectric development project in Africa Situated across the Dibaguil
River, a small tributary of the Ngoko River in the Republic of Congo. He mentions about
the German Appropriate Technology Exchange (GATE) for the design drawings and other
fabrication information so that the turbine can be manufactured locally. GATE has been
very actively involved in promoting the use of crossflow turbines in developing countries.
according to him.
McGuigan (1987) discusses the installation of an Ossberger crossflow turbine in the
West Coast region of Ireland, and quotes an interesting aspect of this installation: the
automatic homemade trash cleaner. The cleaner was made from car tires cut to give a
tooth-edge and held 'lOrizontally with metal strips. The cleaner is :::onnected by a pulley to

15

a 50 gallon tanle The tank is filled by gravity and when full it falls, thus drawing the
cleaner up the trash rack and flipping the debris into a special trough. The 50 gallon tank
empties by syphonlc action and is then drawn back upwards by the weight of the cleaner,
and the action is repeated every fourteen minutes. The turbine was placed downstream
from a town which resulted in a fine trash collection. So, it was important to keep the rack
clear or, otherwise, the flow of the water would be impeded and hence the power output
reduced. This installation also has a coarse trash rack which prevented the damage from
wooden logs and other heavy items.

Khosrowpanah et al. (1984) traced the historical development of the crossflow turbine
both theoretically and experimentally and concluded that that because of its unique
design, it can be adapted and built in a simple factory capable of cutting and welding sheet
metal in remote areas.

Khosrowpanah et al. (1984) listed the various advantages of

crossflow turbine such as: the tendency of the objects entering the fIrst stage getting
wasted after half a runner revolution, the positive effect of the crossflow turbine on stream
ecology by increasing the dissolved oxygen adaptability to draft tubes and the freedom
from cavitation.

Khosrowpanah (1984) conducted a study on the effect of the number of blades.

runner diameter, and nozzle entry arc under flow/head variations on the performance of
crossflow turbines. The crossflow turbine was made of clear acrylic plastic. Four runners
of width 6 in. were tested. In these experiments, water was admitted vertically through a
nozzle 6 in. wide with nozzle entry arcs of 58, 78, and 90. The results were compared in
terms of dimensionless parameters for each runner at different nozzle openings under
different combinations of head and flow rate.

The results of these experiments

[Khosrowpanah (1984), Fiuzat et al. (1987), and Khorsrwpanah et al. (1988)] concluded
that the unlt discharge increases with an increase in nozzle entry arc and nmner aspect
ratio, and a decrease in the number of blades. The maximum efficiency of the crossnow
turbine increases with an increase in the nozzle entry arc from 58 to 90, and decreases
slightly with a decrease in runner diameter at constant runner width. The maximum
efficiency in these experiments always occurred at the same unit speed for a constant

16

nozzle throat width ratio. For the tested runners, maximum efficiency occurred at a speed
ratio of 0.54. The runaway rpm decreases with an increase in the nozzle entry arc and the
number of blades, and increases with a decrease in the runner diameter for a given runner
width. The peak unit power output occurs at a unit speed slightly less than that for the
maximum efficiency. In these expertments, the number of blades had a moderate effect on
efficiency and power output. For a runner diameter of 1 2 in., the optimum number of
blades was 15. For each nozzle entry arc, the total pressure and static pressure decreases
with a decrease in the number of blades for a constant flow rate. The optimum value of the
ratio of runner width to blade spacing was 1 .03 for 90-degree nozzle entry arc.

The

specific speed varied with nozzle entry arc, aspect ratio, and speed ratio. By selecting an
optimum number of blades, the cost/kw-hour would reduce at any load factor, and
Khosrowpanah concluded that an interior guide tube when used might further improve
the crossflow turbine performance.
Makansi (1983) also considered the effect of flow variation and low-head, high-flow
situations on a crossflow turbine, but does not investigate high-head, low-flow situation.
Makansi concluded that depending upon the degree of flow variation, the flat efficiency
curve of the crossflow turbine improves flow utilization and continuously increase the
power production at the site. The improved flow utilization is generally more important to
a run-{)f-river site than to one with a dam, as he states. Makansi also states that. in
low-head, high-flow situations, the crossflow turbine requtres larger unit dimensions
than comparable designs, which generally use a speed increaser resulting in an efficiency
drop of 1-2%. Runner size also limits capacity and hence multi-unit installations may be
required to obtain performance equivalent to that of other turbines.
Preliminary test results on a new type of crossflow turbine were presented by Pomfert
(1986). The turbine was called the "Split-flow Turbine" which is basically a crossflow
turbine with distinct runner blade geometry for the first and second stages. The nmner's
main feature is the deflection of the flow after it enters the runner. After entering the
prtmary runner, the flow is deflected symmetrically to the two secondary runners,
peripheral to the primary runner.

These secondary runners usually have a larger

17

diameter and are fixed on a common shaft with the primary runner.
arrangement.

With this

the blades of each runner are crossed by the flow only once. It is, therefore,

possible to design the numbers. geometry, and profiles of the blades of the primary as well
as secondary runners independently according to the specific requirements of the first
and second stage flow characteristics.

Panasyuk et al. (1987) conducted an extensive study on the use of local energy
resources as an alternative to centralized electrical supply for mountain regions of the
Central Asian part of Russia. They considered various options such as wind power, water
power. solar batteries. and internal combustion engines.

By comparing the energy,

operational. and economic parameters of autonomous energy sources. they conclude that
for territorially scattered and diffc
i ultly accessible economic objects

with

power

consumption up to 30-50 kw. the use of micro-hydroelectric stations is the most

prospective. During investigations, they created and tested experimental models of

micro-hydroelectric station with a capacity of 1. 2. 10. and 30 kw. Problems of creating

automated systems controlling the processes of water intake. water distribution, and
irrigation on the basis of using a micro-hydroelectric station were examined. The typical
design of a hydro-power block of a micro-hydroelectric station was also studied. The
results of their study concluded that high-head Banki Turbines along with low-head
Propeller turbines as the most productive under those conditions.

