Big Idea 2

Biological systems utilize free energy and molecular building blocks to grow, to reproduce
and to maintain dynamic homeostasis.
Living systems require both free energy and matter to maintain order, grow and reproduce.
Organisms employ various strategies to capture, use and store free energy and other vital
resources. Energy deficiencies are not only detrimental to individual organisms; they also can
cause disruptions at the population and ecosystem levels.
Biological systems must both capture free energy and then transform the energy into usable
forms. Autotrophic cells capture free energy through photosynthesis and chemosynthesis.
Photosynthesis traps free energy present in sunlight that, in turn, is used to produce
carbohydrates from carbon dioxide. Chemosynthesis captures energy present in inorganic
chemicals. Cellular respiration and fermentation harvest free energy from sugars to produce free
energy carriers, including ATP. The free energy available in sugars drives metabolic pathways in
cells. Photosynthesis and respiration are interdependent processes.
Cells and organisms exchange matter with the environment. For example, water and nutrients are
used in the synthesis of new molecules; carbon moves from the environment to organisms where
it is incorporated into carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids or fats; and oxygen is necessary for
more efficient free energy use in cellular respiration. These processes release matter to the
environment as waste products. For example, cellular respiration will release carbon dioxide. In
addition, programmed cell death (apoptosis) plays a role in normal development and
differentiation (e.g., morphogenesis). Differences in surface-to-volume ratios affect the capacity
of a biological system to obtain resources and eliminate wastes.
Membranes allow cells to create and maintain internal environments that differ from external
environments. The structure of cell membranes results in selective permeability preventing
molecules with certain characteristics from passing through the membrane while allowing others
to pass. Processes that maintain dynamic homeostasis by allowing the movement of molecules
across membranes include osmosis, diffusion and active transport. In eukaryotes, internal
membranes partition the cell into specialized regions. Each region provides a localization of
chemical reactions allowing the cell processes to operate with optimal efficiency.
Feedback mechanisms maintain dynamic homeostasis within an organism by regulating
responses to changes in both internal and external environments. Negative feedback loops
maintain optimal internal environments while positive feedback mechanisms amplify responses.
Changes in a biological systems environment, particularly the availability of resources,
influence an organisms responses and activities. Organisms use various means to obtain
nutrients and remove wastes. Homeostatic mechanisms across phyla reflect both continuity due
to common ancestry and change due to evolution and natural selection. Examples of
homeostatic mechanisms that have evolved in plants and animals include defense mechanisms as
well as the timing and coordination of developmental, physiological and behavioral event
regulation. These mechanisms increase the fitness of individuals and long-term survival of
populations.

Units in AP Biology Course

Be sure to know the following:
01A Viruses and Cells
How organelles use and produce ATP.
How organelles maintain homeostasis within cells.
01B Homeostasis in Cells
All the notes in the unit.
How to use the water potential formula to calculate water potential values.
01C Replication of Viruses and Cells
The cell cycle and regulation of the cell cycle via check points (cyclins, CDKs, MPFs,
and PDGFs)
Three phases of interphase and alternation of interphase with mitosis
The sequence of events in mitosis (replication, alignment, separation)
How the reduction division of meiosis followed by fertilization ensures genetic diversity
How viral replication differs from other reproductive strategies and generates genetic
variation via various mechanisms.
Mechanism of viral transduction creating a lytic or lysogenic (latent) infection and
mechanisms for creating increased pathogenicity
01D Chemical Components of Viruses and Cells
How molecules and atoms from the environment are cycled (water, carbon, nitrogen, and
phosphorus cycles) through organisms and a used as building blocks within organisms for
the synthesis of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids.
How living organisms depend on the properties of water resulting from its polarity and
hydrogen bonding (Cohesion, Adhesion, High specific heat capacity, Universal solvent
supports reactions, Heat of vaporization, Heat of fusion, Waters thermal conductivity)
Negative feedback mechanisms maintain dynamic homeostasis for a particular condition
(variable) by regulating physiological processes, returning the changing condition back to
its target set point.
Structure and function of polymers are derived from the way their monomers are
assembled. (amino acid primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structure;
amphipathic nature of phospholipids, lipids non-polar; comparison of cellulose vs. starch
structure.
Directionality determines function (nucleic acid 5, 3 carbons in sugar backbone;
Proteins with amino (NH2) end and carboxyl (COOH) end; carbohydrate subunit bonding
determines secondary structure of carbohydrate
Change in the structure of a molecular system may result in a change of the function of
the system (enzyme active site substrate interaction and interaction with cofactors or
coenzymes)
Methods to measure enzyme activity(rate)
Variations within molecular classes provide wider range of functions (phospholipids
variability, hemoglobin varieties, MHC proteins, variety of chlorophyll)

