History of solar

Solar technology isnt new. Its history spans from the 7 th Century B.C. to today. We
started out concentrating the suns heat with glass and mirrors to light fires. Today, we
have everything from solar-powered buildings to solar powered vehicles.
Here you can learn more about the milestones in the historical development of solar
technology, century by century, and year by year. You can also glimpse the future.
This timeline lists the milestones in the historical development
of solar technology from the 7th Century B.C. to the 1200s A.D.
7th Century B.C.
Magnifying glass used to concentrate suns rays to make fire and to burn ants.
2nd Century B.C.
As early as 212 BC, the Greek scientist, Archimedes, used the reflective properties of
bronze shields to focus sunlight and to set fire to wooden ships from the Roman Empire
which were besieging Syracuse. ( Although no proof of such a feat exists, the Greek
navy recreated the experiment in 1973 and successfully set fire to a wooden boat at a
distance of 50 meters.)
20 A.D.
Chinese document use of burning mirrors to light torches for religious purposes.
1st to 4th Century A.D.
The famous Roman bathhouses in the first to fourth centuries A.D. had large south
facing windows to let in the suns warmth.
6th Century A.D.
Sunrooms on houses and public buildings were so common that the Justinian Code
initiated sun rights to ensure individual access to the sun.
1200s A.D.
Ancestors of Pueblo people called Anasazi in North America live in south-facing cliff
dwellings that capture the winter sun.
This timeline lists the milestones in the historical development
of solar technology from 1767 to 1891.
1767
Swiss scientist Horace de Saussure was credited with building the worlds first solar
collector, later used by Sir John Herschel to cook food during his South Africa expedition
in the 1830s
1816
On September 27, 1816, Robert Stirling applied for a patent for his economizer at the
Chancery in Edinburgh, Scotland. By trade, Robert Stirling was actually a minister in the
Church of Scotland and he continued to give services until he was eighty-six years old!
But, in his spare time, he built heat engines in his home workshop. Lord Kelvin used
one of the working models during some of his university classes. This engine was later
used in the dish/Stirling system, a solar thermal electric technology that concentrates
the suns thermal energy in order to produce power.
1839

Supervisor: Prof.DR.Oasama Ezzat

French scientist Edmond Becquerel discovers the photovoltaic effect while

experimenting with an electrolytic cell made up of two metal electrodes placed in an
electricity-conducting solutionelectricity-generation increased when exposed to light.
1876
1876 William Grylls Adams and Richard Evans Day discover that selenium produces
electricity when exposed to light. Although selenium solar cells failed to convert enough
sunlight to power electrical equipment, they proved that a solid material could change
light into electricity without heat or moving parts.
1883
Charles Fritts, an American inventor, described the first solar cells made from selenium
wafers.
1891
Baltimore inventor Clarence Kemp patented the first commercial solar water heater. For
more information on the water heater.
This timeline lists the milestones in the historical development
of solar technology in the 1900s.
1904
Wilhelm Hallwachs discovered that a combination of copper and cuprous oxide is
photosensitive.
1905
Albert Einstein published his paper on the photoelectric effect (along with a paper on his
theory of relativity).
1921
Albert Einstein wins the Nobel Prize for his theories (1904 research and technical
paper) explaining the photoelectric effect.
1932
Audobert and Stora discover the photovoltaic effect in cadmium sulfide (CdS).
1947
1947 Passive solar buildings in the United States were in such demand, as a result of
scarce energy during the prolonged W.W.II, that Libbey-Owens-Ford Glass Company
published a book entitled Your Solar House, which profiled forty-nine of the nations
greatest solar architects.
1954
1954 Photovoltaic technology is born in the United States when Daryl Chapin, Calvin
Fuller, and Gerald Pearson develop the silicon photovoltaic (PV) cell at Bell Labsthe
first solar cell capable of converting enough of the suns energy into power to run every
day electrical equipment. Bell Telephone Laboratories produced a silicon solar cell with
4% efficiency and later achieved 11% efficiency.

