THE SMALL INTESTINES

4-7 meters in length

3 segments
1. Duodenum
2. Jejunum
3. Ileum
Minor differences in the histology in the 3 segments
No distinct boundaries between them

FUNCTIONS:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Neutralization of acidic chime from stomach

Digestion- enzymatic and biliary digestion of fats, CHO, CHON
Absorption of nutrients
Immune surveillance (GALT)
Endocrine and exocrine function largely restricted to digestion

DUODENUM

25 cm in length
Firmly fixed to the dorsal wall of the abdomen
Retroperitoneal
Has C-shaped course around the head of the pancreas
Continuous at its distal end with the jejunum

JEJUNUM

Empty (Latin word)

Greater bulk of absoraption
Freely movable
Suspended by the mesentery from dorsal wall of the cavity and occupies the central region
Occupies the proximal 2/5 of the length of the small intestine

ILEUM

eileo ( Greek, to roll up or twist)

Occupies 3/5
Occupies the lower portion
No distinct boundaries
I.

Intestinal Mucosa
DUODENUM

Introduction

Most of general structure of the intestines is similar throughout.

Overall description for the duodenum is appropriate for the jejunum and ileum
Specific regional variations present will be described.
4 layers:
1. Mucosa
2. Submucosa
3. Muscular externa
4. Serosa

Mucosa

Shows efficiency absorptive function

Devices that increases the total surface area
Regular Simple Columnar Epithelium
Lumen is lined with short, uniformly sized villi, all quite regular in size and shape.

Plicae Circulares

Aka valves of Kerkring

Visible to the naked eye
Crescentic or spiral folds formed by the mucosa and submucosa
Permanent structures
Means for increasing surface area
8 to 10 mm in height, 3 to 4 mm thick, 5 cm in length
Absent from the first portion of the duodenum
Starts 5 cm distal to the pylorus
Most abundant in the terminal portion of the pylorus up to the first portion of the jejunum.
Gradually diminish in size and number
Seldom found beyond the middle of the ileum.

INTESTINAL VILLI
-

Second and more effective means in increasing the surface area.

Fingerlike projections of the mucosa.
0.5 to 1mm in length depending on the degree of distention.
Cover entire inner surface of the intestine.
Velvety appearance in a freshly opened organ.
Short and broad with blunt tops in the duodenum.
10 to 40mm2
Most numerous in duodenum and proximal jejunum.
Lay-out of a typical villus.
Core is a scaffold of loose connective tissue. (Collagen and Elastic fibers)
Capillaries thread their way among the connective tissue.

CRYPTS OF LEIBERKUHN
-

Invaginations of the Mucosa between the bases of the villi.

Also known as Intestinal glands but DO NOT secrete digestive enzymes or HCL.
Tubular Glands
320-450 um long.
Extends to the Muscularis Mucosa.
Lined with Low Columnar Epithelium.
Contains absorptive and goblet cells.
Numerous cellsin mitosis
Lamina Propria in between.

Mucosa
Absorption is enhanced by increasing surface area.( Plicae circulares- Intestinal villi)
Lined by Simple Columnar Epithelium
3 cell types:
1. Absorptive
2. Goblet
3. Enteroendocrine Cells
-

BRUSH BORDER
Also known as STRIATED BORDER

Refractile band along the free edge of the epithelial sheet.

Consists of Closely packed microvilli 3000 per cell ---Billions of Microvilli.

MICROVILLI
Results in 30 fold amplification of the surface area exposed to the Lumen.
Cannot be resolved individually.
Seen as a thin line or border.
<100 um long, 10 um in diameter.
Just barely visible in a good light microscope.
Apical membrane specializations of individual cells.
Cover the surface of the villi.

VILLI
Closely visible structures; easily seen by the naked eye.
Maybe several mm long.
3 cell types:
4. Absorptive
5. Goblet
6. Enteroendocrine Cells
1.) ENTEROCYTES

Aka Absorptive Cells.