01F Cellular Communication and Interaction

How positive feedback mechanisms amplify responses in biological organisms (e.g.,
immune system) and how disruption negatively affects the organisms (e.g., HIV)
How plants, invertebrates and vertebrates have multiple, nonspecific immune
responses.
How mammals use both the cell mediated and humoral specific immune responses
triggered by natural or artificial agents that disrupt dynamic homeostasis
How cells communicate with each other through direct contact with other cells or
from a distance via chemical signaling.
How organisms exchange information with each other in response to internal changes
and external cues, which can change behavior and this behavior(learned or innate)
leads to differential reproductive success via natural selection
Variation in molecular units (e.g., antibodies) provides cells with a wider range of
functions.
01G Cellular Communication in Multicellular Organisms
How energy is involved in contraction of muscle cells.
How energy is necessary in the maintenance of membrane potential in nerve cells and
muscle cells (sodium potassium pump).
02A Laws of Energetics
All living systems require constant input of free energy to maintain a highly ordered
system offsetting disorder and entropy. Without high order which death occurs
The second law of thermodynamics(entropy increases over time) is not violated because
order is maintained by coupling cellular processes that increase entropy (negative
changes in free energy) with those that decrease entropy (positive changes in free
energy).
Energy input must exceed free energy lost to entropy to maintain order and power
cellular processes.
Energetically favorable exergonic reactions, such as ATPADP, that have a negative
change in free energy can be used to maintain or increase order in system by being
coupled with reactions that have a positive free energy change
Living systems have a variety of processes to capture free energy using different types of
electron acceptors (e.g., NADP+, Oxygen).
Know how the electron transport chain captures free energy from electrons in a series of
coupled reactions that establish an electrochemical gradient across membranes.
Know that free energy becomes available for metabolism by the conversion of
ATPADP, which is coupled to many steps in metabolic pathways.
02B Respiration
Organisms share metabolic pathways and features and demonstrate evolutionary
relatedness.
The energy-related pathways in biological systems (Krebs cycle, Glycolysis, Calvin
cycle, Fermentation) are sequential and may be entered at multiple points in the pathway.
Heterotrophs capture free energy present in carbon compounds produced by other
organisms.

Know the general description of and the inputs and products series of coordinated
enzyme catalyzed reactions in Cellular respiration within eukaryotes that harvest free
energy from simple carbohydrates. (glycolysis, Krebs Cycle)
The electron transport chain captures free energy from electrons(delivered by NADH and
FADH2 in a series of coupled reactions that establish an electrochemical gradient across
membranes of the chloroplast, mitochondria and prokaryotic plasma membranes as
electrons move to the terminal electron acceptor (oxygen or NADP+). The flow of
protons back through membrane-bound ATP synthase by chemiosmosis generates ATP
from ADP and inorganic phosphate.

02C Use of Free Energy

Organisms use various strategies (endothermy and ecothermy) to regulate body
temperature and metabolism.
Various reproduction strategies are used by different organisms in response to energy
availability and the free energy requirements for reproduction and rearing of offspring
(e.g., biennial plants, seasonality, diapause)
The relationship between metabolic rate per unit body mass and the size of multicellular
organisms (generally, the smaller the organism, the higher the metabolic rate).
Excess acquired free energy versus required free energy expenditure results in energy
storage or growth while insufficient acquired free energy versus required free energy
expenditure results in loss of mass and, ultimately, the death of an organism.
02D Photosynthesis
Organisms share metabolic pathways and features and demonstrate evolutionary
relatedness.
Autotrophic mechanisms (photosynthetic and chemosynthetic) for capturing free energy
from physical sources in the environment
How the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis in eukaryotes capture free energy
present in light and produce ATP and NADPH. Include the mechanism of photosystems I
and II, the electron transport chain between them, the formation of the proton gradient,
the linkage of ATP synthesis via ATP synthase(embedded in the thylakoid membrane),
and the production of carbohydrates from the Calvin Cycle in the stroma.
02E Environmental Productivity
Know how the laws of thermodynamics apply to energy transfer between organisms in
the environment.
Know that on average 10% of energy is transferred and assimilated from one trophic
level to the next in a food chain.
Know the terms primary productivity and secondary productivity.
Know how dissolved oxygen in water is an indication of primary productivity in an
aquatic ecosystem.
03A Sexual Reproduction
Know that energy is required for movement of chromosomes during mitosis and meiosis.
Know that females have increased energy requirements when reproducing.