Supervisor: Prof.DR.Oasama Ezzat

1958
The Vanguard I space satellite used a small (less than one watt) array to power its
radios. Later that year, Explorer III, Vanguard II, and Sputnik-3 were launched with PVpowered systems on board. Despite faltering attempts to commercialize the silicon solar
cell in the 1950s and 60s, it was used successfully in powering satellites. It became the
accepted energy source for space applications and remains so today. For more
information.
1960
Hoffman Electronics achieves 14% efficient photovoltaic cells.
1962
Bell Telephone Laboratories launches the first telecommunications satellite, the Telstar
(initial power 14 watts).
1963
Sharp Corporation succeeds in producing practical silicon photovoltaic modules.
1963
Japan installs a 242-watt, photovoltaic array on a lighthouse, the worlds largest array at
that time.
1964
NASA launches the first Nimbus spacecrafta satellite powered by a 470-watt
photovoltaic array
1966
NASA launches the first Orbiting Astronomical Observatory, powered by a 1-kilowatt
photovoltaic array, to provide astronomical data in the ultraviolet and X-ray wavelengths
filtered out by the earths atmosphere.
1969
The Odeillo solar furnace, located in Odeillo, France was constructed. This featured an
8-story parabolic mirror.
1972
The French install a cadmium sulfide (CdS) photovoltaic system to operate an
educational television at a village school in Niger.
1973
The University of Delaware builds Solar One, one of the worlds first photovoltaic
(PV) powered residences. The system is a PV/thermal hybrid. The roof-integrated
arrays fed surplus power through a special meter to the utility during the day and
purchased power from the utility at night. In addition to electricity, the arrays acted as
flat-plate thermal collectors, with fans blowing the warm air from over the array to
phase-change heat-storage bins.
1976
The NASA Lewis Research Center starts installing 83 photovoltaic power systems on
every continent except Australia. These systems provide such diverse applications as
vaccine refrigeration, room lighting, medical clinic lighting, telecommunications, water
pumping, grain milling, and classroom television. The Center completed the project in
1995, working on it from 1976-1985 and then again from 1992-1995.
1976
David Carlson and Christopher Wronski, RCA Laboratories, fabricate first amorphous
silicon photovoltaic cells.

Supervisor: Prof.DR.Oasama Ezzat

1977
Total photovoltaic manufacturing production exceeds 500 kilowatts.
1982
The first, photovoltaic megawatt-scale power station goes on-line in Hisperia, California.
It has a 1-megawatt capacity system, developed by ARCO Solar, with modules on 108
dual-axis trackers.
1982
The U.S. Department of Energy, along with an industry consortium, begins operating
Solar One, a 10-megawatt central-receiver demonstration project. The project
established the feasibility of power-tower systems, a solar-thermal electric or
concentrating solar power technology. In 1988, the final year of operation, the system
could be dispatched 96% of the time.
1982
Worldwide photovoltaic production exceeds 9.3 megawatts.
1984
The Sacramento Municipal Utility District commissions its first 1-megawatt photovoltaic
electricity generating facility.
1986
1986 The worlds largest solar thermal facility, located in Kramer Junction, California,
was commissioned. The solar field contained rows of mirrors that concentrated the
suns energy onto a system of pipes circulating a heat transfer fluid. The heat transfer
fluid was used to produce steam, which powered a conventional turbine to generate
electricity.
1992
1992 University of South Florida develops a 15.9% efficient thin-film photovoltaic cell
made of cadmium telluride, breaking the 15% barrier for the first time for this
technology.
1992
A 7.5-kilowatt prototype dish system using an advanced stretched-membrane
concentrator becomes operational.
1993
1993 Pacific Gas & Electric completes installation of the first grid-supported photovoltaic
system in Kerman, California. The 500-kilowatt system was the first distributed power
effort.
1994
First solar dish generator using a free-piston Stirling engine is tied to a utility grid.
1996
The worlds most advanced solar-powered airplane, the Icare, flew over Germany. The
wings and tail surfaces of the Icare are covered by 3,000 super-efficient solar cells, with
a total area of 21 m2.
1996
The U.S. Department of Energy, along with an industry consortium, begins operating
Solar Twoan upgrade of its Solar One concentrating solar power tower project.
Operated until 1999, Solar Two demonstrated how solar energy can be stored efficiently
and economically so that power can be produced even when the sun isnt shining. It
also fostered commercial interest in power towers.

