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1.2.2 Governing Equations
Conservation of mass
Rate of increase of mass in fluid element equals the net rate of mass flow into
the element.
Conservation of momentum
Momentum is conserved in x , y , z direction & from the Newtons second
law( F=ma) the momentum equations in all three direction is derived as,
Conserved in X direction
Conserved in Y direction
Conserved in Z direction
o CFD allows great control over the physical process, and provides the
ability to isolate specific phenomena for study.
o Example: a heat transfer process can be idealized with adiabatic,
constant heat flux, or constant temperature boundaries.
Comprehensive Information
o Experiments only permit data to be extracted at limited number
locations In the system (e.g. pressure and temperature probes, heat
flux gauges, etc).
o CFD allows the analyst to examine a large number of locations in the
region of interest, and yields a comprehensive set of flow parameters
for examination.
Applications of Cfd
.
be meshed only through an oracle able to tell whether a given segment, line or
ray intersects the surface or not and to compute an intersection point if any. This
feature makes the package generic enough to be applied in a wide variety of
situations. For instance, it can be used to mesh implicit surfaces described as the
zero level set of some function. It may also be used in the field of medical
imaging to mesh surfaces described as a gray level set in a three dimensional
image.
The meshing algorithm is based on the notion of the restricted Delaunay
triangulation. Basically the algorithm computes a set of sample points on the
surface, and extract an interpolating surface mesh from the three dimensional
triangulation of these sample points. Points are iteratively added to the sample,
as in a Delaunay refinement process, until some size and shape criteria on mesh
elements are satisfied. The size and shape criteria guide the behavior of the
refinement process and control its termination. They also condition the size and
shape of the elements in the final mesh. Naturally, those criteria can be
customized to satisfy the user needs
The Surface mesh generation package offers a set of standard criteria that can be
scaled through three numerical values. Also the user can also plug in its own set
of refinement criteria. There is no restriction on the topology and number of
components of the surface provided that the oracle (or the user) is able to
provide one initial sample point on each connected component. If the surface is
smooth enough, and if the size criteria are small enough, the algorithm
guarantees that the output mesh is homomorphism to the surface, and is within a
small bounded distance \(Hausdorff or even Frechet distance) from the surface .
The algorithm can also be used for no smooth surfaces but then there is no
guarantee.
Where,
= angle for an equiangular face or cell (e.g., 60 for a triangle and 90 for a
square)
Equivolume skew
It is a non dimensional parameter calculated using the volume deviation
method, and is defined as,
Where optimal-cell-size is the size of an equilateral cell with the same circum
radius. A value of 0 indicates a best case equilateral cell and a value of 1
indicates a completely degenerate cell. Degenerate cells (slivers) are
characterized by nodes that are nearly coplanar (collinear in 2D). Cell
Equivolume Skew applies only to triangular and tetrahedral elements.
Aspect ratio
Aspect ratio is a measure of the stretching of a cell. It is computed as the ratio of
the maximum value to the minimum value of any of the following distances: the
distances between the cell centroid and face centroids, or the distances between
the cell centroid and nodes.
In this process the cad model is imported to the Cfd modeling tool and the
geometry is simplified by removing the extra parts from the base model .Fluid
domain extraction and the grid generation are the major part of a preprocessing
work with good mesh quality.
When the flow is symmetrical about some plane there is no flow through the
boundary and the derivatives of the variables normal to the boundary are zero.
Cyclic or Periodic Boundaries
These boundaries come in pairs and are used to specify the flow has the same
values of the variables at equivalent position and both of the boundaries.
Pressure Boundary Conditions
The ability to specify a pressure condition at one or more boundaries of a
computational region is an important and useful computational tool. Pressure
boundaries represent such things as confined reservoirs of fluid, ambient
laboratory conditions and applied pressures arising from mechanical devices.
Generally, pressure condition cannot be used at boundary where velocities are
also specified, because velocities are influenced by pressure gradients. The only
exception is when pressures are necessary to specify the fluid properties. E.g.,
density crossing a boundary conditions, referred to as static or stagnation
pressure conditions. In a static condition the pressure is more or less continuous
across the boundary and the velocity at the boundary is assigned a value based
on a zero normal-derivative condition across the boundary.
In contrast, a stagnation pressure condition assumes stagnation conditions
outside the boundary so that the velocity at the boundary is zero. Since the static
pressure condition says nothing about fluid outside the boundary (i.e., other than
it is supposed to be the same as the velocity inside the boundary) it is less
specific than the stagnation pressure condition. In this sense the stagnation
pressure condition is generally more physical and is recommended for most
applications.