04A Origin of Different Species

Know that energy efficiency is a key selecting factor for selection of characteristics and
the ultimate survival of an individual.
04B Plant, Animal and Fungal Evolution
Know that organisms with adaptations are specialized for efficiency.
Know that ATP energy is coupled with reactions that are necessary for specialized
adaptations and process.
Know that maintaining order and structure associated with specialized adaptations goes
against the trend for increasing entropy in the universe, and that energy is expended to
maintain order.

AP Lab 4 Osmosis and Diffusion

AP Lab Manual p S51

Diffusion is the process through which materials move through membranes and throughout the
cytoplasm without the expenditure of energy. The plasma membrane and organelle membranes
are selectively permeable, limiting the movement of materials through them. Phospholipids fatty
acids of the plasma membrane with their hydrophobic characteristics limit the movement of
polar substances such as water. Aquaporins (specialized protein channels for the movement of
water) increase the rate of osmosis, the diffusion of water. Other channel proteins facilitate the
movement of other materials such as ions while transport proteins facilitate the movement of
larger molecules (e.g., carbohydrates)
In diffusion, solutes move from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.
Water also moves down its concentration gradient. Water moves from areas of high potential
(high free water concentration) and low solute concentration to areas of low potential (low free
water concentration) and high solute concentration. Solutes decrease the concentration of free
water because water molecules surround the solute molecules.
The following terms are used to describe solutions separated by selectively permeable membranes:

Hypertonic higher solute concentration (and lower water potential) compared to the
other solution. Water will move into this solution.
Hypotonic lower solute concentration (and high water potential) compared to the other
solution. Water will move to the other solution.
Isotonic identical solute concentration (and water potential) compared to the other
solution

In cells that have a cell wall (e.g., fungal and plant cells), water movement is affected by solute
concentration and turgor pressure. Turgor pressure is a resistance to water movement that
builds up as water moves into the cell and pushes the cell membrane against the cell wall. In this
case the cell wall prevents the cell from bursting.
Water Potential () can be calculated to predict the movement of water into and through plant
tissues such as roots, shoots and leaves. Water potential is the free energy per mole of water.
Water moves from an area of higher water potential (higher free energy) to an area of lower
water potential (lower free energy). Water potential can be used as a measure of the tendency of
water to diffuse from one compartment to another.
There are two major components in the calculation of water potential:

solute potential (S) or osmotic potential - dependent on solute concentration.

pressure potential (P)- results from the exertion of pressure either positive or
negative (tension) on a solution.

The Formula for Water Potential

= P + S
Water Potential = Pressure Potential + Solute Potential

The water potential of pure water in an open beaker is zero ( = 0) because both the
solute and pressure potentials are zero (S = 0; P = 0).

An increase in positive pressure raises the pressure potential and the water potential.

The addition of solute to the water lowers the solute potential and decreases the water
potential. This means that a solution at atmospheric pressure has a negative water
potential due to the solute potential.
The solute potential (S) = iCRT,
where i is the ionization constant,
C is the molar concentration,
R is the pressure constant (R = 0.0831 liter bars/mole-K),
T is the temperature in K (273 + C).

Comparing solutions with similar concentration but with different ionization constants.
1) What is the water potential of the following solutions?
a. A 0.15 M solution of sucrose at atmospheric pressure in an open container (P =
0) and 25C . Sucrose does not ionize (i = 1)
= P + S
= 0+ S
(S) = iCRT
= - 1(0.15mole/L)( 0.0831 liter bars/mole-K)(298K)
= - 3.7 bars
(1 bar is a metric measure of pressure equal to 1 atmosphere at sea level)

2) A 0.15 M NaCl solution at atmospheric pressure in an open container (P = 0) and 25C .

