JournalofFood Engineering1 (1982) 93-l 13

METHODS FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF THERMAL

CONDUCTIVITY AND DIFFUSIVITY OF FOODSTUFFS

P. NESVADBA

Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, Tarry Research Station, 135 Abbey Road,
Aberdeen AB9 8DG. Great Britain

ABSTRACT
A critical review of the methods for the measurement of thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity of foodstuffs is given. The physicalmathematical basis of the methods is outlined and the methods are
classified according to the position of the heat source and heat sink with
respect to the sample, the duration of the measurement nrn and the
mathematical procedure involved. Examples of foodstuffs measured by
each method are tabulated together with the pertinent literature references. A checklist of sources of systematic and random measurement
errors is provided. The advantages and disadvantages of the methods
and the factors influencing the choice of method are discussed.

SYMBOLS AND NOMENCLATURE

a=-A

x
PC

Thermal diffusivity (m2 s-l)

Surface area of sample (m2)

Heat generation term: the rate at which heat is generated

per unit volume per unit time (J mm3s-)

Bi = h
h

Biot number (dimensionless): ratio of the thermal resistance

inside a body to that at its surface
93

Journal of Food Engineering 0260-8774/82/0001-0093/12.75 0 Applied

England, 1982
Printed in Great Britain

Science

Publishers

Ltd,

94

P. NESVADBA

Specific heat (J kg- K-l>; c?, specific heat of a heat sink

(J kg- K-l)
at

Fo =>

Fourier number (dimensionless): ratio of the time elapsed

from the start of a thermal transient to the propagation
time of the transient over the distance 1

Acceleration due to gravity (m s-*)

Surface heat transfer coefficient (W me2 K-l)

Enthalpy (J kg-)

Characteristic dimension of sample (m)

Mass of heat sink (kg)

Heat flux (W rnm2)

Quantity of heat transferred (J)

r
Ra

Radial distance in a cylindrical sample (m)

-

flgAT13
Rayleigh
w

number (dimensionless): a measure of the tendency

for free convection to set in when there is a temperature
difference AT across the distance I in a fluid with given
values of a, 0, q and g

Time (from the start of an experiment) (s)

Temperature (K), T used with subscripts: 1 - heat source

temperature; 2 - heat sink temperature; s - temperature
(field) inside a standard material; bath - bath temperature;
sample - sample temperature
Cartesian coordinate in a slab sample (m)
Volume thermal expansion coefficient (K-r)
Thickness of sample (m)
Dynamic viscosity coefficient (m* s-l)
Thermal conductivity (W m-l K-l); X,, thermal conductivity
of a standard material

Density (kg rne3)

Vector differentiation

0perator;e.g.

\ax

in Cartesian coordinates:

ay ad

95

MEASUREMENT

OF THERMAL PROPERTIES

Partial differentiation

Difference symbol; e.g. ATis temperature difference between

two points, or temperature change

operator

INTRODUCTION
Knowledge of the thermal properties of foodstuffs is required for predicting, designing and optimising every process involving heat transfer, e.g.
freezing, thawing, cooking or drying. These properties, namely the
thermal conductivity, h, the specific heat, c, and the thermal diffusivity, a,
defined by the ratio a = h/pc, where p is the density, can be determined
in two ways: (1) by direct measurement of thermal properties, or (3) by
determining the composition of the foodstuff and then using prediction
equations expressing the thermal properties in terms of the chemical
composition. (This is usually possible only for materials with not more
than three dominant components.)
For complex or newly developed foodstuffs, direct measurement is the
only way of obtaining data on thermal properties.
Methods of measuring thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity of
foods have been reviewed by HavliEek er al. (1967), Reidy and Rippen
(197 I), Kostaropoulos (197 1) and Mellor (1979). These reviewers concentrated on describing selected methods, mostly those developed initially
for inorganic substances and later modified for foodstuffs.
The scarcity of literature data suggests that there is a continuing need
for measurement methods that are suitable for biological materials,
especially foodstuffs with high moisture content. The frequent appearance
of papers describing improved and new methods indicates that the search
for suitable methods is likely to continue for a long time.
The purpose of this paper is to assist this search by (1) giving a more
global review of the methods than has been done hitherto, (2) classifying
the methods, (3) listing the sources of measurement errors, (4) discussing
the factors influencing the choice of method, and (5) indicating the trend
in the development of new methods.

