Experimental determination of the stress-crack opening curve for concrete in tension

RILEM TC 187-SOC: Final report May 2007

CHAPTER 4. INVERSE ANALYSIS PROCEDURES FOR

DETERMINING THE TENSILE STRESS-CRACK OPENING CURVE
OF CONCRETE
Prepared by Jos Luiz Antunes de Oliveira e Sousa (1), Ravindra Gettu (2) and Yoshinori
Kitsutaka (3)
(1) Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, 13083-852 Campinas,
SP, Brazil
(2) Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Department of Civil Engineering, Chennai
600036, India
(3) Department of Architecture, Graduate School of Engineering, Tokyo Metropolitan
University, Tokyo, Japan
1.

INTRODUCTION

The alternative to testing a specimen under uniaxial tension in order to obtain the stresscrack opening (-w) curve is the use of the experimentally-obtained response of a notched
specimen (normally a notched beam or wedge-splitting specimen) to determine the -w curve
through inverse analysis. The specimen response is simulated with an analytical or numerical
model (e.g., the model of Hillerborg et al. [1]) using a trial -w curve. The shape of the -w
curve is prescribed to be exponential, linear or bilinear, with the latter including dropconstant, drop-sloped and sloped-constant shapes. For plain concrete, the bilinear model has
been most widely used [2-8], along with exponential models [9-11]. For obtaining the -w
curve that permits the best simulation of the specimen response, a trial-and-error procedure or
optimization based on the minimization of the error in the fit [2, 12-15] is generally used.
A more versatile alternative is the construction of polylinear -w curves through the
inverse analysis, where the shape of the curve is also free to vary [16-20]. This approach has
been included in two Japan Concrete Institute standards [21, 22] for determining the fracture
energy and the -w curves for plain and fiber reinforced concretes.
Most approaches inverse analyze the response of one test specimen to obtain the corresponding
-w curve. However, some researchers have proposed the use of test data from complementary
tests, such as the notched beam test response together with the tensile strength from the splitting
tension or some other test [5, 23] or with the pre-peak data from an unnotched beam test [24]; test
data for different sizes of specimens [11]; or more than one data set from the same specimen [6],
in order to improve the uniqueness of the inverse analysis solution.
2.

ILLUSTRATION OF THE INVERSE ANALYSIS PROCEDURE

In order to illustrate a typical inverse analysis procedure, the steps involved are detailed
following the methodologies of Sousa and Gettu [14] and Kitsutaka [17] as applied to the data

31

Experimental determination of the stress-crack opening curve for concrete in tension

RILEM TC 187-SOC: Final report May 2007

from tests of the notched beam. As is well-known, the notched beam configuration is convenient
for studying fracture behavior, and has been used extensively in the determination of the fracture
parameters of concrete [25-27]. Another popular specimen used for inverse analysis is the wedgesplitting specimen [28], which has advantages such a relatively large ligament length to volume
ratio and a negligible influence of the specimen weight on the test results [15, 29-33].
Once the test specimen and configuration are chosen, the first step is to obtain reliable
experimental data through tests performed under closed-loop control, which is essential for
obtaining a stable response [34]. In the notched beam test, the load versus mid-span displacement
curve, as well as the load versus crack mouth opening displacement (P-CMOD) curve, can be
obtained. However, the latter is much easier to determine since the CMOD is anyway used for the
test control whereas the deflection needs additional fixtures (see Fig. 1) for its measurement [35].
The tests considered later on in this illustration were performed in a servohydraulic testing
machine with a digital closed-loop controller, under constant CMOD rates. The CMOD was
measured using a clip gage placed across the crack mouth. The specimen and the details of the
test configuration used are shown in Figure 1.

Clip gage for CMOD

LVDT mounted on a yoke for
displacement measurement

250 mm
175 mm

250
mm
175 mm

75 mm

350 mm

500 mm

Loading configuration

End view

Mid-section

Clip gage

Figure 1: Notched beam test configuration

The response of the specimen (whose data is to be inverse analyzed) can be simulated using
appropriate analytical or numerical modeling techniques. Usually, such response is analyzed by
considering the material outside the cracking or fracturing zone to be linear elastic and by
representing the fracture behavior (along the crack plane) through a discrete or smeared crack
model. The constitutive relation used in the fracture model is the unknown to be obtained through
the analysis; i.e., the constitutive relation has to be determined from the inverse analysis.
In the approach of Sousa and Gettu [14], the discrete cohesive crack model [1] is used in
conjunction with the cracked hinge model, which was presented originally by Ulfkjaer et al. [36],
and further developed by Pedersen [37], and Stang and Olesen [7, 8]. The advantage of the StangOlesen cracked hinge model is that it yields closed-form analytical solutions for the entire loadcrack opening curve. Other analytical or numerical methods, such as the finite element method, can
alternatively be employed in the analysis [15, 29, 38, 39]. The purpose of the modeling is to obtain a
P-CMOD curve for the given loading configuration and an assumed constitutive relation, i.e., an
assumed -w curve. The analysis is repeated for different -w curves until the relation that gives the