20- 26 um in height with centrally located vertically elongated nucleus.
Major cell type of villi and intestinal glands.
Columnar cell, 0 to 26um in height with centrally located vertically elongated nucleus.
Life cycle: 3-7 days!
2.) GOBLET CELLS

Fine glass- shaped unicellular mucous glands scattered among absorptive cells.
Basal nucleolus with apicl mucous cap.
Scant microvilli at apex.
The apex has an expanded cup-shaped rim of cytoplasm called theca, filled with secretion
Shape known to be an artifact.
Columnar or ovoid as its true shape.
Secretory materials are large pale granules.
Well-developed cytoskeleton (aid in movement of mucin)
Secrete Acid glycoprotein that protects and lubricates the epithelia.
Found in both villi and intestinal glands.
Increase in number from the duodenum to ileum.
MUCIN

Viscid fluid or thin gel.

Consist of glycoprotein macromolecules.
20% peptides; 80% CHO
Released by COMPOUND EXOCYTOSIS.

Fusion of granule membranes resulting in chains of intercommunicating granules

opening at the cell surface.
Protects the epithelium from abrasion.
Prevents adherence and invasion by pathogenic bacteria.
Secretion is a one-shot event.
Cell releases its mucus and then dies and is replaced.
Do not secrete continuously.
3.) ENTERO ENDOCRINE CELLS

Discovered in 1870 by Heidenhain.

Small cells near the base of the intestinal epithelium.
Similar to those in the stomach, but producing different hormones.
Chromaffinity (-similar staining properties as the chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla)
Aka ENTEROCHROMAFFIN CELLS.
Precipitated silver salts in absence of reducing agent (Argentaffinity)
Aka ARGENTAFFIN CELLS.
If sections treated with reducing agent prior to exposure to silver nitrate, greater number
exposed
Aka ARGYROPHILIC CELLS
Not all are the same
> 15 different endocrine cells identified in the intestinal lumen
Granule are polarized away from the lumen of the crypt and towards the lamina propria
Do not secrete in the lumen
Like any self- respecting hormone producing cell, they discharge their secretions into the blood
flowing through capillaries in the lamina propria
Substances:
1. Serotonin (5-OH tryptamine)
2. Somatostatin
3. Neurotensin
4. Glucagon glicetin
5. Substance P
6. Cholecystokinin
7. GIP
8. Gastrin
9. Beta endorphin
10. Motolin
11.Secretin
12. Incretin??
EC cells (Serotonin)
Throughout intestinal tract
Most numerous
GLI cells (glucagons or
glicentin)

Distal ileum, colon rectum

D-cells (somatostatin)

Throughout intestinal tract

G-cells (gastrin)

Proximal duodenum

2nd largest

few

S- cells (Secretin)

Stimulates pancreas to secrete fluid with high

bicarbonate content

I cells (cholecystokinin)

Stimulates pancreatic secretion

Promotes gallbladder emptying

GIP, VIP somatostatin

Inhibit gastric secretion and motilty

G- cells ( Gastrin)

Gastric glands secrete HCL and digestive

enzymes

several peptide hormones are also localized in the CNS and pancreas!

INTESTINAL VILLI

2ND and more effective means in increasing the surface area

Finger like projectioins of the mucosa
0.5 to 1 mm in length depending on the degree of distension

cover entire inner surface of the intestine

Velvety appearance in the freshly opened organ
Short and broad with blunt tops in the duodenum
10-40 mm2
Most numerous in the duodenum and proximal jejunum
Layout of a typical villus
Core is a stratified of loose CT (collagen and elastic fibers)
Capillaries thread their way among the CT

II.

CRYPTS of LIBERKUHN

invaginations of the mucosa between the bases of the villi

aka: INTESTINAL GLANDS but DO NOT secrete digestive enzymes or HCL
Tubular glands
320 to 450 um long
Extend to the muscularis musoca
Lined by few columnar epithelium
Contains absorptive and goblet cells
Numerous cells in mitosis
Lamina propria in between.