PHYSICAL-MATHEMATICAL

BASIS OF THE METHODS

The thermal conductivity, h, and the thermal diffusivity, a, are heat transport properties (unlike quantities such as the specific heat, c, and enthalpy,
H, which are properties of state). In order to measure X and a, the sample
must be subjected to a heat flow whose pattern is known.

96

P.NESVADBA

The temperature field generated by the heat flow is described by the

Fourier heat equation
pc ;

= V( XVT)

(1)

with the initial and boundary conditions appropriate to the experimental

situation.
Under steady-state conditions the partial derivative aT/at is zero and
eqn (1) reduces to Laplaces equation
V( NT) = 0

(2)

involving only X; therefore the properties p and c have no bearing on the

temperature field. It follows that steady-state methods can determine
only h.
Under transient conditions aT/at is not zero and therefore all the
properties p, c and X influence the temperature field. It follows that
transient methods can determine both h and the product pc and therefore
also the thermal diffusivity, a.
It has to be noted that in many foodstuffs c and X are temperaturedependent. The temperature-dependence
is especially strong in foods
containing appreciable concentrations of water or fat which exhibit phase
transitions in the temperature ranges of freezing and cooking. In these
ranges the heat equation (1) has to be modified to include temperaturedependent thermal conductivity h(T) and the latent heat associated
with the phase transitions. A convenient way of including the latent heat
is to reformulate eqn (1) in terms of an enthalpy functionH(T) (Ockendon
and Hodgkins, 1975).
Moreover, if heat is generated in the sample (by microwave heating,
respiration, exothermic bacterial spoilage or post mortem heating in
carcasses) then the heat generation term B has to be added to the righthand side of eqn (1).
With these changes the generalised form of eqn (1) is
p

-?WT) =
at

v(A(T)

VT)

+B

The term B may be a function of position, or time, or temperature, or

any combination of these. For any non-trivial form of the functions
H(T), X(T) and B, eqn (3) cannot be solved analytically and a numerical
solution has to be used. For this reason most methods of measurement
of thermal properties developed to date are based on simplifying assumptions, usually ignoring the temperature-dependence
of c and X.

MEASUREMENT

OF THERMAL

PROPERTIES

97

In fluid foodstuffs heat can be transferred by convection, and in all

foodstuffs there is a possibility of heat transfer by radiation. These modes
of heat transfer are not accounted for by the Fourier heat equations (1)
and (3) and therefore precautions have to be made in the methods of
measurements to suppress them.
The steady state methods involve time-independent heat flow generated
by a heat source and a heat sink having the temperatures Ti and Tz,
respectively. The corresponding temperature
field satisfies Laplaces
equation (2) with the appropriate boundary conditions.
If the temperature field, T, and the heat flux, q, are known then the
thermal conductivity can be obtained from the Fourier law of heat
conduction
AVT = -q

(4)

The heat flux can be determined from the heat supplied by the source or
received by the sink. Alternatively, a comparison with a standard material
of known conductivity X, can be made using the continuity equation
AVT = X,Vr, = -q

(5)

at the boundary between the two materials.

The transient methods are based on subjecting the sample to timedependent heat flow and monitoring the temperature at one or more
points within the sample or on the surface of the sample.
The values of the quantities h, a (or pc) are found as those values for
which the observed time-temperature
dependence corresponds to the
dependence expected on the basis of the solution of the heat equation
(1) or (3).
In most methods this correspondence is established by using some
representation of the analytical solution or of a part of the solution (e.g.
slope of a straight line portion of the log T versus t graph, a formula,
nomogram or a chart). This approach requires that the analytical solution
is simple and thus requires:
(1) simple initial conditions (e.g. constant temperature throughout the
sample) or use of the part of the solution in which the effect of the
initial conditions is not manifest (when Fo > 0.5; see Nomenclature
for definition);
(2) simple boundary conditions, e.g. constant heat flow at the boundary,
or boundary temperature constant (Charm, 1963), linearly varying
(Dickerson, 1965) or periodically varying (Hackel, 1973) with time.
In other methods in which complex boundary and initial conditions are
employed or when temperature-dependent
thermal properties are meas-