In many simulations there is need to have fluid flow out of one or more
boundaries of the computational region. In compressible flow, when the flow
speed at the outflow boundary is supersonic, it makes little difference how the
boundary conditions are specified since flow disturbances cannot propagate
upstream. In low speed and incompressible flows, however, disturbances
introduced at an outflow boundary can have an effect on the entire
computational region. The simplest and most commonly used outflow condition
is that of continuative boundary.
Continuative boundary conditions consist of zero normal derivates at the
boundary for all quantities. The zero-derivative condition is intended to
represent a smooth continuation of the flow through the boundary. As a general
rule, a physically meaningful boundary condition. Such as a specified pressure
condition, should be used at out flow boundaries, whenever possible. When a
continuative condition is used it should be placed as far from the main flow
region as is practical so that any influence on the main flow will be minimal.
Opening Boundary Condition
If the fluid flow crosses the boundary surface in either direction an opening
boundary conditions needs to be utilized. All of the fluid might flow out of the
domain, or into the domain, or a combination of the two might happen.
1.6 Turbulence model:
Turbulence modeling is a key function for most of the CFD simulations.
Virtually all engineering applications are turbulent and hence require a
turbulence model because we cannot afford big enough computers to directly
capture every scale of motion. Also, users of CFD typically want a steady-state
solution (with all the unsteady fluctuations averaged out) rather than a detailed
time-accurate one that captures every little vortex. As a result, there are
unsteady (turbulent) motions affecting the flow that cannot be resolved directly;
they must therefore be modeled.
In some cases, the turbulence model you use can have a huge effect on the
results you obtain from CFD. This kind of disparity is largely due to the fact
that no model is right all the time; they all have their limitations. Because of
this, there are dozens (if not hundreds) of variations available, and more are
being developed all the time.
1.6.1 Classes of turbulence models
Turbulence models are generally classified according to which governing
equations they apply to (e.g. Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes or Large Eddy
Simulation equations). Within these broader categories, they are further broken
down by the number of additional transport equations which one must solve in
order to compute the model contributions.
1.6.2 RANS-based turbulence models
The objective of the turbulence models for the RANS equations is to compute
the stresses, and also these are the models that will be used for most production
applications. Reynolds Averaging
The rationale for Reynolds averaging is that we are not interested in the part of
ow solution that can be described as turbulent uctuations: instead, it is the
mean velocity, pressure, lift, drag) that is of interest. Looking at turbulent ow,
it may be steady in the mean in spite of turbulent uctuations. If this is so, and
we manage to derive the equations for the mean properties directly, we may
reduce the cost by orders of magnitude:
o It is no longer necessary to perform transient simulation and assemble
the averages: we are solving for average properties directly
cad model
1.base model
height=3.8 m
width= 5 m
length=5 m
pre-processing
1.base model
FLUENT CONDITIONS
Solver Settings
Table 5.1 Solver Settings
Processing
Solver
Serial
Dimension
3D
Problem Setup
Table 5.2 Problem Setup
Type
Fluid
Air
Materials
Solid
titanium
Properties
Unit
Density-1.225
Kg/M3
Cp -1006.43
J/Kg k
k-0.0242
W/Mk
Viscosity1.78e-5
Kg/Ms
Density-2719
Kg/M3
Cp-871
J/Kg k
k-202.4
W/Mk
Turbulence Modelling
Spallart-allamars
Energy Equation
On
Fluid-Air
Boundary Conditions
Table 5.3 Boundary Conditions
Fluid Flow
Inlet
Outlet
Pressure
far field
Mach no=0.75
Wall
No slip
condition
Wind tunnel
wall
capsule
Equation Solved
Table 5.4 Equation Solved
Thermal
Temperature245.5 K
Conservation of mass
Flow
Equation
solved
Conservation of momentum
Energy
Conservation of energy
Turbulence
Software Used
Table 5.5 Software Used
Pre-Processing
Ansa
Ansys-Tgrid
Volume Meshing
Ansys-Fluent
Ansys-Fluent
End results
Solver
Post-Processing
Domain Extraction
Geometry Cleanup
Surface Meshing
Surface Mesh
Cleanup
post -processing
1.base model for Ma=25
conclusion.
Thus, the space re -entry shuttle capsule is analysed for the mach
number(Ma=25). Thus, the post-processing results of the flow field
around the capsule when capsule attains Ma=25 is predicted. when
flow is above Ma=0.3, the flow nature changes to compressible flow,
so, the fluid experiences pressure change around the capsule results in
shock waves and also due to compressibility , the fluid density
changes. Due to high pressure and viscous force, it experiences the
high temperature distribution to the fluid and also to the capsule, due
to tangential shear forces of fluid .