BRUSH BORDER

aka: STRIATED BORDER

Refractile band along the free edge of the epithelial sheet
Consists of in reality closely packed microvilli ~ 3000 per cell
` billions of microvilli!

MICROVILLI

results in 30 fold amplification of the surface are exposed to the lumen!!

Cannot be resolved individually
Seen as a thin line or border
< 100 um long.
10 um diameter
Just barely visible in a good light microscope
Apical membrane specialization of individual cells
Cover the surface of the villi

VILLI

grossly visible structure; easily seen by the naked eye

maybe several mm long.
III.

Cell Turn over-

1.) PANETH CELLS

discovered by Josef Paneth (1857-1890), an Austrian physician

not a part of the enteroendocrine system
Do not release hormones into the blood
Found in the depths or base of the crypts
Clusters of 3-5 cells with coarse red-staining granules at the apical end
Contains eosinophilic granules in the basophilic cytoplasm.

Do not participate in upward migration of cells

Remain at the bottom of the crypts
Unknown function
Polarized towards the lumen
Not a part of the enteroendocrine system
Do not release hormones into the blood.
Long-lived, not in mitosis
Continuously secrete unknown functional role of secretion???
Produce bacterial material (lysozyme) antibacterial enzyme in the granules,
Capable of phagocytosis.
Regulate bacterial flora of the small intestine

2.) LAMINA PROPRIA

loose connective tissue that occupies the interstices of the crypts and cores of
intestine villi.
Contains the Central Lacteal

Blind ended structure which represents the beginning of the intestines

lymphatic drainage.

Looks like a very thin-walled vein

Wall is simple squamous epithelium

Never carries erythrocytes.

Central Lacteal

Terminal branch of a submucous lymphatic plexus

Lymphatic channels filled with pink-stained lymph

Large, blind lymphatic capillaries

Transport chylomicrons

Most of the time, it is empty

Function in the absorption of lipds

Return of fluids from the intercellular compartment to the general

circulation
2 kinds of Mast Cells:

1. Typical Mast Cell

2. Atypical Mast cell

1.) Typical mast cell
o

predominant in the submucosa

2.) Atypical Mast Cell

o posterior lamina propria

IgE
Chemotactic factors- mobilize eosinophilic and neutrophils

Mast Cells

about 20,000/mm3

have Fc receptors for the IgE class of immunoglobulin

involved in local defenses against enteric parasites

involved in local factors that mobilize eosinophilc and neutrophils that

can attack the invading parasites or bacteria.
Lymphocytes

Most abundant of the free cells

Constitutes a ready reserve of immunocompetent cells

IV.

MUSCULARIS MUCOSA

38 um in thickness
Consists of thin inner and outer layers of smooth muscle together with
elastic fibers
Cause the villi to contract, expelling the content of the crypts and
intervillous spaces
Contraction increases the height of folds of the mucosa
May play a major ancillary role in mixing the gut contents
V.

SUBMUCOSA

consists of moderate dense connective tissue rich in elastic fibers

contain blood vessels, lymphatics and neuron cell bodies
Glands of Brunner
o Aka: Submucosal Gland
o Discovered by : Johann C. Brunner, Swiss anatomist
o Identifying histologic features of the initial portion of the
duodenum.
o May also be found in the pyloric antrum but
o Never in the jejunum or ileum
o Pyloric glands confined to the lamina propia
o Brunners gland are found in the submucusa of the plicae
circulares.
o Secretes a clear, viscous and alkaline fluid
o pH 8.2-9.3
o Function:

Protects the duodenal mucosa against damage that

may be caused by acidic gastric juice form the pyloric
region of the stomach.