98

P. NESVADBA

ured, a numerical solution has to be found (Wadsworth and Spadaro,

1969). The heat equation is solved repeatedly with different trial values
of the variables a or h and pc until the best match between the calculated
and observed temperature-time-dependence
is obtained.
The preceding two paragraphs suggest that a trade-off relationship
exists between, on the one hand, the complexity of the experimental
apparatus and the degree of necessary control of heat flow and, on the
other hand, the complexity of the data acquisition and the mathematical
processing of the temperature-time-dependence.
It appears that, thanks
to advances in thermometry
and data acquisition techniques, new
transient methods are being developed which are faster than the previous
methods and which allow simultaneous determination of X, a and pc
(HavliEek et al., 1967).
METHODS APPLICABLE TO FOODSTUFFS
Steady-state Methods
Equation (4) is the basis of several methods which are classified in Table 1
according to the sample geometry. The name of the author and the
product measured are given for each method in Table 1.
Equation (5) has given rise to two different implementations:
(1) a comparative method employing a standard material, used by
Roth et al. (1970), and
(2) a direct-reading instrument, the thermal comparator, described by
Clark and Powell (1962). A version of this instrument was used by
Morley (1966).
The advantages of the steady-state methods are the simplicity of the
mathematical processing and the high degree of control of experimental
variables which is reflected in a high precision of results.
The disadvantages are :
(1) the long equilibrium period (up to several hours);
(2) the need to prevent heat losses, making the apparatus rather complex;
(3) the difficulty in using eqn (4) when X is temperature-dependent
in
the interval from T1 to T2 and T has to be measured at several
points;
(4) only X can be determined (a separate method is required for a or
pc determination);
(5) moisture migration can be a problem, due to the long measurement
times; and
(6) the measurement of liquids poses difficulties due to the onset of
convection currents.

99

MEASUREMENT OF THERMAL PROPERTIES

TABLE 1
Steady state methods of measurement of thermal conductivity
:%fethod

Steady state
absolute

Experimental

arrangement

Temperature difference across

slab sample measured, heat
flux estimated from power
supplied to electric heater,
from rate of sublimation of
ice or measured by heat flux
meter

Foodstuff

measured

Frozen vegetables, fruit,

fish and meat
Fish and meat
Honey
Fats, meats frozen and
unfrozen, heat flow
parallel and perpendicular to fibres
Freezedried beef
Freeze-dried mushrooms
lvlinced meat

Reference

Smith et al., 1952

Hatfield, 1953
Helvey, 19.64
Hill et al., 1967

Massey and Sunderland, 1967

Keppeler and Cowart.
1972
Sorenfors, 1974

Two slab samples, one on each

side of a planar heater (mirror
image concept)

Meats, gelatin, gels, ice

Frozen and unfrozen
beef, heat flow
parallel to fibres

Lentz, 1961
Miller and Sunderland, 1963

Slab sample, guarded, mirror

image concept

Burley tobacco

Duncan et al., 1966

Sample filling space between

two co-axial cylinders

Dried baby food

Varshney and Ojha,

1974
Dua and Ojha, 1969

Paddy gram and its

byproducts
Co-axiai cylinders, guarded

Freeze-dried milk
Frozen and unfrozen
fish

Steady state
comparative

of foodstuffs

Gentzler and Schmidt,

1972
Long, 1954

Concentric spheres

Flour

Kohegyi-Margittai,
1974

Slab

Starch granules,
standard = cardboard

Roth ef al., 1970

Co-axial cylinders

Soybean oil meal,

standard = carbon
black

Hougen, 1957

Thermal comparator

Bone

IMorley, 1966

Transient Methods
The profusion of transient methods makes it impossible to cover all the
methods in a single review. However, it is possible to classify the methods
and list the most important representatives.
Table 2 classifies the transient methods according to the position of the
heat source in relation to the sample (external
or internal) and the

100

P. NE$VADBA
TABLE 2
Classification of transient methods

Duration of
exveriment
(min)