Supervisor: Prof.DR.Oasama Ezzat

1998
The remote-controlled, solar-powered aircraft, Pathfinder sets an altitude record,
80,000 feet, on its 39th consecutive flight on August 6, in Monrovia, California. This
altitude is higher than any prop-driven aircraft thus far.
1998
Subhendu Guha, a noted scientist for his pioneering work in amorphous silicon, led the
invention of flexible solar shingles, a roofing material and state-of-the-art technology for
converting sunlight to electricity.
1999
1999 Construction was completed on 4 Times square, the tallest skyscraper built in the
1990s in New York City. It incorporates more energy-efficient building techniques than
any other commercial skyscraper and also includes building-integrated photovoltaic
(BIPV) panels on the 37th through 43rd floors on the southand west-facing facades that
produce a portion of the buildings power.
1999
The National Renewable Energy Laboratory achieves a new efficiency record for thinfilm photovoltaic solar cells. The measurement of 18.8 percent efficiency for the
prototype solar cell topped the previous record by more than 1 percent.
1999
Cumulative worldwide installed photovoltaic capacity reaches 1000 megawatts.
This timeline lists the milestones in the historical development of
solar technology in the 2000s.
2000
First Solar begins production in Perrysburg, Ohio, at the worlds largest photovoltaic
manufacturing plant with an estimated capacity of producing enough solar panels each
year to generate 100 megawatts of power.
2000
At the International Space Station, astronauts begin installing solar panels on what will
be the largest solar power array deployed in space. Each wing of the array consists of
32,800 solar cells.
2000
Sandia National Laboratories develops a new inverter for solar electric systems that will
increase the safety of the systems during a power outage. Inverters convert the direct
current (DC) electrical output from solar systems into alternating current (AC), which is
the standard current for household wiring and for the power lines that supply electricity
to homes.
2000
Two new thin-film solar modules, developed by BP Solarex, break previous
performance records. The companys 0.5-square-meter module achieves 10.8 %
conversion efficiencythe highest in the world for thin-film modules of its kind. And its
0.9-square-meter module achieved 10.6% conversion efficiency and a power output of
91.5 watts the highest power output for any thin-film module in the world.

