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Eindhoven University of Technology, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
Energy Research Centre of the Netherlands ECN, P.O. Box 1, 1755 ZG Petten, The Netherlands
c
Shell Solar Energy B.V, P.O. Box 849, 5700 AV Helmond, The Netherlands
Accepted 6 March 2003
Abstract
Various concepts of combined PV-thermal collectors are possible. These concepts differ in their approach to obtain the
maximum yield and it is not easy to say whether the yield of a complicated design will be substantially higher than the yield
of a simpler one. In order to obtain a clearer view on the expected yield of the various concepts, nine different designs were
evaluated. The channel-below-transparent-PV design gives the best efficiency, but since the annual efficiency of the
PV-on-sheet-and-tube design in a solar heating system was only 2% worse while it is easier to manufacture, this design was
considered to be a good alternative.
2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
A combined PV-thermal collector, henceforth to be
called a PVT-collector, consists of a PV-laminate that
functions as the absorber of a thermal collector. In this way
a device is created that converts solar energy into both
electrical and thermal energy. The main advantages of a
PVT-collector are as follows.
1. An area covered with PVT-collectors produces more
electrical and thermal energy than a corresponding area
partially covered with conventional PV systems and
partially covered with conventional thermal collectors.
This is particularly useful when the amount of space on
a roof is limited, which will become increasingly
important in the future.
2. PVT-collectors provide architectural uniformity on a
roof, in contrast to a combination of separate PV- and
thermal-systems.
3. Due to the fact that only one type of system has to be
installed instead of two, a reduction of installation costs
is possible.
In contrast to the situation for conventional thermal
*Corresponding author. Tel.: 131-224-564941; fax: 131-224568966.
E-mail address: h.a.zondag@wtb.tue.nl (H.A. Zondag).
0038-092X / 03 / $ see front matter 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016 / S0038-092X(03)00121-X
254
Nomenclature
A
c
D
DAB
F
g
G
h
hAB
I
H
K
k
Lc
~
m
Nu
n
Pr
q
Q latent
R
Ra
Re
Sh
Sc
T
T red
v
Uloss
V
W
X
b
d
h
h0
u
n
ta
tPV
f
Subscripts
a
abs
ba
ca
conv
crit
el
evap
g
in
mpp
rad
th
topglass
topglass
vap
ambient
absorber
from back to ambient
from cells to absorber
convection
critical
electrical
evaporation
glass
inflow
maximum power point
radiation
thermal
upper surface topglass
lower surface topglass
vapour
255
2.1. Introduction
Nine design concepts for water-type PVT-collectors are
evaluated here, which can be classified in four groups. An
example of each group is given in Fig. 1.
A. Sheet-and-tube PVT-collectors.
B. Channel PVT-collectors.
C. Free flow PVT-collectors.
D. Two-absorber PVT-collectors.
Fig. 1. Various collector concepts: (A) sheet-and-tube PVT, (B) channel PVT, (C) free flow PVT, (D) two-absorber PVT (insulated type).
256
3. Optical efficiency
In order to determine the thermal efficiency of the
PVT-collector, two models are required. Whereas a thermal
model is required to determine the heat flows within the
PVT-collector, an optical model is required to determine
how much irradiation is absorbed by the PVT-collector.
The optical model is used to calculate the transmission
absorption factor of the PVT-collector ta , and this value is
then inserted as a constant into the thermal model.
The optical model presently used is based on the net
radiation method. This method solves the energy flux
balance at each interface in the PVT-collector configuration. As an example, the reflection at the glass cover is
given in Fig. 2. The energy flux equations for this example
are now presented by
qi,1 5 G
qo,1 5 R 1,2 qi,1 1s1 2 R 1,2d qi,2
qo,2 5s1 2 R 1,2d qi,1 1 R 1,2 qi,2
(1)
1
R 5 ]sR 1 R d
2
2
2
1 sin fui 2 ur g tan fui 2 ur g
5 ] ]]]]
1 ]]]]
2
2
2 sin fui 1 ur g tan fui 1 ur g
(2)
(3)
257
4. Thermal efficiency
The thermal model is steady-state, based on solving the
heat balance for all the layers in the PVT-collector. For
more information on the model, see Zondag et al. (2002).
The transmissionabsorption factor of the PVT-collector
was calculated with the optical model and the calculated
values are indicated in Table 1. The value of this parameter
is inserted into the corresponding thermal-yield model.