Patzig (1987) analyzed the flow duration curve, and concluded that a crossflow
turbine generates 100 additional days per year at high fo
l ws and 130 days at low flows.
Patzig based his conclUSions on the argument that for run-of-the-river plants. it is the
energy production in kwhs that is the critical factor as opposed to the peak output.
Comparing the production range of a high-speed Francis turbine with a low-speed, two
cell crossflow turbine, Patzig also claimed that for the same hydro-site, the latter can be
designed for a 50% larger capacity (Le
opening range (Qmin

Qmax

225 cfs). without loosing in the partial

37.5 cfs). Patzig also concluded that. crossfo

l w turbines with their

cubical housing and the cylindrical drum-type runner are much easier sized.

18

Kpordze (1987) proposed a new methodology for the selection of hydraulic turbines.
Mter carrying out regression analysis for 174 turbines he proposes the following
regression equations and also a nomograph for crossflow turbines:
D

0.329(PIH)0.275

(1)

1. 730(Q INjO.191

(2)

0.814(H5/Q)-O222

(3)

38.451(H0.5 ID) 1.032

(4)

74.927(H3/2/Q)0.331

(5)

P/H= 341.218(Q INjO.641

(6)

where. D = turbine diameter in meters. P = turbine rated power output in kw. H

turbine

rated head in meters. Q = turbine rated flow in cumecs. and N = turbine speed in rpm. The
sample period considered was between 1966 and 1983. Equation (4) has the highest
coefficient of determination (r2 = 0.99) and the least log standard deviation (S1

0.05).

while Equation (3) has the lowest regression coefficient (r2 = 0.764). and Equation (6) has
the highest log standard deviation.
Nakase at al. (1982) conducted experiments to study the effect of nozzle shape on the
performance of the crossflow turbine. The outer diameter of the runner was 315 mm. .
and the runner had 26 blades with blade inlet and outlet angles of 3 0 and 90 degrees. The
runner and nozzle width was also 315 mm.. and the flow rate was 6.64 m31 min at a head
of 1.54 m. Three types of nozzles were used in the experiment and are described below:
During these experiments Nakase et al. (1982) detected that the flow at the nozzle exit
has some pressure. and hence concluded that the crossflow turbine is not a perfect
impulse turbine. It was also observed that decrease of pressure at nozzle exit is not always
related to increase in maximum efficiency.
By classifYing the flow as going through two stages. Nakase et al. (1982) concluded
that there are two types of flow in the crossflow turbine. One is the crossed flow which
flows through two stages and the other is the uncrossed flow which flows only through the

19

ftrst stage. The crossed flow constitutes a major portion of the flow which gave rise to flow
contraction causing the flow to accelerate from the fIrst stage to the second.

Water

crossing the open center space gives rise to contraction and the flow is accelerated from
the ftrst to the second stage. Therefore. the flow condition at the highest effIciency shows a
different velocity triangle than the proposed one. Finally. Nakase et al (1982) concluded
that the suitable value of nozzle throat width ratio (So/RA) is near 0.26 but changes
slightly with the nozzle entry arc (1). Nakase et al most signillcant fmdings can be
summarized as proving that crossflo w turbines are not purely impulse turbines. and that
the entire flow is not crossflow.
Van Dixhorn et al. (1984) tested a crossflow turbine to determine the fluid force on the
blades. In these experiments. the tangential and radial forces. and the pitching moment
on a test blade were measured. In addition. measurements were made for blade loading
patterns over a revolution over a non-<limensional speed range of 0.35 to l. 10 from 1 to
2.6 meters. The maximum forces were found to occur just before the blade leaves the

nozzle exit. During these experiments it was also observed that peak effIciency of 60 to
70% was found to occur at a non-<limensional speed of 0.47. and that flow was

substantially lower than the theoretical flow due to non-uniform pressure in the nozzle
throat and reaction effects in the runner. Zero reaction would require a large amount of
diffusion in the blade passage.
The centrifugal force and the pitching moment were found by spinning the runner in
the air. and were found to agree with measured forces during crossflow turbine operation
in reglons of empty flow passage. As head changes. the blade loading pattern at a glven
speed remains nearly constant. At runaway rpm. the fluid forces were not substantially
higher than those at optimum speed.
The maximum blade forces occur when the blade is about 10 degrees before the nozzle
exit. where there is a spike in force. The Tangential forces were found to be in good
agreement with results of a full passage control volume analysis while the radial forces
were slightly lower than predicted. Van Dixhom et al. (1984) provided charts for
determining the maximum tangential and radial forces.

20

From flow visualization. Van Dixhorn et al. (1984) were able to observe the turning
angle in the fIrst pass and the validity of full passage assumption.

Full passage

assumption appeared reasonable only near the optimum speed. and Separation off the
suction and pressure sides of blades was seen at low and high speeds.
Durgin and Fay (1984) modeled the flow characteristics of a crossflow turbine and
computed the contribution of the second stage towards the total power as 17%. In this
study. Durgin and Fay developed an analytical method to determine the effects of the
entrained flow. This analysis was matched with the measured effICiency data using a loss
factor F(y). entrance nozzle loss coeffIcient (c). and the percentage blade ftll. The effIciency
predicted with the modille d theory was found to be closer to the observed effICiency. The
existing theory predicted a maximum effIciency of 87% while the modified theory
predicted an effIciency of 66% indicating that entrained flow must be accounted for in the
predictive techniques.
Laboratory studies on the efficiency of crossflow turbines were conducted byAkerkar

(1989). Fiuzat andAkerkar (1989 and 1991). The expertmental study involved evaluating
the effect of factors such as angle of attack. nozzle entry arc. and nozzle configuration on
turbine efficiency. Three runners were constructed with angles of attack 16. 20. and 24
degrees. The outer diameter. inner-to-outer diameter ratio. and the number of blades for
the runners were 12 in.. 0.68. and 20 respectively. Five nozzles were also constructed with
a throat width ratio of 0.41. In the same study. flow patterns were recorded by plotting the
flow pattern on a square grid. and the contribution of the two stages of crossflow turbine
towards the total power output was determined by diverting the flow after the first stage
through a flow diverter.