<o.oI

Position of heat source with respect to sample

Heat pulse method

0.1-10
5-15
1O-20
1O-80
lo-i00
1O-200
40-80

Internal

External

Heated probe
Internal heater and a non-integral
sensor
Fitch method
External heater and a non-integral
sensor
Direct use of temperature profiles
to identify thermal properties
Temperature matching
Regular phase methods

duration of the experiment (excluding any equilibration time prior to the

experiment).
In Table 3 the transient methods of measurement of X and a of foodstuffs are described in more detail than in Table 2. For each method a
brief description of the experimental arrangement is given, together with
the statement of the quantity measured, type of foodstuff and the
relevant author.
Most of the names of the methods in Tables 2 and 3 are self-explanatory, except for the Fitch and the regular phase methods.
The method of Fitch (1935) involves the approximating assumption of
a spatially-constant temperature gradient across a sheet or a thin slab of
the measured material. The amount of heat transferred from a source at
temperature Ti to a sink at T2 through the material of area A and
thickness 6 after time t is
Q = hAt(T, - T2)/S

(6)

If Q is measured during the experiment then h can be calculated from

eqn. (6). In the original apparatus Q was determined essentially as
Q =Mc2AT2

(7)

where M is the mass, c2 is the specific heat and AT* is the temperature rise
after time t of the heat sink. Later authors introduced other means of
measuring Q .
IA the regular phase methods the surface is heated (or cooled) in a
controlled way (e.g. by immersing the sample in a controlled temperature

MEASUREMENTOFTHERMALPROPERTIES

101

bath). The temperature-time

variation at one or two points in the sample
is measured. Three methods of measurement have been formulated
(Kondratev, 1954).
The first method (a-calorimeter) employs one temperature sensor in
the sample.
The second method (h-calorimeter) involves comparison between the
sample and a reference substance with one sensor in each.
The third method (method of two points) uses measurement of temperature at two points within the sample.
The initial temperature distribution in the sample is arbitrary and does
not have to be known. This is because after a sufficiently long time
(t >0.51*/~) from the start of the heating the effect of the initial distribution on the measured temperatures is negligible.
After the irregular effects produced by the initial temperature distribution have decayed away the regular phase of the experiment starts. It is
the part of the measured temperature-time variation corresponding to the
regular phase that is usable for the determination of a or h. In the regular
phase the mathematical description of the transient temperature distribution in the sample is much simplified as the influence of the initial
distribution is no longer present. Particularly amenable to mathematical
treatment are the experimental situations where the sample surface temperature is varied with time in (1) a stepwise, (2) a linear or (3) a periodic
manner (thermal regimes of the first, second and third kind; see also
Table 3).
SOURCES OF MEASUREMENT ERRORS
The following tabulation of possible measurement errors could serve as a
checklist for those experimentalists engaged in the measurement of
thermal properties of foods.
Sources of Systematic

Errors

Experimental Conditions not Corresponding to Theoretical Assumptions

Departure from the theoretical geometry of sample or probe; lateral
heat losses by conduction or radiation; conduction of heat along thermocouple leads; distortion of temperature field by inserted temperature
sensor; too small surface heat transfer coefficient, h, in experiments based
on the assumption that Bi+=; spatial scale of inhomogeneities comparable with sensor-to-heater spacing or sensor-to-sensor spacing; anisotropy
or temperature-dependence
of properties not taken into account; moisture
migration; composition
altered by mass transfer; thermal properties

Spherical thermistor bead acting its

heater and sensor; power supplied
at controlled rate to maintain a
constant temperature rise

Ileater integral with a

temperature sensor (healed
probe method)

Sensors at r = 0, r =
from linear heater

IO-7 sw~ away

Methods using internlll heater Sensors at x = 0, x = 5 mm away

and non-integral sensor
from planar heater, sample symmetrically disposed on both sides ot
heater

Metal strip serving as heater and

sensor

Cylindrical heater (f = IS mm),

cylindrical annular sample; constant
power supplied

Linear heater in a theoretically

inrmite sample; constant power
supplied to the heater

Thin disk sample, theoretically

instantaneous heat pulse applied to
the front surface, temperature on
the rear surface monitored

.lTxperitnen tal arratigenretl t

a, A

a, A

0, A.