With respect to the effect of the electrical energy production, the electrical efficiency, which is a function of
temperature, is subtracted from the transmissionabsorption factor to find the amount of thermal energy that was
absorbed in the system, according to ta ,eff 5 hta 2 tPVhel j.
Table 1
Transmissionabsorption factors for the various design concepts (AM 1.5 spectrum)
Design concept
ta
ta ,water
tPV
0.78
0.74
0.71
0.62
0.74
0.55 first absorber
0.12 second absorber
0.62
0.52 first absorber
0.12 second absorber
0.52 first absorber
0.11 second absorber
0.16
0.10
1
0.92
0.84
0.87
0.92
0.92
0.17
0.16
0.88
0.87
0.87
258
(4)
VMPP IMPP
hel ; ]]]
GA
(5)
VMPP and IMPP represent the voltage and the current in the
maximum power point, A is the panel area, c is the heat
~ the mass flow
capacity of the collector medium (water), m
per square meter in kg / s / m 2 , G the irradiation in W/ m 2
and T in and T out are the inflow temperature and the outflow
temperature in 8C, respectively. The thermal efficiency is
conventionally shown as a function of reduced temperature, which is defined as
T in 2 T a
T red ; ]]
G
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
Table 2
Values of coefficients used in simulations
Collector length
Emissivity of glass
Emissivity of PV
Heat capacity of water
Heat conduction through air
Heat conduction through glass
Heat conduction through water
Heat transfer to water for channel
Heat transfer to absorber for sheetand-tube
Heat transfer through back of the
collector
Thickness of cover glass
Thickness of PV glass
Tube diameter
Tube spacing
Width of air layer
Width of water channel
Lc
g
PV
c
k air
k glass
k water
h abstowater
h ca
1.776
0.9
0.9
4200
0.025
0.9
0.6
650
500
J / kg K
W/ m K
W/ m K
W/ m K
W/ m 2 K
W/ m 2 K
h back
W/ m 2 K
dtopglass
dPVglass
D
W
H
dwater
3.2
3.0
0.01
0.095
0.02
5
mm
mm
m
m
m
mm
259
Fig. 4. The heat flows in the sheet-and-tube PVT-panel, together with the temperature distribution according to the HottelWhillier
equations.
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
sta 2 tPVheldG
T abssxd 5 T a 1 ]]]]
Uloss
T bond 2 T a 2sta 2 tPVheldG /Uloss
1 cosh smxd]]]]]]]]]
cosh f msW 2 Dd / 2 g
(16a)
with
5 3 10 24 1 3 10 24 5 3 10 25
5 ]]] 1 ]]] 1 ]]]
0.35
0.2
0.85
W
5 500 ]]2
Km
(16b)
(17)
]]]
m ;Uloss /kdabs
21
(18)
(19)
260
Fig. 5. The heat flows in the PVT-panel with the channel above the PV.
(20)
qPVglass 5 qwater,in
(21)
(22)
qwater,out 5 qtopglass1
(23)
(24)
(27)
(28)
qPVglass2 5 qwater,in
(29)
(30)
(31)
(25)
(32)
(26)
(33)
(34)
261
Fig. 6. The heat flows in the PVT-panel with the channel below the PV.
(35)
qPVglass 5 qwater,in
(36)
(38)
(39)
262
(40)
(41)
(42)
(43)
(44)
qwater1,in 5 qPVglass1
(45)
(46)
qwater1,out 5 qtopglass1
(47)
(48)
(49)
(50)
(51)
ta 2 G 1 qwater2out 5 qback
(52)
qPVglass2 5 2 qwater2,in
(53)
263
Fig. 9. Thermal efficiency for the case with production of electricity of the various PVT-panels.
Fig. 10. Electrical efficiency of the various PVT-panels. The lines for the electrical efficiency of the channel beneath opaque and transparent
PV coincide in the figure.
264
Table 3
Ambient conditions used in simulations
Ambient temperature
Irradiance
Wind speed
Mass flow
Sky temperature (clear sky)
Collector angle
T amb
G
vwind
~
m
T sky
w
20 8C
800 W/ m 2
1 m/s
76 kg / m 2 h
4 8C
458
5. Results
Table 4
Thermal efficiency at zero reduced temperature with simultaneous production of electricity and corresponding electrical efficiency at zero
reduced temperature for various PVT-collector design concepts
Panel type
Thermal
efficiency
Electrical
efficiency
PV laminate
Sheet and tube PVT-collector 0 cover
Sheet and tube PVT-collector 1 cover
Sheet and tube PVT-collector 2 covers
PVT-collector with channel above PV
PVT-collector with channel below opaque PV
PVT-collector with channel below transparent PV
Free flow PVT-collector
Two-absorber PVT-collector (insulated type)
Two-absorber PVT-collector (non-insulated type)
Thermal collector
0.52
0.58
0.58
0.65
0.60
0.63
0.64
0.66
0.65
0.83
0.097
0.097
0.089
0.081
0.084
0.090
0.090
0.086
0.085
0.084
265
Fig. 11. The test rig. Left to right: a conventional thermal collector, the PVT-collector and a conventional PV-laminate.