Synthesize urogastrone ~ EGF ( epidermal growth

factor)
Urogastrone stimulates cell division
- inhibit gastric acid secretion
- human form of EGF
- regulates growth, tissue repairand regeneration
- secreted also by the submandibular gland
- nearly all animals lick their superficial wounds
- beneficial effect in accelerating healing
Meissners Plexus
o
o
o
o
o

discovered by George Meissner , a german histologist

aka: Submucosa Plexus
aka: Plexus entericus externa
within the connective tissue of the submucosa
controls the contraction of the muscularis mucosa and villi

shortening of the villi

squishing out of nutrients in the crypts and between

villi
important in digestion

mixing an overturn of the food

emptying of mucosal crypts

VI.
TUNICA MUSCULARIS

MUSCULARIS

consists of outer longitudinal and inner circular layers of smooth muscle

slow rate of cell replication
responsible of peristalsis
several waves in progress at the same time
rare for single wave to pass along its entire length
Segmental movements:

alternative contraction and relaxation of short segments

do not advance content of the intestine

to and fro movements that serves to agitate and mix the material in
the lumen.
contains the myenteric nerve plexus found between the 2 layers of the
muscularis
Auerbachs Plexus
1. Peristalisis
o coordination of the rhythmic contraction-shorten
contract-shorten movement of the tunica muscularis
Deep Muscular Plexus
o aka: Plexus mascularis profundus
o situated on the mucosal aspect of the circular muscle layer
forms the Ileocecal Sphincter
remains partially contracted
delays emptying of contents to the cecum after a meal
reflex activation of the ileal peristalsis
relaxation of the ileocecal sphincter

VII.

SEROSA

outmost layer of gut wall

consists of continuous sheet of squamous cells ( mesothelium)
permits the loops of intestine to slide past each other during movement
Mesentery

suspends the GIT from the dorsal wall of the

thin bilaminar sheet of mesothelium thtrough which the blood vessels

reach the gut
Peritoneum

Continuous layer mesothelium

Covers the inner aspect of the abdominal wall and surface of all the
organs suspended from it.

Parietal Peritoneum
o Line the cavity

Visceral Peritoneum
o covers the organs
transudation of fluid from the capillaries moistens and facilitates frictionless
sliding of the loops of intestines over one another during peristalsis
Peritonitis
o Bacterial contamination of the abdominal cavity due to
perforating lesions of the gut wall
o Severe inflammatory process that is often fatal
VIII.Immunology

Individual lymphocytes
Lymphoiod nodules
Lymphoid follicles
Peyers patches

Helper T cells
Macrophages
Dentritic cells
Cytotoxic T-lypmhocytes

PEYERS PATCHES
-

aggregate of lymphoid nodules

named after Johannes k. Peyer , a Swiss anatomist
may be found in the jejunum
most abundant in the Ileum
made up of number of lymphoid nodules with a large pale germinal cnter
site of maturation and development of IgA producing B lymphocytes bursa of Fabricus
birds
permanent , organized and well-defined structures

M-CELLS
- found in lymphoid nodules and Peyers patches
- broad cells with few short microvilli
- continuously sampling antigens in intestinal lumen transporting them to the cells of
the mucosal immune system
- induce an appropriate immune response
Secretory Immune System
-

produce IgA
IgA vs IgG (400,000/mm t0 18,000/mm)

Functions:
1.
2.

inhibit bacterial adherence

neutralize viruses and acids
immune exclusioin

IgA Proteases
-

enzyme produced by bacteria that cleave IgA immunoglobulin

involve in the pathogenesis f certain human diseases by interfering with the
immunological defenses mediated by IgA

< PLICAE CIRCULARES >

-

aka: Valves of Kerking

Visible to the naked eye
Cresentic or spiral folds formed by the mucosa and submucosa
Permanent structures
Means for increasing surface area
8 10 mm in height
3 4 mm thick
5 cm in length
Gradually diminish in size and number
Seldom found beyond the middle of the ileum
Intestinal Mucosa

Plicae Circulares ( Valves of Kerking)