NaCl contains 2 ions, Na+ and Cl-; therefore i = 2
= P + S
= 0+ S
= 0 + ( iCRT)
= 0 + (- 2(0.15mole/L)( 0.0831 liter bars/mole-K)(298K))
= - 7.4 bars
When Cells have Walls
When a cells cytoplasm is separated from pure water by a selectively permeable membrane,
water moves from the surrounding area, where the water potential is higher ( = 0), into the cell,
where water potential is lower because of solutes in the cytoplasm ( is negative).
The movement of water into the cell causes the cell to swell, and the cell membrane pushes
against the cell wall. Turgor Pressure increases in the cell counteracting the diffusion of water
into the cell. Eventually, because of increased turgor pressure, the water potential of the cell
equals the water potential of the pure water outside the cell ( of cell = of pure water = 0). At
this point, a dynamic equilibrium is reached and net water movement ceases
When Solute is Added Outside the Cell
When solute is added to the water surrounding the plant cell, the water potential of this solution
decreases. If enough solute is added, the water potential outside the cell will equal the water
potential inside the cell, and there will be no net movement of water. This does not mean that the
solute concentrations inside and outside the cell are not equal. Remember, the water potential
inside the cell results from the combination of both the turgor pressure (P) and the solute
pressure (S).
If additional solute is added to the water surrounding the cell the water potential of this solution
will continue to decrease and water will leave the cell (toward the lower water potential). The
water loss causes the cell to lose turgor and may cause the cell membrane to shrink away from
the cell wall. This is known as plasmolysis.
This Set of Laboratory Investigations consists of three parts
1) Using artificial cells to study the relationship of surface area and volume
2) Create models of living cells to explore osmosis and diffusion
3) Observe osmosis in living cells.

Terms

Kinetic energy - the energy of motion of a body

Potential energy - the energy of a body or system as a result of its position
Osmosis - diffusion of water through a semipermeable membrane from a solution with a
low solute concentration to a solution with a higher solute concentration
Gradients - a series of progressively increasing or decreasing differences
Diffusion - intermingling of the particles of two or more substances as a result of random
thermal motion
Convolutions - a form or part that is folded or coiled.

Procedure 1: Surface Area and Cell Size

In this procedure you measure the surface area of drawn cubes of different sizes and calculate the
surface area to volume ratio of the three different sized cubes.
The following formulas are available from the AP formula sheet to use for calculating these
ratios:

These formulas can be

used for creating
solutions for this lab.

With these calculations and your understanding of diffusion and osmosis you predicted the
relative rate of diffusion in each of the different sized cubes.
Using different sized cubes made with 2% agar, 0.1 M NaOH, and the pH indicator dye
phenolphthalein you were able to observe the relative rates of diffusion in the different sized
cubes. Each cube was placed in a 0.1 M HCl solution. As the HCl diffused into the cube the
pink cube would turn colorless.
You reflected upon the relationship of cell size and shape as important factors determining the
rate of diffusion. In particular you reviewed cells with specialized functions such as epithelial
cells that line the small intestine and plant root hairs.
Small cells have a greater surface area to volume ratio than do larger cells. This allows the small
cells to more efficiently move material in and out of the cytoplasm and maintain homeostasis.
Similarly, cells with convolutions have a greater efficiency than do cells without convolutions.
This is important in the nutrient procurement of epithelial cells that line the small intestine and
plant root hairs.

Procedure 2: Modeling Diffusion and Osmosis

In this experiment, you created models of living cells using dialysis tubing. Dialysis tubing is
made from a material that is selectively permeable to water and some solutes. You filled the
model cells with different solutions and determine the rate of diffusion. Rate of diffusion and
direction of diffusion was determined by weighing the model cells before and after placing each
cell into a beaker filled with one of a variety of solutions. Percent change was then determined
The solutions that you placed in the model cell or the beaker were:
o
o
o
o
o

1 M Sucrose (a disaccharide)
Water
1 M NaCl
1 M Glucose (a monosaccharide)
5% Ovalbumin (a polypeptide)

Factors that affected diffusion include: disaccharides and polypeptides are too large to fit
through the pores in the dialysis tubing. Monosaccharaides can fit through the pores within the
dialysis tubing as can NaCl and water. NaCl ionizes and therefore has an ionization constant of 2
while glucose does not and has an ionization constant of 1.