Two such flow diverters were constructed out of Plexiglas

cylinders of 8 in. outer diameter with 1/4 in. thickness.

The angle subtended by the

opening portion of the flow diverters was kept 20 more than the nozzle entry arc.
Fiuzat and Akerkar (1989) studied the use of an Interior Guide tube. the design of
which was based on the studies of the flow pattern inside the runner. The In terior Guide
Tube improved the effICiency by about 5% at 70% of the rated maximum flow. thus
bringing it to 91%. However. at the maximum rated flow. the guide tube did not im prove

21

the efficiency because of a choking effect. In this study an all time high efflciency was
attained, thus making the crossflow turbine comparable to other turbines in terms of
efficiency. Upon reviewing the data from these experiments, it was observed that the total
head in the nozzle at a level just above a plane tangent to the runner top periphery varied
for constant flow rate.

The research of Akerkar (1989) and Fiuzat and Akerkar (1989 and 1991) concluded
that the flow pattern inside the crossflow turbine runner is concave when viewed from the
shaft center. The jet angle at the first stage exit is greater for the vertical position of the
nozzle than either the slant or the horizontal positions, indicating that there would be
more crossflow. The hOrizontal position of the nozzle was also concluded to be the least
efficient.

They also concluded that the crossflow is inversely proportional to the speed,

but is directly proportional to the load on the crossflow turbine shaft.

They also determined that at maximum efficiency, crossflow is about 40% and the
speed ratio is between 0.45 and 0.55. The first stage of crossflow turbine produced 55% of
the total power at 90-degree nozzle entry arc and 59% at 120-degree nozzle entry arc. The
maximum efficiency attained without the interior guide tube was 89% for a 90 degrees
and with an angIe of attack of 24 degrees. They also reported that

unil power and

efficiency increased with an increase in the angIe of attack from

1 6 to 24, thus

contradicting Banki's theory of crossflow turbine.

Balje (1981) conducted a theoretical analysis of the the performance of crossf1ow

turbine as a two stage turbine, accounting for the incidence losses at the second state. As
a result, an almost optimum blade configuration was derived, and it was concluded that
maximum efficiencies would be obtained at a speed ratio of 0.4 to 0.5.

The maximum calculated efficiency is 73% occurring at a flow factor Le., the ratio of
meridional and peripheral velocities of 0.5, and that the maximum efficiency would be
82% at a flow factor of 0.45 and a kinetic energy recovery factorofO.7 for the second stage.
In addition Balje concluded that since the first stage contributes about 70% of the net
output, the optimum efficiency is near the optimum first stage f10w factor. Finally, Balje

22

showed that the 'Cordier line' representing the optimum combination of specific speed
and specific diameter shows that at high speeds conventional turbines need a larger
specific diameter than the crossflow turbine.
Mikaye et

aL (1984) complimented experimentally, their own proposal of the

high-speed crossflow turbine as the most deSirable to utilize low head hydropower. Their
experiments confirmed the validity of the theory in Mikaye et aL (1983) and also extended
their theory to e xamine the effects of dynamic stall and draft tubes.
The measurement of the runner performance was carned out in an air stream
through a straight duct. Although the delicate runner did not permit measurements at
high Reynolds number, the data obtained was enough to support the theoretical results.
They also concluded that the influence of flow unsteadiness should be considered, if a
deep dynamic stall occurs. But, in the usual operational region a semi-steady treatment
would be suffiCient. The also concluded that draft tubes would be very useful to recover
the otherwise released kinetic energy.
The need for the research described in the following chapters arises from the lack of
complete information on the impact of certain parameters on cross
efficiencies.

23

flow turbine

CHAPTER 3
EQUIPMENT AND MODEL COMPONENTS

Crossflow turbine models including the mnner. blades and nozzles were built and
tested at the Clemson Hydraulics Laboratory. Plexiglas was used to constmct the turbine
including mnners. blades and nozzles. The transparent material was instmmental in
flow visualization. For torque and rotational speed measurements. a dynamometer was
used that has 100 inch-lb. capacity manufactured by Magtrol. Inc.

Equipment
The Clemson Hydraulics Laboratory is equipped with a sump and a 10 hp and a 25 hp
General Electric pumps. These pumps were used to maintain a constant-head tank full
during the experimental tests. Flow from the constant head tank to the turbine assembly
was regulated by a 6" gate valve manufactured by Iowa Valves Co

Inc.

Turbine Casing
The casing was made up of 0.5 in. thick Plexiglas sheets. 2 ft x 2 ft in size on both the
larger sides. having a 1 in. diameter steel shaft with the mnner mounted on it passed
through along with the bearings. The bearings were manufactured by Fafuir Bearings.
Inc. The shorter sides of the casing were covered with 0.5 in. thick Plexiglas sheets. both
measuring 2 ft x 10 in.. The bottom plate was also a 0.5 in. thick to which all four side
covers of the casing were screwed. The side covers. are screwed together for easy set-up
and dismantling. and hence to facilitate the fast and easy replacement of nmners for
various tests.
Runners
The project involved in-<lepth study of the effect of three important parameters on the
efficiency of the crossflow turbine. These parameters are: the angle of attack for the n07-zle
and mnner (a). the inner-to-Quter diameter ratio for the mnner (D2/Dd. and the number
of of blades (nb) in the mnner. A total of 27 runners were made out of 0.5 in. Plexiglas
sheets and 118 in thick cylindrical pipes. having different diametf'rs. The Plexiglas sheets

24

were used for the sidewalls of the runners. The cylindrical pipes of different diameters but
of the same thickness ( l /Bin.) were used to cut the blades.

Figure 3 shows details of a

typical runner, and in what follows is a description of each part of the runner.
a.

Side walls
The side walls are cut out of l/Z" thick 'Plexiglas' in the Division of Engineering

Services of Clemson University by using computer numerical controlled (CNC) machines.