Absent from the 1st portion of the duodenum

Starts 5 cm distal to the pylorus

Most abundant in the terminal portion of the pylorus up to the 1st

portion of the jejunum

JEJUNUM
Ileum

Empty (Latin word)

Greater bulk of absorption takes place
Freely movable
Suspended by the mesentery from dorsal wall of the cavity and occupies the central region
Occupies the proximal 2/5 of the length of the small intestine
Jejunal villi are longer, fingerlike and more irregular
Extensive enhancement of surface area
Villi may be several mm long but the section rarely exceed 10 microns thickness
Islands are a visual clue that it isnt a section of the duodenum
Leaflike appearance
Villi are taller than the crypts are deep
There is nothing in the submucosa resembling glands or Peyers patches
Muscularis mucosae and muscularis externa well defined
- eileo (Greek, to roll up or twist)
-

Occupies 3/5
Occupies the lower portion
No distinct boundaries
Villi are even more leaflike
Island floating free from the lumen

Peyers Patches
-

Located in the submucusa

Maybe as so large as the muscularis mucosae sometimes obliterating the enterocytes

I.

Large Intestines

Segments
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Appendix
Cecum
Colon
Ascending, Transverse, Descending & Sigmoid
Rectum
Anal canal

Functions:
1.
2.

Site of water and ion (electrolytes) absorption

Site of fermentation (along with terminal ileum) by symbiotic bacteria

1.) Appendix
-

Tonsil of the gut

Arises from the blind end of the cecum
Vermiform
2-8cm in length
Same layers as that of the intestine
Thickened by extensive accumulation of lymphoid tissue
Lumen is usually filled with dead cells and detritus
Villi usually absent

Panneth cells are numerous:5-10 in a single gland

Poorly developed muscularis mucosae
Relatively thick submucosa

2.)Cecum
-

Blind ending pouch or diverticulum at the proximal end of the ascending colon
Same layers to that of small intestine

Ileocecal Valve
-

Orifice between the ileum and cecum

3.) CECUM & COLON

-

Villi are absent

Surface area enhancement not as important

Functions:

Resorb water

Compact fecal material

Contains Glands of Lieberkuhn
Characterized by deep straight crypts in which are found large numbers of goblet cells
Intestinal villi not found beyond the ileocecal valve
Mucosa has smooth surface
When moving large amounts of dry material villi would just get in the way
Abundant goblet cells
Lubrication more important
The drier the bolus the harder it is to move along
Goblet cells produce the lubrication needed
Absent Paneth cells
Epithelium constantly being renewed

Extrusion zones
Life span of cells: 6 days
Life span of endocrine cells: weeks
Lamina propria is similar to the small intestine
Lacks lymphatics
Scattered lymphoid nodules always present
Well developed GALT continuous with the ileum

Muscularis mucosae
-

Well developed-consist of longitudinal and circular fibers.

Quite different from that of small intestine

Submucosa- Has no unusual features

Taenia Coli
-

Aggregation of longitudinal fibers into 3 evenly spaced longitudinal bands

Inner circular layer similar to the small intestine

Longitudinal muscle forms a thin and discontinuous layer

Haustrae
-

Shallow sacculations in the wall due to partial contraction in the living state
Conspicuous in the ascending, transverse, descending and sigmoid flexure

Submucosa similar to the small intestine

Appendices epiploicae
-

Conspicuous accumulation of the adipose cells beneath the mesothelium that form
pendulous protuberances

4.) Rectum
-

Terminal portion of the intestinal tract

12cm in length
Extends from the sigmoid colon to the pelvic diaphragm
Rectal ampula slightly dilated at the lower portion
Mucosa similar to the colon except for longer crypts
Anal Canal 4cm in length
Muscularis externa forms a continuous layer of uniform thickness
Haustrae not present
Rectal Columns of Morgagni longitudinal folds in the anal canal
Crypt of Lieberkuhn Straight & parallel becoming short and disappear about 2cm above
the anal opening

Ano-Rectal Junction
-

Abrupt transition from simple columnar to stratified squamous

Immediate disappearance of the crypt and goblet cells of the rectum
Equally sudden appearance of the stratified squamous portion
How to tell junction apart:

Look at the columnar epithelium.