32

Experimental determination of the stress-crack opening curve for concrete in tension

RILEM TC 187-SOC: Final report May 2007

P-CMOD response, which best fits the experimental data, is obtained. Note that the same procedure
can be adopted for the inverse analysis of the load-displacement response, if necessary. The best fit
can be determined through the minimization of an error function, such as the following [14]:
sqr =

vmax

[ P ( v ) P ( v ) ]
exp

num

(v) dv

(1)

where is the crack mouth opening displacement (CMOD) obtained in the notched beam test,
Pexp() and Pnum() are the experimental and numerical P-CMOD curves, respectively, and
() is a weighting function, which can be introduced to give unequal importance to portions
of the fitting interval. Optimization algorithms are used to obtain a set of parameters that yield
the best fit of the experimental results or minimum error in the fitting.
The shape of the -w curve is decided a priori in most inverse analysis approaches and,
consequently, only the parameters that define the relation have to be determined. Several shapes
have been proposed and employed in the literature; some of the typical shapes or models are
given in Table 1, along with their parameters.
Table 1: Softening models and corresponding parameters
a) Hordijk [9] with two parameters, ft and Gf

3
w
(w ) w c2 wult w
e
(
= 1 + c1

1 + c13 ) e c2
wult
ft
wult

G
where c1=3.0, c2=6.93, and wult = 5.136 f
ft

b) Linear model with two parameters ft and Gf

(w )
ft

= 1 a1w

[MPa]
ft

Gf
w [mm]

wult

/ ft
1

1
a1
Gf / ft
w [mm]

c) Sloped-constant model with three parameters, ft, a1 and b2

(w ) 1 a1w if w < w1
=
if w w1
ft
b2

/ ft
1

1
a1

b2

w1

d) Bilinear model, with four parameters, ft, a1, a2 and b2

(w ) 1 a1 w if w < w1
=
ft
b2 a 2 w if w w1

w [mm]

/ ft
1

/ ft
1

1
a1
1

b2
w1

e) Trilinear model with six parameters, ft, a1, a2, b2, a3 and b3
1 a1 w if w < w1
(w )
= b2 a 2 w if w1 w w2
ft
b a w if w w
3
2
3

33

- a2

b3
b2

w [mm]

a1
1
w1

1
a1
1
w1

/ ft
1

b2

a3

- a2
w2 w [mm]

a2

w [mm]

Experimental determination of the stress-crack opening curve for concrete in tension

RILEM TC 187-SOC: Final report May 2007

For plain concrete, it is sufficient to use a bilinear or exponential curve to represent the -w
relation. However, fiber reinforced concrete (FRC) may need a more complicated model in order
to represent the fiber pullout behavior at larger crack widths. In order to provide the user with a
range of choices, different shapes of the -w curve or softening models can be implemented in the
inverse analysis software, for example, by having an object-oriented structure [14].
2.1

Example of application to plain concrete

The inverse analysis approach of Sousa and Gettu [14] is applied here to experimental
data of plain concrete with a characteristic compressive strength of 30 MPa. The input data
consists of the load versus crack mouth opening displacement curve obtained from a test of a
notched beam [40] with dimensions of 150 mm 150 mm 600 mm and span of 500 mm,
under center-point loading. A 25 mm deep notch was cut at the mid-span of the beam and the
corresponding CMOD was used for controlling the test in a closed-loop testing machine. The
experimentally-obtained P-CMOD curve is shown in the inset of Figure 2.
4
Load-CMOD Curve
16
Experimental

12

[MPa]

Load [kN]

FIT3PB
DIANA

8
4

0
0

0.1

0.2
0.3
CMOD [mm]

0.4

Uniaxial Tensile Tests

FIT3PB

0
0

0.04

w [mm]

0.08

0.12

Figure 2: -w curves for plain concrete exhibiting the P-CMOD response shown in the inset
For the inverse analysis, Hordijks model was prescribed for the -w curve (see Table 1).
The optimized -w curve, with ft = 3.08 MPa and Gf = 0.075 N/mm, is shown in Figure 2,
along with results obtained from three uniaxial tension tests [41] of notched cylinders of the
same concrete (with 150 mm diameter and 10 mm deep circumferential notches). The details
of the tension tests are given elsewhere [42]. It can be seen that the -w curve obtained
through inverse analysis compares remarkably with the experimentally-obtained behaviour.
The P-CMOD curves computed during the optimization process, using the final -w curve,
through finite element analysis (denoted as DIANA after the software code used [43]) and the
hinge model (denoted as FIT3PB after the program developed by Sousa and Gettu [14]), are

34

Experimental determination of the stress-crack opening curve for concrete in tension