Fig. 12. Left, measured thermal efficiency (3) thermal collector, (s,1) PVT-collector either without or with electricity production. The
uncertainties (least square fits) in the measurements are presented by the bar lengths. Right, least squares fit of the measurements of the
thermal efficiency (solid) compared to the results obtained with the 2D model (dashed). Upper line, conventional thermal collector; middle
line, PVT-collector not producing electricity; lower line, PVT-collector producing electricity.
266
Table 5
ISSO warm water withdrawal schedule, (2) no withdrawal, (1) 175 / 8 l withdrawal
Hour
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
Tapping
respect to the thermal yield are the non-insulated twoabsorber design and the channel-below-transparent-PV
design. The lower electrical efficiency of the first four
designs makes the channel-below-transparent-PV design
the most attractive from the efficiency point of view.
However, the basic one-cover sheet-and-tube design performs only 2% worse while it is substantially easier to
manufacture, which seems to make it the most promising
scheme from a marketing point of view. The table also
shows that the free-flow panel performs much poorer than
the channel designs for the present configuration, although
it has roughly the same thermal efficiency as the channel
designs at zero reduced temperature. This is due to the
large thermal loss at higher temperatures due to evaporation.
The presented thermal efficiencies show a substantial
reduction when compared to the thermal efficiency at zero
reduced temperature. In order to understand this reduction,
the efficiency was simulated again in which the loss
mechanisms were removed one by one. The results are
summarised in Table 7. With respect to the thermal losses,
the largest loss is due to the reduced efficiency of the
PVT-collector at higher reduced temperatures. However,
the tubing heat loss also gives a substantial contribution of
5%. Small losses result from the vessel heat loss and the
increased reflection losses due to oblique radiation.
With respect to the calculation of the electrical yield, a
similar procedure can be followed. The results are indicated in Table 8. The largest losses are those due to
inverter losses (0.9%) and top cover reflection (0.8%).
This again underscores the importance of the glass cover in
reducing the PV-efficiency. The next largest losses are
Table 6
Annual average efficiencies for the presented PVT-collector design concepts
System
Annual
thermal
efficiency
Annual
electrical
efficiency
PV
Sheet and tube PVT-collector uncovered
Sheet and tube PVT-collector 1 cover
Sheet and tube PVT-collector 2 covers
PVT-collector with channel above PV
PVT-collector with channel below opaque PV
PVT-collector with channel below transparent PV
Free flow PVT-collector
Two-absorber PVT-collector (insulated type)
Two-absorber PVT-collector (non-insulated type)
Thermal collector
0.24
0.35
0.38
0.38
0.35
0.37
0.34
0.39
0.37
0.51
0.072
0.076
0.066
0.058
0.061
0.067
0.065
0.063
0.061
0.061
Thermal
efficiency
0.35
0.37
0.38
0.43
0.58
6. Concluding discussion
267
Electrical
efficiency
0.066
0.068
0.074
0.078
0.087
0.089
0.097
~ sT out 2 T ind
qwater 5 mc
(A.1)
4
qsky,rad 5 Fsky g ssT topglass
2 T 4skyd
(A.2)
(A.3)
(A.4)
g pv
4
4
qair,rad 5 ]]]]ssT PVglass
2 T topglass
d
g 1 pv 2 g pv
(A.5)
(A.6)
1708
1 2 ]]]
Ra cos w
G FS
Ra cos w
]]]
5830
0.333
21
(A.7)
(A.8)
268
Table B.1
Temperature dependency of properties in the airwater vapour mixture
Property of saturated mixture
k glass
qPVglass 5 ]]sT cell 2 T PVglassd
dPVglass
k glass
qtopglass 5 ]]sT topglass 2 T topglassd
dtopglass
(A.9)
(A.10)
(B.1)
(B.2)
(B.3)
(B.4)
S D
Sc
Sh Nu ]
Pr
1/3
(B.5)
n
Sc ; ]
DAB
n
Pr ; ]
a
(B.6)
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