If it has goblet cells in the sheet, its the ano-rectal junction

Another giveaway is the deep straight crypt of the rectum

Absence of glands in the lamina propria

5.)Anal Canal
-

-Abrupt narrowing continuation of the rectum at the lower end of ampulla: 4 cm in length
Anal Sphincter thickened circular layers of smooth muscle of the anal canal

External anal sphincter distal to the anal sphincter; cicumferential annulus of striated
muscles
II. Cell Turnover

Process of renewal
Continual upward migration of epithelial cells
Jejunum having the fastest rate

Cell turnover time

-

Duration

HISTOPHYSIOLOGY
Main function: ABSORPTION OF NUTRIENTS
Reduce ingested CHO, CHON and the fats to molecules that can be absorbed by the cells of the
mucosa
Amount absorbed in the small intestine each day
8-9 liters of water
100 g of fat
50-100 g CHON

>100g CHO
Many of the physiology import and process of living organisms takes place on cell surfaces and
at the interfaces between membrane-limited intracellular compartment.

The role of metabolic activity per unit area of a surface probably cannot be increased above a
certain limit.

At all levels of organization there are Architectural devices for increasing surface area, without
increasing the overall size of organism
Absorptive surface
- first increased in elongation and convolution of the tubular intestine
Mucosal surface
Is increased by placation of plicae circularis
Surface is amplified by same 40 intestinal villi/m2
EM: Surface of every absorptive cell in the epithelium covering the Villi
Augmented 30-fold by 2-3 thousand microvilli/cell

Architectural devices for maximizing surface area for absorption:

1.) Plicae circularis- Increase SA x3
2.) Villi- Increased Sa x 10
3.) Microvilli- Increased SA x20
Total Increase in SA= x600

Hypothetical Small Intestine:

o 5m long, 25mm wide
o Volume: 1L
Within the cell the following can be seen:

Convolution in the configuration of the tubular and cisternal ER

Plication to increase surface is seen in the cristae of mitochondria

These are but a few of natures strategems for increasing the efficiency of the metabolic machinery
with minimal increase in the body mass

Secretions of the liver and pancreas (duodenum)

Essential for digestion in the small intestine
Bile from the liver and Gallbladder +mechanical mixing action of peristalsis
Reduces ingested fat to a fine emulsion of triglycerides
SUCCUS ENTERICUS intestinal juice contributed by intestinal mucous

Absorptive cells able to respond rapidly and to change their internal surface
Absorption of water and electrolytes
o 1L of chime passes to the ileocecal valve
o <100 ml lost in the feces
Intestinal flora
o Digest small amount of cellulose

NEED

o Produce vit. B12 (Hemopoiesis)

o Vit. K )clotting mechanism)
MORE ABSORPTION, MAKE MORE SURFACE (engineering of living organisms)
Increase the efficiency of the metabolic machinery with minimal increase in body mass
Cholera
Intestinal Diarrhea
o Sodium reserves reduced to lethal low levels in a matter of hours
Lactose intolerance
o Infants unable to tolerate milk
o Results in bloating of copious diarrhea
o Absence of lactase from the intestinal brush border

OTHER

DIGESTIVE ENZYMES
Leucine aminopeptidase and sucrose - Cleaves sucrose to glucose and fructose
Lactase - Cleaves lactose to galactose and glucose
Maltase - hydrolyzes maltose to glucose and starch
Formerly thought to be secreted by cells of the Lieberkuhn (false)

Become clear from biochemical studies of isolated brush borders of these cells that
some of these enzymes secreted into the lumen are actually incorporated into the
membrane of the brush border of the absorptive cells
BRUSH BORDER not only a device for increasing the surface area for absorption but also a site of
enzyme involved in the terminal step in digestion of CHO and CHON
-possesses the carriers necessary for transport of glucose and amino acids into the cell