Supervisor: Prof.DR.Oasama Ezzat

2001
NASAs solar-powered aircraftHelios sets a new world record for non-rocket powered
aircraft: 96,863 feet, more than 18 miles high.
2001
The National Space Development Agency of Japan, or NASDA, announces plans to
develop a satellite-based solar power system that would beam energy back to Earth. A
satellite carrying large solar panels would use a laser to transmit the power to an airship
at an altitude of about 12 miles, which would then transmit the power to Earth.
2001
PowerLight Corporation places online in Hawaii the worlds largest hybrid system that
combines the power from both wind and solar energy. The gridconnected system is
unusual in that its solar energy capacity175 kilowatts is actually larger than its wind
energy capacity of 50 kilowatts. Such hybrid power systems combine the strengths of
both energy systems to maximize the available power.
2001
British Petroleum (BP) and BP Solar announce the opening of a service station in
Indianapolis that features a solar-electric canopy. The Indianapolis station is the first
U.S. BP Connect store, a model that BP intends to use for all new or significantly
revamped BP service stations. The canopy is built using translucent photovoltaic
modules made of thin films of silicon deposited onto glass.
2002
NASA successfully conducts two tests of a solar-powered, remote-controlled aircraft
called Pathfinder Plus. In the first test in July, researchers demonstrated the aircrafts
use as a high-altitude platform for telecommunications technologies. Then, in
September, a test demonstrated its use as an aerial imaging system for coffee growers.
2002
Union Pacific Railroad installs 350 blue-signal rail yard lanterns, which incorporate
energy saving light-emitting diode (LED) technology with solar cells, at its North Platt,
Nebraska, rail yardthe largest rail yard in the United States.
2002
ATS Automation Tooling Systems Inc. in Canada starts to commercialize an innovative
method of producing solar cells, called Spheral Solar technology. The technology
based on tiny silicon beads bonded between two sheets of aluminum foilpromises
lower costs due to its greatly reduced use of silicon relative to conventional multi
crystalline silicon solar cells. The technology is not new. It was championed by Texas
Instruments (TI) in the early 1990s. But despite U.S. Department of Energy (DOE)
funding, TI dropped the initiative.
2002
The largest solar power facility in the Northwestthe 38.7-kilowatt White Bluffs Solar
Stationgoes online in Richland, Washington.
2001
Power light Corporation installs the largest rooftop solar power system in the United
Statesa 1.18 megawatt systemat the Santa Rita Jail in Dublin, California

Supervisor: Prof.DR.Oasama Ezzat

Solar plants arround the world

(PVs) are arrays of cells containing a solar photovoltaic material that converts solar
radiation into direct current electricity. Materials presently used for photovoltaic include
mono crystalline silicon, polycrystalline silicon, microcrystalline silicon, cadmium
telluride, and copper indium selenide/sulfide. Due to the growing demand for renewable
energy sources, the manufacture of solar cells and photovoltaic arrays has advanced
dramatically in recent years.
Photovoltaic production has been doubling every 2 years, increasing by an average of
48 percent each year since 2002, making it the worlds fastest-growing energy
technology. At the end of 2008, the cumulative global PV installations reached 15,200
megawatts. roughly 90% of this generating capacity consists of grid-tied electrical
systems. Such installations may be ground mounted (and sometimes integrated with
farming and grazing) or built into the roof or walls of a building, known as Building
Integrated Photovoltaics or BIPV for short. Solar PV power stations today have
capacities ranging from 10-60 MW although proposed solar PV power stations will have
a capacity of 150 MW or more.
Driven by advances in technology and increases in manufacturing scale and
sophistication, the cost of photovoltaics has declined steadily since the first solar cells
were manufactured. Net metering and financial incentives, such as preferential feed-in
tariffs for solar-generated electricity, have supported solar PV installations in many
countries.

Photovoltaics are best known as a method for generating electric power by using solar
cells to convert energy from the sun into electricity. The photovoltaic effect refers to
photons of light knocking electrons into a higher state of energy to create electricity. The
term photovoltaic denotes the unbiased operating mode of a photodiode in which

Supervisor: Prof.DR.Oasama Ezzat

current through the device is entirely due to the transduced light energy. Virtually all
photovoltaic devices are some type of photodiode.
Solar cells produce direct current electricity from light, which can be used to power
equipment or to recharge a battery. The first practical application of photovoltaics was to
power orbiting satellites and other spacecraft, but today the majority of photovoltaic
modules are used for grid connected power generation. In this case an inverter is
required to convert the DC to AC. There is a smaller market for off-grid power for remote
dwellings, boats, recreational vehicles, electric cars, roadside emergency telephones,
remote sensing, and cathodic protection of pipelines

China Announces the Worlds Largest Solar Plant

From the Three Gorges Dam to the Great Wall, China is known for its monumental
projects that count among the biggest and grandest in the world. Recently the nation
announced its latest super massive project: the construction of the worlds largest solar
power plant. Planned by China Technology Development Group Corp and privately-held
Qinghai New Energy Group, the project will begin with a 30 MW plant in the Qaidam
Basin that will expand to produce 1 GW of solar energy.