a, A

A
h
A
A

A
.a
A

0, A

Quantity
measured

beef, potatoes,

of foodstuffs

llapeseed of varying moisture

content

Agar and sugar dissolved in

water (food model)

Clyccrol

Whcal wilh varying moisture

content

Wheat, butter, margsrinc

I:resh and dry fish
Whl!at
Wheat
Potatoes

tllllrozcn

Dairy products
I:ruits and vcgctablcs
Chicken meat frozen and

Clyccrol, agar hcl, biologicitl

materials

Freezedried
apples

TABLE 3
of measurement of thermal properties

Heat pulse (analyticaJ

solution)

Method

Transient methods

;ind

Gcrgcsov,

I976

Moyscy et

al.,

1977

Uadari Narayana and Krishna

Murlhy, 1975

Custafsson 11rrl., 1979

Scrykh

Sweat and Parmalcc 1978

Sweat, 1974

Sweal nnd Il:r1rgl1,1974;

swc:lI e/ i/1., lY77
I looper and Chang, I Y53
Annamma and Rao, 1974
Jonkowski ct til., 1977
Chandra and Muir, I97 1
I<ao 01 al., 1975

I);clasiIbr;,Itt;tr,i:lr,lan0
IhBwlllan,
1 Y77

Vacek, 1977

7)
z
c:
6

r;
I>

Temperature matching
method

Direct use of temperature

profiles to identify
thermal properties

Methods using external

heater and analytical
solution of the heat
equation

I+nnbcrt,

Spinach puree

Ilougen, 1957
Soybean oil meal
0

1979

Temperature on axis of finite

cylinder matched with analytical
solution using tables

et al.,

Albin

Agar solutions, mashed

potatoes, peeled shrimp

Matthews, 1966;
Wadsworth and Spadnro,
1969

Whole potatoes

Temperature distribution in slab

samples matched with analytical
solution using univariate furiction
minimisa tion

Nesvadba, 1982

Fish, ice, food models

Hackel, 197 3

Apples

1974

1914

Fit0

Coffee extract, avocado

et al.,

Domen, 1980

A-150 plastic whose thermal

properties are cquivalcnt to
human tissue

Temperature in the centrc of a

potato measured and matched
with numerical solution of the
heat equation

Slab sample symmetrically heated;

temperatures monitored at 20
points.
a obtained as ratio of partial derivatives of temperature field

Temperature on the axis of cylindrical

sample monitored after subjecting
sample surface to temperature step
A

Slab sample subjected to symmetrical

step temperature rise on surface,
temperature in mid-plane monitored

Slab sample asymmetrically heated;

gradient and heat flux calculated
from temperatures monitored at
four points. A obtained from the
Fourier law

Slab sample, temperature step

applied to front surface, tempcrature on the insulated rcnr surface
monitored

rINdhod

First method of regular

phase (a-calorimeter)

Fitch

Method

Thermal regime of the first kind

(sample surface temperature
varied stepwise by suddenly
immersing the sample in a we&
stirred water bath). Tcmperaturc
monitored
at one point in the
slmplc. The slope of the linear
portion of graph log (lbatll 7s,,,,ple) v. time is proportional
to thermal diffusivity
a
a
a
P
0
a
a
a
U
a
a
a
a
a
a

A, c, II

Temperature
difference
across slab,
heat flux by special sensors

Quantity
measured
A

arrangement
Foodsfujfmeasured

Fresh and dry fish

Cod frozen in air and brine
Tomato pulp
Cylindrical
vegetables
Beetroot
Meat products
16 vcgetnbrcs
Smoked sausages
Canned products
Cherries (individual and in bulk)
Tissue of fruits
Minced smoked meats
Black caviar
15 foodstuffs
Whole soybeans

Citric acid solution

Grapefruit,
oranges
Chicken breast muscle and skin

continued

Temperature
difference
measured
across a slab sample, heat flux
estimated
from warming-up
of a
bath

Experimental

TABLE 3 -

and Shubenko,

1975

Cane, 1936
Havllbk
and Adam, 1970
Stcfanovskij
cr al., 1968
Riedel. I969
Walls and Bilanski, 1973