Procedure 3: Observing Osmosis in Living Cells

In this exercise you observed red onion cells, an aquatic plant (Elodea) or a moss plant (Mnium
hornum) under the light microscope. You then placed a solution from the previous procedure on
the cells to observe osmosis. You observed the following:

Cell Wall

Hypertonic Solution
Isotonic Solution

Cell Membrane

If you applied saltwater to the roots of a plant, water would diffuse out of the root cells to the
area with lower water potential. In order for a plant to control turgor pressure it must regulate the
flow of solute particles or ions across its cell membrane.
In order to determine the water potential of plant cells you placed pieces of potato cut with a cork
borer into known sucrose solutions with varying concentration. You measured the percent
change in mass of the potatoes and by graphing the data determined the solute concentration of
the potato cells.
Percent Change in Mass of Potato Cores in Sucrose
Solutions

Using this value and the following formula (22oC)

(S) = iCRT
= 1(0.32)(0.0831 liter bar/mole K)(295K)
= -7.8 bars
You calculate the solute potential. With the solute potential calculated and knowing that the
pressure potential is zero you can determine the water potential of the potato cells
= P + S
= 0+ S
Additionally, you can determine the concentration of unknown sucrose solutions. In order to do
this place the unknown solution in cells (bags) made from dialysis tubing. Weigh each bag and
place each cell in beakers with different but known sucrose concentrations. Following thirty
minutes the percent change in mass can be determined. Graphing the percent change in each
solution can facilitate determining the isotonic concentration (where there is no percent change
in mass)

AP Lab 5 Photosynthesis
Rate of photosynthesis can be determined by measuring the

amount of carbon dioxide consumed over time.

number of redox reactions over time.

amount of oxygen produced over time.

Note Rate of photosynthesis can also be determined by measuring sugar (starch)
production over time.

Detection of CO2 Consumption

With a water plant or algae, as carbon dioxide is consumed
in the dark reaction of photosynthesis, bromthymol blue
will change from yellow to green.

Bromthymol Blue
Yellow Green Blue
(pH 6)

(pH 7.5)

When CO2 is dissolved in water, it forms H2CO3 (carbonic acid) and causes the pH of the
solution to drop. As CO2 is removed from the water, the pH of the solution increases.

When CO2 is removed from a solution containing bromthymol blue, it changes from
yellow to green, and the color change may be qualitatively observed or quantitatively
measured using a spectrophotometer.
Spectrophotometer: Wavelength Yellow Absorption will Increase / Transmission will
Decrease

Detection of Redox Reactions

When chloroplasts are placed in a sucrose solution with the
indicator DPIP (dichlorophenol-indolphenol), the indicator
will change from blue to colorless when it is reduced in
the light reactions of photosynthesis.

DPIP
Blue

Colorless

Reduction
(gains electrons)

This color change may be qualitatively observed or quantitatively measured using a

spectrophotometer.
Spectrophotometer: Wavelength Green (any wavelength except blue) Absorption will
Decrease / Transmission will Increase

Detection of O2 Production
Oxygen can directly be observed by counting bubbles or
collecting gas in an inverted tube. If the tube is graduated,
quantitative data can be obtained.
As well, if leaf disks are infiltrated with carbonated fluid will
rise as oxygen is produced and the air spaces within the leaf fill
up oxygen gas.

Leaf disks are made by using a hole

punch.

Leaf discs are infiltrated using a

vacuum created inside a syringe.

The solution used for infiltrating

discs consists of water, baking soda
(sodium bicarbonate forms CO2),
and dish soap (surfactant).

Determining the Rate of Photosynthesis

Negative Control Cup containing baking soda solution and10 infiltrated paper discs.
Experimental Cup containing baking soda solution and 10 infiltrated leaf discs.

Procedure

Set the cups in the light behind a heat sink.

Start timing and record the number of leaf disks

floating after every minute.

Continue timing and recording until 50% of the

discs in the experimental set up are floating (ET50)

Results
Negative Control

No Photosynthesis None Float

Experimental

Photosynthesis Occurs Discs Float

ET50 = Time for 50% of Discs to Float

Repeat the procedure multiple times and calculate average data.