One of the side walls has a hole and a key-way corresponding to the shaft: diameter and the
size of the Plexiglas key. The other Side-wall is in the form of an annulus with its ou ter and
inner diameters corresponding to the outer and inner diameters of the runner.
On both the side walls l/B" wide grooves in the shape of a circular arc are cut to a
depth of 1/3Z". The inner and outer radii of these grooves correspond to the inner and
outer radii of the blade to be fitted into that runner and, the number of such grooves in
each of the side wall correspond to the number of blades in that runner.
b . Blades
The blades in this experiment were cut out of Plexiglas cylinders corresponding to the
blade central angle

(8)

as calculated by Banki's theory and explained in Akerkar

( 19B9).

The blade central angle is given by

IJ
tan"2

cos{3
D
sin{3 + D'
I

and the blade inner radius (p) is given by

o =
-

4Dj

_ D2

cos{3

where tan f3 = 2 tan u. Each of the blades are 6 1/ 16" long out of which 1 /3Z" fits into the
grooves cut in each of the side walls. In order to minimize losses due to separation the
blade edges are rounded off in the shape of Circular arcs of 1/ 16" radius.

After all the blades are slid into the grooves of the runner under fabrication, they are
glued to the runner by means of 1 -Z dichloroethane.

25

A _

----

'

I
I

------.

/r---/3---

;":::"",,"--- 3 1

ode s

,----\--'r- S h o t ,

- -- - i-

1= I '

4-+---

Side Wal l s

I,

S i d e 'Nal l s
/ ti-- S l a des
/'"
'l@
111
r
e
v
o
c
l l----Shaft . -.l!"
:I
,
.
---"'-----'-'11-- Col l a r
I
Ii
-------,-

-l

L....: ,
-

,
.

'1 , I
:1

I II

, ==S:=''l_
!
;
;/

tl

?, ,
, .- ,

'

, I

6"
! ; 1/2"

--. ,---

Figure 3. Details of runner components

26

:!o:"

c. Shaft
The shaft of 1" diameter is machined out of a steel rod. Afterwards, two key-ways
which are in linear alignment are cut. Through these key-ways and the key-ways in one of
the side walls and the runner cover, the 'Plexiglas' keys are inserted.
d. Runner cover
The main purpose behind the use of a runner cover is to enable the runner Lo be used
for tests involving either the flow diverter or the interior guide tube in future, as the case
may be.

The runner cover is also made out of 1/2" thick 'Plexiglas' sheet.

Its inner

diameter corresponds to the inner diameter of the runner. Its outer diameter is I " more
than its inner diameter. For the annular area between its inner and outer diameters, it has
a thickness of 1/4". In this area three screw holes are drilled so as to fIx the runner cover
with one of the side walls of the runner. The runner cover also has a shaft-hole and a
key-way corresponding to the size of the shaft and the 'Plexiglas' key.
N07.zles
Three nozzles prepared out of 1/4" thick 'Plexiglas' sheets. For all the three nozzles
the nozzle entry arc (a) and the nozzle throat width ratio were kept at a value of 90 and
0.41 respectively. The reason for adopting a value of 90 for nozzle entry arc "I" is that it
gave the maximum efficiency of 89% during the previous study in the same laboratory by
Akerkar ( 1 989). Likewise during the experimental study conducted by Khosrowpanah
( 1 984) a value of 0.41 for the nozzle throat width ratio (2So/D lA) resulted in the case of
maximum efficiency.
The rear wall of the nozzle as shown in FIgure 4 has a spiral shape such thm the water
jet entering the turbine experiences a uniform acceleration. Tables 1 and 2 give details of
all nozzles and runners used in the study, respectively.
1 . Dynamometer, Controller, and Plotter
A 100 inch-pound dynamometer was used to measure torque and angular speed. The
dynamometer was attached to the turbine shaft and was controlled by an automalic speed
controller.

The controller permits the runner to rotate from zero torque (maximum

27

3 86 '
.

n-6'

Figure 4. A sample nozzle with spiral back wall .

28

Table

Nozzle Details

Nozzle

Angle of

Nozzle

Nozzle Throat

Attack

Entry Arc

')..0

Width
li
SO

24

90

3.86

28

90

3.86

32

90

3.86

a,0

29

Table

Runner Details

Runner

Angle of

Diameter

# of

Attack

Ratio
D2

Blades

0.0

Dl

Nb

24

0.60

24

0.60

25

0.68

15

24

24

24

0.60

15

20

24

0.68

20

24

0.75

15

24

0.75

28

0.60

28

0.60

10

28

13

28

15

28

14

0.75

24

11

12

0.68

0.60

0.68

28

16

28

18

28

0.68
0.68

0.75

25

20
25
15

20

25
15

20
25
15

28

0.75

20

19

32

0.60

15

21

32

0.60

22
24

17

20

23

32

25

0.60

20

32

0.68

15

32

0.68

32

25

32

27

32

26

0.75

0.68

20

0.75

15

0.75

32

0.75

30

25

25

20
25

angular speed) and brings the runner to a halt (rotational speed of zero). The d uration of
this process can also be controlled to last up to 40 seconds. The controller transmits
angular speed and torque to a plotter which produces a plot of the two. This controller can
also be used to generate discrete pOints of torque and rotational speed by disabling the
automatic speed control and run the test at specified torque or speed. The entire set-u p
including the dynamometer, the controller, and the plotter were borrowed from Ryobi
Motor Products, Inc. of Easley, South Carolina.

31

CHAPTER 4
DESCRIPTION OF EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

The experimental study involved the measurement of four parameters as described

below. The above equipment was used in all test runs.

Torque
The torque on the shaft is measured by the help of a dynamometer manufactu red by
Magtrol. Inc. The dynamometer has a range of 0 to 100 inch-lb. With a least count of
measurement of 0.1 inch-lb.
torsion bar.

It is cali.brated with the help of standard weights and a

It was found that the combined equipment and personal error in the

measurement of load was always less than 1%.

Angular Speed
The angular speed of either the shaft or the runner is also measured by means of the
dynamometer which was manufactured by MagtroJ, Inc . . This measurement was verified
by a digital tachometer ACT 2A. serial #1420007 manufactured by Monarch Instrument
Inc. Amherst. NH.