FASTING STATE:
the apical cytoplasm contains some profiles of granular reticulum, a limited amount of
smoothe reticulum and relatively quiescent golgi complex
INGESTION OF LIPIDS:
stimulates the formation of a more extensive smoothe reticulum to provide for resynthesis of
triglyceride and its transport to the golgi
MOVEMENT OF VILLI
important part of the mechanism of absorption in the intestine
Suddenly shorten to about half its length with an appreciable increase in its diameter and then
slowly extends to its original length
Each villus contracts about six times a minute
DURING CONTRACTION:
o Volume is reduced
o The contents of the central lacteal are forwarded to submucous lymphatic plexus
MEISSNERS SUBMUCOUS NERVE PLEXUS
Control the contraction of the villi

IV. BLOOD VESSELS OF THE INTESTINAL TRACT

Arrangement of lymph and blood vessels in the wall of the stomach and intestine are basically
similar
STOMACH: Arteries arise from two arterial arches along the lesser and the greater curvatures
and are distributed to the ventral and dorsal surfaces
INTESTINE: the vessels reach the organ from the mesentery and break up into large branches
that penetrate the muscularis externa to enter the submucosa where they form a large plexus
SMALL INTESTINE: Submucous plexus gives off into two branches:
o A. Some ramify on the inner surface of the muscularis mucosae and braek up into
capillary networks that surround the cryps of Lieberkuhn
o B. Destined for the villi each villus receiving one and sometimes two or three, such
small arteries
-they form a dense capillary network immediately beneath
the
Epithelium
V. LYMPH VESSELS

Extensive system of large lymphatic capillaries in the superficial portion of the

mucosa between the glands
Situated always below the blood capillaries
They anastomose extensively around the glands and take a downward course to
the inner surface of the mucosa where they form a plexus, larger lymphatics that
are provided with valves.
Lymphatics are very important in absorption of fat in the small intestine.
Chyle- White lymph draining from the intestine
Lacteals- lymphatic that carry it away from the epithelium.
The most interesting of the lymphatics of the SI are the central lacteals in the core
of villi.
The broader villi of the duodenum may contain two or more lacteals that
intercommunicate.
IV. NERVES

Innervated by the ANS:

1.) Sympathetic
2.) Parasympathetic
3.) Enteric-most important

All three regulate the activity of the intestine

The parasympathetic and sympathetic nerves to the tract are its extrinsic
nerve supply and exert their influence on the digestive function through the
intrinsic enteric nervous system, which consist of nerve cell bodies and their
processes located within the tract.
Extrinsic Nerve Supply

Preganglionic sympathetic fibers that arise mainly in the celiac

ganglion.

They are distributed to the intestine with the blood vessels via the
mesentery

The enteric nervous system consist of ganglia and interconnecting

bundles of nerve fibers that form extensive plexuses in various layers
of the digestive tract. ( From lower esophagus to internal anal
sphincter)

Sympathtic and parasympathetic

Do not have some effect on the digestive tract

But cutting the extrinsic nerves results in little impairment of digestive

function

Intestinal movements are determined by local neuromuscular

mechanisms that are only modulated by input through the extrinsic
nerves.

Subserous plexus- Lack ganglia, loose network of fine nerve fibers that
connect the extrinsic nerves with the more deeply situated intrinsic
nerve plexuses.( Most superficial neural elements in the gut wall form
this plexus)

Myenteric plexus- Most comspicuous enteric plexus is found between

the longitudinal and circular layers of the muscularis.
-Auerbachs plexus, plexus entericus externa
- The cells of the ganglia are two morphological type,
one is multipolar cell with short dendrites in contact
with the bodies of similar cells within the same
ganglion, whereas the axon can be traced for a
considerable distance to sites of synaptic contact with
cells of the second type in the neighboring ganglia.