Calculate 1/ET50 value based on multiple trials this is equivalent to the rate of
photosynthesis. The 1/ET50 value is used because as the rate of photosynthesis increases,
the time for disks to rise decreases. It is an inverse relationship.

Further Investigation
Design an experiment to test the effect of a variable such
as pH, light intensity, temperature, or level of CO2 on the
rate of photosynthesis.

Plot Time (min) vs.1/ET50 for each different level of

the variable tested to determine the effect of the
variable on photosynthetic rate.
Light Intensity (lux)

AP Lab 6 Cellular Respiration

AP Lab Manual - p S71-S73

Rate of cellular respiration can be determined by measuring the .

amount of carbon dioxide produced over time.

amount of oxygen consumed over time.

Note Rate of respiration can also be determined by measuring heat production or redox
reaction over time.

Detection of CO2 Production

When an aquatic animal produces carbon dioxide,
bromthymol blue in the solution around it will change
from blue to yellow.

Bromthymol Blue
Blue Green Yellow
(pH 7.5)

(pH 6)

When CO2 is dissolved in water, it forms H2CO3 (carbonic acid) and causes the pH of the
solution to drop.

As CO2 is added to a solution containing bromthymol blue, it will change from blue to
yellow, and the color change may be qualitatively observed or quantitatively measured
using a spectrophotometer.
Spectrophotometer: Wavelength Blue Absorption will Increase / Transmission will
Decrease

Detection of O2 Consumption
A respirometer allows O2 consumption to be monitored. As O2 is consumed water or a soap
bubble will move down the pipette leading toward the chamber of the respirometer. The amount
of movement represents the amount of O2 (mL) consumed by the organism in the chamber since
all CO2 in the chamber is removed by KOH in the cotton in the bottom of the respirometer.

Respirometer measures
O2 consumption and can
only be used in respiration
experiments.

Experimental Design
Controls
Experimental Set-up

Control Set-up

Both set-ups must be in the same size tubes.

Both set-ups must have the same amounts of absorbent and non-absorbent cotton.

Both set-ups must have the same amount of KOH.

Both set-ups must have the same volume of gas. Therefore, the volume of peas and beads
must be the same. The number of beads does not matter, but the volume of the beads
must match the volume of the seeds.

Pea seeds do NOT carry out photosynthesis. They consist of an embryonic plant that only
respires along with the cotyledon (2n) that serves as a food source. The embryo and
cotyledon are surrounded by the testa (seed coat).

Corrected Data
A negative control should not
show any change and it is
known that glass beads do not
respire.
If the volume in negative
control does change, the data
values must be changed to
reflect a situation where there
is no change in the control.

Pressure Changes
due to Temperature
Fluctuation
P = Pressure
V = Volume

n = number of moles of gas

R = gas constant
T = temperature

As the temperature increases, the pressure and/or volume of the gas increases.

Question Is there a statistically significant difference in respiration rates of germinating

and non-germinating and non-germinating pea seeds?
Three respirometers will be used to accomplish to accomplish this goal.

7. Let the respirometers equilibrate for 10 minutes before submerging under water. This allows
time for the CO2 to be removed from the respirometers and for the respirometers to adjust to the
temperature of the water bath.

Measurement of Oxygen Consumption

Since the control may change in volume due to temperature fluctuations and pressure
changes, the experimental data must be corrected (corrected difference).
Negative
Control

Germinating Peas (Wet)

Temp
o
C

Time
(min)

Reading
at time
X

25

Initial0

14.4

25

0 to 5

14.1

0.3

13

0.9

0.6

25

5 to
10

14.0

0.4

11.1

2.8

25

10 to
15

13.9

0.5

10.3

25

15 to
20

13.9

0.5

8.8

Diff.

Reading
at time
X

Diff.

Corrected
Diff.

Non-germinating Peas (Dry)

Reading
at time
X

Diff.

Corrected
Diff.