The digital tachometer is capable of sensing up to 600 pulses per

revolution through its proximity switch. For the present study. the tachometer was set to
measure 1 pulse per revolution so that it can cater for all ranges of angular speeds. The
digital tachometer is calibrated with the help of a Type D analog tachometer man ufactured
by James G. Biddle Co. with catalog #555 and was found to be accurate up to 0. 7%.

Totalpressure
The measurement of pressure the total proves to be one of the most difficult tasks of
the experiment since it is almost impossible to measure the total pressure at the nozzle
due to the closeness of the rotating runner. Even if this task was possible. the nature of
the flow at the nozzle/runner point of contact was highly nonuniform due to the presence
of secondary flow even with the presence of flow straighteners u p in the nozzle.
In spite of the above limitations. total pressure at a point in the prismatic- portion of
the nozzle was measured. This point was selected where the variation in the total pressure
across the nozzle cross-section was negligible.

32

The total pressure was measured by means of a U -type water manometer, with a least
count of 0.1" manufactured by Meriam Instrument Co., Inc., and a 36" long Pitot static
tube manufactured by Dwyer Inst. , Inc. Michigan City, Indiana with a catalog # 1 6-36.
The manometer reading for total pressure is calibrated with respect to the manometer
reading for discharge as shown in Figure 5.
Flow Rate
The flow rate is measured by means of an orifice-meter with an inlet diameter of 6.45"
and a throat diameter of 4 . 875". The orifice-meter is introduced in a stralght reach of the
pipeline for a minimum length of 1 1 times the inlet diameter along the upstream and 5 . 5
time the inlet diameter along the downstream as specified by ASME PTC 18-1949
(Hydraulic Prime Movers) .

The pressure gradient between the inlet and the throat is

measured by means of two pressure tappings situated at I d and 1 /2d distances from the
upstream face ofthe orifice plate, where d is the inlet diameter. A U-type water manometer
manufactured by Meriam Instrument Co., Inc. with a least count of 0. 1" was used for
calibrating the flow rate.
The calibration of the orifice-meter, shown in Figure 6, is done by means of a weighing
tank, the water in which is weighed by means of a scale manufactured by Toledo Scale
Co., Inc. The model # for the scale is 227 1 and it has a least count of 5 Ibs.

Experimental Procedure
The total head or the total pressure is a very important parameter to be determined .
The accuracy in the estimation of the non-Gimensional parameters such as effiC iency,
unit discharge, unit power, unit speed, specific speed, and speed ratio, depends on the
accuracy achieved in the total head measurement.
In order to achieve a reasonable degree of accuracy in the total head measurement.
the following conditions were satisfied during testing:

1 . The nozzle should run full throughout its cross section, so that there are practically no
air bubbles inside the nozzle. To achieve this, the flow rate was at least equal to the
minimum flow rate required to make the nozzle run full.

33

y 5.761 3 + 0.44920x + 3.1 630e-3x'2 R'2 0.996

1 8 ------r---
=

16

Co
.t:

14

12

10

4------+----
o

10

hq

20

30

Figure 5 . Total head versus discharge manometer reading.

34

y =

9.6231e-2

0.49913x

R'2

1 . 000

0.2 -.------r--,

0.0

o
C,?

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

+--------__,_-------1
- 1

LOG H

Figure 6. Calibration curve for the Orifice-meter.

35

2. The variation in the total head across the nozzle cross section should be kept at a
minimum. To achieve this, the total pressure or the total head was measured in that
reach of the nozzle length, which has a prismatic cross-section.

In other word, me

total head was measured above the nozzle tip and above the oblique corner edge where
the nozzle wall becomes inclined to lead the water jet at a particular angle of attack.
This also requires that streamlines are parallel to one another, which was done by
placing a honeycomb mesh at the junction of the metal transition and the Plexiglas
nozzle.
Once these conditions are met, a Pitot tube can be used to measure total head, with
respect to the center of the runner shaft. The total head is measured in 5 sets with 20
readings in each set. Table 4. 1 lists flow rates, mean total head, standard deviation in the
total head measurement, and the number of observations.

As mentioned above, the dynamometer has automatic as well as manual speed

controlling capabilities. Initially a procedure involving the automatic speed control was
adopted by which torque in the turbine shaft was varied automatically from zero to a
maximum within a specified time, known as the "testing time". Generally testing time was
kept at 20 or 40 seconds. The variation in the load caused the rotational speed of the
turbine runner to drop from the initial maximum value of the runaway rpm to zero at the
end of the testing time. Later it was noticed that, the torque required to maintain a certain
rotational speed by automatic control was much less than that by manual speed control.
The reason, obviously, is due to impact loading in the automatic speed control mode.
Manual speed control was adopted as a measure to improve the efficiency further.
But, lack of time on the borrowed electroniC equipment prevented us from testing all the
runners of the crossflow turbine by manual speed control. Those runners of the crossflow
turbine for which a higher efficiency value was observed during the automatic speed
control tests were retested by manual speed control.

36

Procedure For Automatic Speed Control

The manometer reading for discharge was recorded and the plotter was set.

The

dynamometer was then set for automatic speed control for a particular testing time. When
torque on the turbine shaft caused the turbine runner to stop. the automatic speed
control switch was released. For each experimental run, from zero torque to maximum
torque, a continuous plot was generated for torque versus angular speed. At the end each
run, the manometer reading for flow rate was taken again. and an average value was used.

Procedure for Manual Speed Control

The manometer reading for flow rate was recorded and the plotter was set. The torque
on the turbine shaft was increased at uniform increments. At each increment of torque. a
mark on the torque versus speed graph was recorded This process was then repeated
until a torque is reached that stops the runner completely. or until the runner shows a
highly fluctuating rotational speed due to its hindrance at high torques. The torque was
then decreased gradually to zero and the manometer reading for discharge was recorded.
The scattered points on the plot provide torque and rotational speed readings and were
used to generate a continuous equation of torque versus speed.
The following steps are common to both types of speed control

1 . All steps are repeated 5 times, once for each flow rate: 0.58 cfs, 0.65 cfs. 0 . 7 1 cfs.
0 . 9 1 cfs and 1 .05 cfs. A sum mary of flow conditions is listed in Table 3 .