Annamma
and Kao, 1974
Charm, 1963
Bhowmik and Ilayakawa,
1979
Chuma and Murata, 1969
Movchan and Zhadan, 1968
Klein, 1970
Ccgov and I<lcnkov, I977
Pclejcv, 1963
Lconhardt
and Dussc, 1975
Parker and Stout, 1967

Fedorov

Bennett et al., 1962

Walters and May, 1963

Reference

mo
>

MEASUREMENT

OF THERMAL

PROPERTIES

105

106

P.NESVADBA

depend on the thermal regime and the method cannot separate out this
dependence from other effects; effects of supercooling or evaporation.
Instrumentation

Sampling errors -time taken to make a series of readings corresponding

to the same time level is not negligible in comparison with the interval
between the time levels; sensor location not accurately known.
Calculation

Procedure

Errors in calibration of sensors (too crude a calibration graph); in

graphical technique - curves approximated by straight lines; not enough
terms taken in series expansion of the heat equation solution; discretisation errors in the numerical solution of the heat equation; in the nonlinear heat equation solution the inner iteration not carried out to
convergence; errors in approximation of data by curve-fitting.
Sources of Random Errors
Experimental

Conditions

The initial temperature distribution in the sample not uniform as

assumed; ambient or heat sink temperature or heater power fluctuations;
variable thermal contact between heater (or sink) and sample; sensor-toheater spacing not precisely known and varying randomly.
Sample-to-sample

Variation

Natural biological variation; air inclusion in sample; varying moisture or

composition; inhomogeneous samples.
Instrumentation

Imprecise measurement of temperature; digitising errors; electrical noise

from, e.g. electric motor, propagating into thermocouple circuits.
Calculation

Procedure

Random error in fitting curve to discrete data (even when there is no

uncertainty in the data).
THE FACTORS INFLUENCING THE CHOICE OF METHOD
The choice of method is determined to a large extent by the nature of the
foodstuff to be measured and by the type of measurement required. These
two factors can be viewed as a sieve through which the various methods,
offered by the literature, are sifted. If, at the end of the sifting, there are

MEASUREMENT OF THERMAL PROPERTIES

one or more viable methods left then the available instrumentation

computational facilities can influence the final choice of the method.

107
and

The Nature of the Foodstuff

1. In foodstuffs, values of both X and a are encountered which vary by
one or two orders of magnitude (e.g. X = 0.1 W m-i K- for flour, h = 1a7
W m-i IS- for frozen meat). The technical implementation of the method
of measurement or even the choice of the type of method depends on the
magnitude of X and a. For example, it is advisable to avoid having thermocouples in poorly conducting samples since the heat conduction along the
thermocouple leads can cause false temperature readings.
2. Foodstuffs containing appreciable concentrations of water or fat can
pose difficulties in the measurement of h and a owing to the temperaturedependence of X and a and the latent heat of fusion of ice or fats. In order
to take these effects into account, appropriate methods of measurement
have to be used whose complexity (both experimental and computational)
is considerably greater than that of the methods for temperature-independent X and a.
3. If large temperature gradients are generated in a water-containing
sample, water migration can occur from warmer to colder regions, thereby
locally changing the composition and the thermal properties of the
sample. Such water migration is likely to be a problem particularly in
porous and water-permeable powdery materials.
4. In experiments below the initial freezing temperature, the morphology of the ice phase depends on the rate of freezing (Reid, 1980) and,
moreover, the solution of proteins in water is not completely reversible,
but depends on the previous history (Zaitsev, 1962). Thus h and a can
depend on the thermal regime and on the previous history. The method of
measurement should be able to detect this dependence and to separate it
from other effects. The simplest measurement would be to determine how
X and a varied at different steady rates of freezing or thawing. However,
it might not be possible to apply the results of such measurements to
more complex industrial thermal regimes (with unsteady rates of freezing
or thawing). Then it would be desirable to measure h and a under a regime
as close as possible to the regime to which the results are to be applied.
In fact, it is generally desirable in the measurement of physical properties
of foods that the method should attempt to reproduce as closely as
possible the context of the situation to which the experimental results are
to be applied except when it is known that specific contextual factors
have negligible or quantifiable effects.
5. The structure of the foodstuffs is often inhomogeneous, with a
spatial scale of inhomogeneities between 10m4 and 10e2 m. The method
of measurement has to give meaningful averages of the local properties;