RILEM TC 187-SOC: Final report May 2007

shown in the inset of Figure 2, along with the experimental data. The finite element
simulation was performed with the discrete cohesive crack modeled as interface elements
along the predefined crack path, which enables the use of Hordijks model. It is seen that the
quasi-analytical solution based on the Stang-Olesen hinge model and the results from the
finite element analysis are in agreement with the experimental results.
The low scatter in the results of the inverse analysis can be observed in Figure 3, which
shows data from three different specimens. There is a marked variation in the ft value but the
curves as such do not vary significantly. Although no inverse analysis has been performed on
the uniaxial tension test results (dashed lines) to account for the nonuniformity of the stress
distribution on the cracked cross section, the results agree well with those of the notched
beam tests.
Beam 1: ft = 3.08 MPa
Gf = 0.075 N/mm
Beam 2: ft= 2.27 MPa
Gf= 0.083 N/mm
Beam 3: ft = 2.53 MPa
Gf = 0.095 N/mm
Uniaxial tension tests 1, 2, 3

stress [MPa]

averages and standard deviations (numerical):

ftstd=0.338 MPa
ftavg = 2.63 MPa
Gfavg = 0.084 N/mm Gfstd = 0.0082 N/mm

0
0

0.04

0.08
cod [mm]

0.12

0.16

Figure 3: -w curves from inverse analysis of beam data and from uniaxial tension tests
2.2
Example of application to fibre reinforced concrete
The analysis procedure of Sousa and Gettu [14] is applied here for determining the -w
curve of fiber reinforced concrete. In this example, the P-CMOD response of a steel fiber
reinforced concrete (SFRC) beam (with dimensions of 150 mm 150 mm 600 mm, 500
mm span and mid-span notch of 25 mm) tested according to the RILEM TC 162
Recommendations [40] is used. The concrete has the same mix as that of the plain concrete
example, with the addition of 40 kg/m3 of hooked-ended steel fibers (with 60 mm length and
aspect ratio of 65). The P-CMOD curve obtained in the test is given in Figure 4.
Two shapes of the -w curve have been used: the sloped-constant and the bilinear (see
Table 1). The optimized -w curves are shown in Figure 4 for the two models used; the
parameters of the sloped-constant curve are ft = 3.27 MPa, a1 = 38.4 and b2 = 0.403, and the
parameters of the bilinear model are ft = 3.04 MPa, a1 =26.9, b2 = 0.313 and a2= -0.398. Note
that the tensile strength ft varies slightly with the type of the model since it is also one of the
parameters of the optimization process. The optimized bilinear -w curve compares well

35

Experimental determination of the stress-crack opening curve for concrete in tension

RILEM TC 187-SOC: Final report May 2007

with the three curves from uniaxial tension tests of cylindrical cores extracted from beams of
the same batch of concrete. The fits of the P-CMOD curve obtained with each model are
compared with the experimental data in the inset. In general, the analytical prediction with
the bilinear curve matches the experimental curve satisfactorily while the sloped-constant
model leads to an average fit in the post-peak.

4
Load-CMOD Curve

16
12

[MPa]

Load [kN]

8
FIT3PB-Bilinear
FIT3PB-SlopedConst

4
2

Experimental

0
0

0.1

0.2
0.3
CMOD [mm]

0.4

1
FIT3PB-Bilinear
FIT3PB-SlopedConst
Uniaxial Tension Tests

0
0

0.1

0.2
w [mm]

0.3

0.4

Figure 4: -w curves for SFRC and the corresponding P-CMOD curves in the inset
The experimental data of the FRC specimens were independently inverse-analysed by
Kitsutaka for obtaining the corresponding polylinear -w curves [16, 17, 44]. The result
obtained is compared with those of Sousa and Gettu [14] in Figure 5, where it can be seen that
the bilinear model is in close agreement with the polylinear curve of Kitsutaka.

36

Experimental determination of the stress-crack opening curve for concrete in tension

RILEM TC 187-SOC: Final report May 2007

-w curves - SFRC Beam 1

stress [MPa]

Fit3pb SlopeConst: ft = 3.27 a1 = 38.4 b2 = 0.403

Fit3pb BiLin: ft = 3.04 a1 = 26.9 b2 = 0.313 a2 = - 0.398
Kitsutakas polylinear
2

0
0

0.2

0.4

cod [mm]

0.6

0.8

Figure 5: -w curves corresponding to results using hinge model and Kitsutakas approach
3.

CONCLUSIONS

Inverse analysis is a powerful tool to obtain the stress-crack opening (-w) curve of
concrete under tension using the experimental results of tests on notched beams and wedgesplitting specimens. Available optimization schemes can yield unambiguous results as seen in
the comparison of the polylinear analysis technique and a quasi-analytical approach using the
hinge model. It is also evident that the values of the tensile strength and the fracture energy
obtained from inverse analysis are dependent on the prescribed shape of the softening curve.
4.

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Experimental determination of the stress-crack opening curve for concrete in tension

RILEM TC 187-SOC: Final report May 2007

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39