2 . The dynamometer and the xy plotter are disconnected from the turbine shaft.
3. The shaft and the runner are taken out from the turbine assembly.
4. The Pitot tube is connected to the U-tube manometer and is set at a point in the
prismatic portion of the nozzle, where there is no disturbance due to the rotation of
the turbine runner.

5 . The discarge manometer reading is measured initially.

6. The total pressure is measured with respect to the centerline of the shaft.
readings are taken in five sets with '20 reading in each set.

37

The

The time interval

Table 3. Summary of flow conditions during the experiment.

Flow Rate
cfs
Q(cfs)

Mean Total
Pressure Head
H (in)

Standard Deviation
of Total Pressure Head
H (in)

Number of
Observations
#

0.9 1 1

13.453

0.040

20

0.906

13.368

0.029

20

0.906

13.505

0.027

20

0.906

13.483

0.058

20

0.905

1 3.458

0.122

20

38

between two total pressure readings in a set is 3 seconds. After each set, discharge
manometer reading is taken again. All pressure readings in a set are averaged to
obtain tbe mean total pressure for tbat set witb a particular value of manometer
discharge reading.
An equation for tbe calibration curve for tbe total pressure reading with respect to tbe

manometer reading for discharge is fitted by tbe metbod of least squares.

39

CHAPTER 5
ANALYSIS OF RESULTS. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The performance of turbines is measured by their efficiencies. In general effic iency is

an indication of what percentage of the input to the turbine is converted into power. The
efficiency (,,) of the crossflow turbine is defmed as follows:

BHP 100%
IHP

'/ =

where. BHP = Break Horsepower. and IHP = Input Horsepower and are given by
BHP

2lrnT
(60)(1 2)(550)

IHP =

H
y Q
550

For a particular flow rate. Q. the input horsepower is constant.

Therefore. the

maximum efficiency is at the point where the product of torque and speed is maximum. In
order to determine this maximum efficiency. equations for torque versus rotational speed
curves are obtained by least squares approximation as shown in Figure 7. Polynomial
equations were used to fit the experimental data. and all regression analysis of the torque
versus rotational speed produced regression coefficients of about 1 indicating the llt to be
a perfect fit. .
A polynomial fit of torque versus speed data results in an equation of the form of
n= f m
where em is a polynomial in T. Therefore. the product of interest can be written as
T n = T f(T)
The product of torque m and rotational speed (n) is maximum when the derivative of Tf(T)
with respect to T is zero. meaning

a [Tf(Tl]
aT

which is another polynomial in T. This equation is then solved for T to get the opUm u m
value of torque and the corresponding speed that produce maximum efficiency. The

40

M a n u a l Speed Contro l
Runner # 6 ; hq = 1 5.4 ..
y

244.39 - 2.6531 x - 1 . 5054e-2xA2

5 . 1 5 1 8e-4xA3 - 3 . 1 26ge-6xA4

RA2

1 . 000

300 ,-------,

200

"-

..
::l
c:
..

c:

1 00

20

40

60

80

1 00

1 20

T ( i n _ l b)

Figure 7. A sample of cUlVe fitting for torque versus speed

by manual speed control for the most efficient runner.

41

maximum efficiencies obtained by this semi-analytical method were always within the
range of the experimental data where the maximum efficiency appears to be located.

In addition to the hydraulic efficiency of the crossflow turbine, the following

non-<iimensional parameters were evaluated for each test:
Unit Discharge: The non-<iimensional unit discharge (Q') is defined as follows:

Q' -

D,2 [iii

Unit Power: The non-<iimensional unit power (P') is defmed as follows:

'

BHP(550)
y

Ii H',

Unit Speed: The non-<iimensional unit speed (n') is defmed as follows:

n,

2nnD,

--

60 [iii

Specific Speed: The non-<iimensional specific speed is defmed as follows:

n,

2nn IQ

6O(gH)07S

Speed Ratio: The non-<iimensional speed ratio (nrl is defmed as the ratio of the peripheral
velocity of the runner (u tl to the absolute velocity of the water jet at the nozzle tip (V d

The maximum efficiencies for all nmners as predicted by the analysis explained above
are listed in Table 4. These efficiencies are arranged in Table 4 in three columns, one for
each angle of attack. The runner numbers correspond to those in Table 2.

Numbers in

parentheses are efficiencies obtained by manual speed control. Only the most efficient
runners were tested by the manual speed control. Table 4 indicates that runner 6 is the
most efficient of all the runners tested. The parameters of the most effiCient runner are as
follows: a = 24 degrees, 02/01 = 0.68, and the runner has 25 b!ades. The results of all

42

experiments are tabulated in Appendix A. Experimental data and numerical results [or
tbe tests in which tbe speed of the runner was controlled automatically are presented in
Tables A-I through A-27. For tbe manual speed control tests, tbe data and results are
listed in Tables A-28 through A-33. The first column in these tables contains tbe torque
(in-#) . This column also contains tbe optimum torque where tbe predicted efficiency is
maximum according to tbe procedure explained in Chapter 4.

The second column

contains tbe corresponding values of tbe shaft rotational speed. The remaining columns
list tbe BHP, efficiency (%). speed ratio, specific speed, unit speed, and unit power,
respectively.

The tables also list tbe design parameters tested and flow parameters.

Figure 8 indicates the number of favorable tests on efficiency for each parameter.

Angle of Attack
a (degrees)
28

24
#10

#1

#19

64.5 1 %
#2

63.59%
#11
70.82%
#12

#21

#13

#22

64.87%
#15
66.44%
(74. 12%)
#16
50.37%
#17

47.48%
#26

6 1 .37%
#9

64.05 %
(70. 18%)
#25

50.22%
#8

62.68%
#24

76.59%
(84.49%)

#7

55.2 1 %
#23

#14
70.29%

#6

66.68%
(73.89%)

57. 18%

58. 10%

#5

65.41 %

70. 19%
(78.00%)

73.99%
(8 1 .36%)
#4

58.17%
#20

64. 1 1 %

#3

32

59.37%
#18

55.88%
#27

7 1 . 1 3%

64.63%

62.97%

Table 4. Maximum efficiencies for each runner.