108

P.NESVADBA

this can be ensured by employing sufficiently large dimensions of the

sample and inter-sensor spacings.
6. Many types of foodstuff are anisotropic and then X and a are, strictly
speaking, tensor quantities. The methods in which the heat source and
sink have cylindrical or spherical symmetry cannot be rigorously applied
to anisotropic samples. In order to simplify the methodology, unidirectional heat flow (slab sample) has to be employed.
7. Some foodstuffs are biochemically unstable; this poses additional
restrictions on the measurement method, e.g. the time of measurement
must be short at high temperatures.
8. In measurements on liquid foods the experimental conditions must
be such that convection currents are not generated (Ra < 1000). This can
be done by either limiting the duration of the experiment and the temperature gradients in the sample, or by immobilising the liquid (e.g. in
a gel).
The Type of Measurement Required
Apart from the character of the foodstuff under study, discussed in the
previous section, other factors associated with the type of property or
properties to be measured influence the choice of measurement method.
Some of the relevant factors follow:
1. The requirement to measure X only, a only, X and a simultaneously
or even to measure all the properties X, a and c in a single experiment.
2. The required accuracy and precision of measurement, e.g. <2% for
basic research, <5% for data collection, < 10% for calculations in
engineering design.
3. The temperature range in which the thermal properties are to be
measured. For example, the thermal conductivity of meat is almost
independent of temperature above 0C but depends strongly on
temperature in the range from -1C to -20C; thus methods which
are based on the assumption of temperature-independent
thermai
conductivity are not suited for measurement in the lower temperature
range.
4. The ability to measure the temperature dependence X(T) or u(T).
The methods for the measurement
of temperature-independent
thermal properties can be used to determine the dependence h(T)
or u(T) only if the temperature excursions from the starting temperature are kept sufficiently small; a number of measurements have
then to be made with different starting temperatures covering the
range of temperatures for which X(T) or u(T) is to be determined,
making the procedure lengthy and laborious.

MEASUREMENT OF THERMAL PROPERTIES

109

It is therefore advantageous to use some of the methods recently

developed in which the range of temperatures of interest is covered in a
single experiment with no equilibrations necessary. Beck (1963) suggested
a method of matching the experimental and calculated temperature-timedependence by iterating trial values of thermal diffusivity in a computer
program solving the heat equation.

INSTRUMENTATION

AND COMPUTATIONAL FACILITIES

REQUIRED

The available instrumentation and computational facilities determine to a

large extent the type and complexity of the measurement method which
can be realised.
Some of the transient methods require very accurate monitoring at
several locations in the apparatus of temperatures changing rapidly with
time. This places stringent demands on the quality of the data-acquisition
system.
In some methods accurate heater power control is necessary. The commercially available thermostats are usually capable of accurate control
only in conjunction with large water baths. If systems with small thermai
inertia are to be controlled then, in most cases, special electronic controllers have to be designed.
In data processing, the methods of matching of temperature-timedependence are probably the most complex ones since they require
numerical solution of the heat equation and some form of optimisation
(finding a minimum of a function of one or more variables). These procedures are virtually impossible without the use of a digital computer.
The calculations are usually carried out off-line. However, with the rapid
advances in the microprocessor application field, obtaining the values of
h and a during the actual experiment is becoming a real possibility.

CONCLUSIONS
The transient methods offer the possibility of rapid and simultaneous
determination of h and a, which are crucial considerations in measuring
unstable or high-moisture-content
foods. However, most of the methods
available are not suitable for measuring strongly temperature-dependent
thermal properties. At best, the temperature-dependence
can be traced
by making many individual measurements at various temperatures cover-

110

P. NESVADBA

ing the range of interest. The ideal method should require only a single
run through the range; it should also be able to work with general thermal
regimes such as those occurring in industrial food processing. The review
indicates that the development of methodology is progressing towards
these goals.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
A great part of the research necessary to produce this review related to the
European project COST90. The author wishes to thank Dr M. Kent, Dr
A. C. Jason and Mr H. R. Sanders of Torry Research Station for valuable
discussions and the Referee and Editor for constructive comments.

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