14.1

0.1

-0.2

2.4

13.9

0.3

-0.1

3.6

3.1

13.7

0.5

0.0

5.1

4.6

13.5

0.7

0.2

13.9

14.2

Collect the standardized data (corrected differences) from the multiple trials carried out by all the
lab groups in your class and calculate the average data.
Non-Germinating Peas Average Data from Multiple Trials
Time
(min)

Group
1

Group
2

Group
3

Group
4

Group
5

Group
6

Group
7

Group
8

0.01

0.01

0.01

0.04

0.03

0.00

0.01

0.00

Average
Data
(Mean)
0.014

0.01

0.02

0.02

0.01

0.04

0.01

0.025

0.00

0.017

0.02

0.03

0.04

0.01

0.05

0.02

0.04

0.00

0.020

0.03

0.03

0.05

0.00

0.06

0.02

0.05

0.01

0.031

10

15

20

Germinating Peas Average Data from Multiple Trials

Time
(min)

Group
1

Group
2

Group
3

Group
4

Group
5

Group
6

Group
7

Group
8

0.02

0.06

0.08

0.09

0.05

0.09

0.04

0.05

Average
Data
(Mean)
0.060

0.06

0.12

0.14

0.06

0.10

0.18

0.075

0.09

0.103

0.09

0.19

0.23

0.07

0.15

0.27

0.11

0.13

0.155

0.13

0.25

0.24

0.07

0.19

0.38

0.135

0.17

0.196

10

15

20

Use the data collected from multiple trials to create a graph with standard error bars.

Plot Mean Values

Use Mean to Calculate Standard Deviation
Use Standard Deviation to Calculate Standard Error
Use Standard Error to Determine Standard Error Bars
Calculate the Slope of Each Line (Best Fit) to Determine Respiration Rate

Use a t-test to determine if there is a statistically significant difference between the rate of
respiration in germinating and non-germinating pea seeds.

Average Oxygen
Consumption (mL)

Pea Seed Respiration

0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15

Germinating Peas

0.1
0.05
0

Non-germinating
Peas

-0.05 0
-0.1

10

15

Time (min)

20

25

Inferences
Imagine that you are given 25 germinating pea seeds that have been placed in
boiling water for five minutes. You place these seeds in a respirometer and
collect data. Predict the rate of oxygen consumption (cellular respiration) for
these seeds and explain your reasons.
Enzymes necessary for respiration will denature at high temperatures and most likely will not
renature correctly when cooled. As a result, boiled peas are not expected to respire.

Rare

Imagine that you are asked to measure the rate of respiration for a 25g reptile
and a 25g mammal at 10oC. Predict how the results would compare and
justify your prediction.

Reptiles are cold blooded animals (ectotherms or poikilotherms) and mammals are warm
blooded animals (endotherms). The respiratory rate within the cells of the reptile will
occur more slowly than the respiratory rate of the cells within the mammal when the
environmental temperature is 10oC.

Warm blooded animals maintain a relatively constant internal body temperature and
convert ATP energy produced during respiration into body heat. As well, they have
adaptations such as fur or hair to slow the loss of body heat. As a result, warm blooded
animals carry out respiration within their cells at a relatively constant rate.

Cold blooded animals do not maintain a constant internal body temperature. As the
environment cools, their body temperature drops and the rate of respiration within their
cells slows down significantly. Cold blooded organisms may change their behavior to
adjust their body temperature and often sit in the sun to warm up on cold days.

What difficulties would there be if you used a living green plant in this
investigation instead of germinating seeds?
Leaves of plants carryout photosynthesis and produce oxygen gas. This oxygen gas is
directly used in respiration within leaf cells.
As a result of oxygen production within leaf cells, the decrease in the oxygen level within the
respirometer would be lower than the actual amount of oxygen used in respiration.
Note Some oxygen would be consumed because not all plant tissues are photosynthetic.
Roots, non-green stems, and flowers do not carry out photosynthesis. As well, the cotyledons
(seed leaves) inside of seeds do not carry out photosynthesis.
Note Even though carbon dioxide is removed from the respirometer by KOH, the light
reactions of photosynthesis that produce oxygen by lysing water molecules most likely will
continue during the duration of the experiment. As well, stored carbon dioxide within the leaf
can be used to keep the dark reactions operational for a short period of time.

Further Investigation
Design an experiment to test the effect of a variable such as pH, light intensity, temperature,
or level of CO2 on the rate of respiration.
Compare the photosynthetic rates of seeds from different species of plants.
Compare the photosynthetic rates of different species of insects.