(Runner numbers are in the top left corner)

43

0.9 CFS ; AUTOMATIC SPEED CONTROL

ANGLE OF ATTACK
IS AN INCREASE FROM
a =

240TO

a =

32

DIAMETER RATIO
IS AN INCREASE FROM

0.60 TO 0.75 FAVORABLE ?

FAVORABLE ?

NUMBER OF BLADES .
IS AN INCREASE
FROM 1 5 TO 25
FAVORABLE ?

Yes
( 16/18 )

Figure 8. Overall summary of results.

Effect of Angle of Attack on Efficiency

The impact of the angle of attack on effiCiency of the crossflow turbine is shown in
Figure 9. This figure shows the varaiation of the efficiency as affected by the angle of
attack under automatic speed control.

Figures B-1 through 8-14 show individ ual

performance of the runners. In these figures the variation of unit runner speed with unit
power and efficiency for various combinations ofthe number ofblades and diameter ratios
are presented. Summary of the results of the impact of the angle of attack and speed
control on efficiency is presented in Figure 10. Figures B-15 through 8-18 also show the
effect of the speed control method on the performance of each runner.

These plots

indicate that an increase in the value of the angle of attack from 24 to 32 results in an
increase in the predicted maximum efficiency in only 2 out of 18 tests. as depicted in
Figure 8, when the turbine was operating under automatic dynamometer speed controL
In only one of these two cases maximum efficiency increased from 64% to about 7 1%

44

80

25 B lades

u
c:
'"

70

'"

.a
;;;

60

20 B lades

eo

"0

50 15 Blades

'6

40
20

Q = 0 . 9cfs;Aut malic Speed Contro

--..
1 -

: :--.1-. - - J ............ """11

.. "!"

- - -!-

I
I

- - --.:...

-- -- -
-

--- .
.. ... .. -.. ---...- - - - -i
-

AngleofAttack =

d2
6
dl = 0 .

--

- -

28

24

""'-:

:.
--.:.
--:

- -

32

aO

d2 _
68
dl - 0 .

---

36

- - - -

7
d2
o. S
dl =

Figure 9. Summary of the impact of the angle of attack on efficiency.

on

Q = 0 . 9cfs ;

u
c:
'"
.
u
<J::
""

80

a
;;;

eo

"0
'"
u

70

20

"-

'6

60

B lades

'"

25

===:::
---

28

AngleofAttack =
Manual Speed Control

aO

"

"

"' -

d2
O.6
df =
d2 =
0 68

u,

d2
O.6
dl =
d2
O . 68
dl =

32

Automatic Speed Conool

Figure 10. Combined effect of the angle of attack and speed control method.
4S

36

This may be explained by the fact that there is an optimum value of the angle of attack
which when exceeded may not produce more power. This angle is in the vicinity of 24
degrees.
Effect of the Diameter Ratio on Efficiency

A summary of the impact of the inner-to-outer diameter ratio on crossflow turbine

. efficiency is shown in Figure 1 1 . The effect of the diameter ratio on individual runners is
shown in Figures 8-19 through 8-30. In these figures the variation of unit runner speed
with unit power and efficiency for various combinations of the number of blades and
angles of attack are presented. Summary of the results of the impact of the diameter ratio
and speed control method on effiCiency is presented in Figure 1 2

Figures 8-26 through

80 r---------r---------r--------,---------,------_,
Q = 0 . 9cfs ; Automlltic Speed Contr
I

;;.,
""'-.I-:25 Blades
g 7 0 r-----------------------r-----------1_----------- 1
"

]
tii

:::
.

S
"

11

60 ---.---+_----

..---'20 Blades

50 -----------------

l5 Blade

40 L---------L------------------0.55
0.60
0.65
0. 70
Inner to Outer Diameter Runner Ratio

__
__

a =

24

--- - -- a =

0.75

28

Figure 1 1 . Summary of the impact of the diameter ratio on efficiency.

46

__
__
__
__

0.80

8-30 also show the effect of the speed control method on the performance of the turbine.

These plots indicate that in only 2 out of 1 8 cases (see also Figure 8 above) . an increase in
the diameter ratio produced an increase in the predicted maximum efficiency under
automatic dynamometer speed controL In one of these two there was an increase in
efficiency from 64% to 70%, and in the other an increase from 74% to 76.5%. This may be
attributed to the fact that somewhere in the vicinity of the diameter ratio of 0.68 the
crossflow is maximum and results in maximum efficiency due to the second stage
contribution.
85

a = 24i.)

i<

Q = O.

-----

9cfs ; 25 Blades

I
I

80

>,
u
c:

a = 28-'

iB

w
S

75

;::l

S
R

oj
;z;
"0
"

u
"0

.
K

.
;
..

"

70

0.-

a = 32-'-I-

. . . . I'--
.. .
.... ..
.....
. . ..
..
.

0.60

65

60
0.55

0.65

...

+ .

--

0.70

-I-

0.75

Inner to Outer Diameter Ratio of the Runner ( D2/D 1 )

Manual Speed Control

Automatic Speed Control

Figure 12. Combined effect of diameter ratio and speed control method.
47

0.80

Effect of Number of Blades on Efficiency

A summary of the effect or number of blades on the performance of the turbine is

presented in Figure 13. The impact of the number of blades on individual crossflow
turbine efficiencies is shown in Figures B-3 1 through B-40 . In these figures the variation
of unit runner speed with unit power and efficiency for various combinations of the angles
of attack and inner to outer runner diameter ratios are presented. These plots indicate a
Significant improvement in the performance of the turbine in 1 6 out of 1 8 cases as a result
of increasing the number of blades from 15 to 25. This may be explained by the fact that
the increase in the number of blades results in more conversion of potential energy of

80 r---------------------_r------------

9cfs; Au omatic Speed Connol

d2
dl

70

0 . 6

---------

c:;
il:

W
E

"
./

::s

Y'"'*
.
'"

_
_

d
2
1
d

E
.
----+--+---60 ----.
oj

:::s

75

d2
dl

8.
...
0 . 6&

50 -------+

470---30---15--2O---25--
Number of B lades

a =

24

--

a =

28

3201

Figure 13. The effect of the number of blades on lurbine efficiency.

48

water into rotational energy of the turbine which confirms to the findings of Nakase et al.

( 1 982).

Recommendations
The efficiencies obtained in this study are encouraging since they are comparable to
results obtained by previous investigators. especially those obtained by Nakase et al.

( 1 982). The impact of several design parameters on the efficiency of crossflow turbine are
still subject to question. These are outlined below.

1 . The effect of further increase in the number of blades is yet to be determined. The
results of this study only indicate that the increase of the number of blades to 2 5
produced higher efficiencies for 1 2 inch diameter runenrs. However. further research
to study the impact of the increase of the number of blades beyond 25 is in order.

2. Additional investigation to narrow the gap on the most efficient angle of attack is also
recommended and should be conducted in the vicinity of 24 degrees.

3. Although this research used runners that are 1 2 inches in diameter. the variation of
the design parameters ofthis project with different diameters should be investigated to
produce design charts for future construction of crossflow turbines.

4. The effects of different nozzle rear wall shapes on efficiency is another area of
uncertain impact on the performance of the turbine.

49

REFERENCES
Akerkar, B. P. , "A Study of the Performance of the Crossflow Turbine", M.S. thesis.
Clemson University. Clemson, SC, 1989.
Balje, O. E . , "Turbomachines - A guide to Design Selection, and Theory" , John WUey &
Sons, New York, 198 1 .
Chappell, J . R. , "Recent DOE-Sponsored Hydropower Engineering Research", NTIS Id. No
DE84000809, Report No. EGG-M- 02983, 1983, p.6.

Durgin, W. W. , and Fay, W.K., "Some Fluid Flow Characteristics of a Crossflow Type
Hydraulic Turbine", Small Hydro Power Fluid Machinery, 1 984, p . 77-83, The Winter
Annual Meeting of ASME, New Orleans, LA, December 9-14, 1984.
Fiuzat, A. A. , and Akerkar, B . P. , ''The Use of Interior Guide Tube in Crossflow Turbines" ,
Waterpower '89, Proceedings o f the International Conference o n Hydropower, Niagara
Falls, NY, August 1989.
Hothersall, R. J., " Micro-hydro, Turbine Selection Criteria", International Water Power
and Dam Constmction, Febmary 1 984, p. 27-28.
Intermediate Technology Development Group (ITDG), ''The role of Micro-hydro in
Developing Countries", International Water Power and Dam Constmction, November
1985, p. 3.
Khosrowpanah, S . , "Experimental Study of the Crossflow Turbine", Ph.D. Dissertation.
Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, 1984.
Khosrowpanah, S . , Albertson, M. L. , and Fiuzat, A. A., "Historical Overview of Crossflow
Turbine", International Water Power and Dam Construction, October 1984, p. 38-43.
Kpordze, C . S. K., "A New Methodology for Selection of Hydraulic Turbines", Monograph,
Idaho Water Resources Research Institute, University of Idaho, Moscow. Idaho. 83843.
March 1987.
Makansi, Jason. "Equipment Options Multiply for Small-scale Hydro". Power, May 1983.
p. 35.
Mikaye, Y., koike, K., Tsugawa, T., and Murata, S., "Performance Characteristics of High
Speed Type Crossflow Turbine," Bulletin of JSME, July 1984, Vol. 27, No. 229, pp.
1 446-1453.
McGuigan, D . , "Small Scale Water Power", p. 57, Prism Press, Stable Court, Chalm ington.
Dorchester, Dorset, UK, 1987.
MOnition, L. , Le Nir, M . , and Roux, J., "Micro Hydroelectric Power Stations", John Wiley &
Sons, New York, 1984, translated by Joan McMullan.
Nakase, Y., Fukutomi, J . , Watanabe, T., Suetsugu, T., and Kubota, T. , "A Sludy of
CrossflowTurbine (Effects of Nozzle Shape on its Performance)", Small Hydro Power Fluid

50

Machinery 1982, p. 13-18, Winter Annual Meeting of ASME, Phoenix, AZ, November
14-19, 1982.

Panasyuk, A. M . , Tokombaev, K. A. , and Shainova, G.!., "Small Hydroelectric Stations and

Prospects ofTheir Development", Hydrotechnical Construction, Vol. 2 1 , No. 6, June 1987,
p . 366-373.
Patzig, A. F. A . , "Optimizing Fluctuating Flows", Alternative Sources of Energy (United
States), Vol. 95, November 1987, p. 30-3 1 .
Pazout, F., "Developing Small Scale Hydro in Czechoslovakia", International Water Power
and Dam Construction, March 1 984, p . 38.
Simpson, B. J . , "Low Head, Micro-Hydro Demonstration Project, Coker, Alabama, Final
Report", NTIS Id. No. DE85000223, Report No. DOE/R4 10233-Tl, 1983.
Smith II, G. J . , "Hydropower Development in Remote Locations of Developing Countries",
American Institute of Physics (AlP) Conference Proceedings, American Physical Society,
Washington, DC, April 25, 1985.
Split-flow Turbine, "Second International Conference on Small Hydro", Conference
Report, International Water Power and Dam Construction, November 1986.
Thapar, O. D. , and Albertson, M. L., "Ultra Low Head Small Hydro Power System
Technology for Economic Development", Waterpower 1985, Vol. III p. 1 9 19, Proceedings of
an International Conference on Hydropower, Las Vegas, NV, September 25-27, 1 984.
Van Dixhorn, L. R., Moses, H. L., and Moore, J . , "Experimental Determination of Blade
Forces in a CrossflowTurbine", Small Hydro Power Fluid Machinery, 1984, p. 67-75, The
Winter Annual Meeting of ASME, New Orleans, LA, December 9-14, 1984.9

SI