Supervisor: Prof.DR.Oasama Ezzat

Situated at an elevation of 2,500-3,000 meters, the Qaidam Basin is the third largest
basin in China. It is located in the Quinghai Province, and is know as the Treasure
Basin for its rich supply of minerals and resources. The four treasures found in the
basin are salt, oil, lead zinc and borax, and soon a fifth treasure will be added to the list
solar energy.
Both traditional silicon-based photovoltaic and thin-film panels will be used in this new
power plant, and the initial 30 MW array is expected to cost $150 million. There is
currently no word on which manufacturers will supply the solar panels, but a number of
companies will likely be employed to meet the needs of the project.
This past year has seen a number of announcements heralding the construction of large
solar plants around the world, with the most recent announcement coming from
California for an 800 MW plant built by Opt solar and Sun power. Granted the great
number of photovoltaic manufacturers in China, its only natural for the country to be
pushing for more solar power projects and offering more incentives. Even though this is
wonderful news for the solar industry, a 1 GW plant hardly puts a dent in Chinas carbon
emissions. In 2006 alone, China reportedly installed 90 GW of coal-fired power.

Supervisor: Prof.DR.Oasama Ezzat

 Olmedilla de Alarcon
Location: Cuenca , Spain
Operator: Nobesol
Configuration: 60 MWp
Operation: 2008
EPC: Nobesol
Quick facts: This plant has 162,000 PV panels and was completed in 15mos at a
cost of 385mn. When put in service in Jun 2008, it became the largest solar PV
power station in the world.

Arnedo
Location: La Rioja , Spain
Operator: T-Solar
Configuration: 34.19 MWp
Operation: 2008
System supplier: T-Solar
EPC: Isolux Corsn
Quick facts: This 181mn plant was built on a 70ha plant in 6mos. It was one of
the
world's
largest
PV
installations at completion.
There are 172,000 200 Wp
modules
installed,
each
weighing 18kg. Annual output
is
expected to be 44 GWh/yr
and the solar park will have
10
full-time employees. The plant
was designed to make for
easy dismantling at the end of its useful life. Prefabricated ballast beams eliminated
buried foundations and rolled hot galvanized members were used for the metallic
supporting structures. These will be easily recycled.

Moura

Supervisor: Prof.DR.Oasama Ezzat

Location: Beja
Operator: Amper Central Solar SA
Configuration: 45.8 MWp
Operation: 2008
System supplier: Yingli
Quick facts: The Moura project went online
in Dec 2008. The 250ha site is in Amareleja
near the Spanish frontier about 200ikm
southeast of Lisbon. In 2009, Mitsubishi Corp agreed to acquire a 34% stake in the
project from majority owner Acciona SA. The total project cost was 261mn.
Expected annual output is 93 GWh.

Lieberose
Location: BB
Operator: juwi GmbH
Configuration: 53 MWp
Operation: 2002
System supplier: First Solar
EPC: juwi
Quick facts: This plant is built on 162ha of a former military training site near
Cottbus. At completion, it became Germanys' largest PV plant and the second
largest in the world. The project cost 160mn and was 80% financed by a German
banking consortium and 20% by juwi and Fist Solar. In total, 300ha will be cleaned of
munitions and after 20yrs of plant operation, all the solar equipment will be recycled
and the property restored to meadowlands

Waldpolenz
Location: SN
Operator: juwi GmbH
Configuration: 40 MWp
Operation: 2007-2008
System supplier: First Solar
EPC: juwi
Quick facts: This is one of the world's largest PV plants. The array covers an area
2km long by 600m wide at a former military airfield near Leipzig. Advanced thin-film
modules were installed at about 3,250/kW, some 20% less than the cost for
German plants then being installed. SachsenFonds GmbH -- a fund marketing and

Supervisor: Prof.DR.Oasama Ezzat

administration company of Sachsen LB Group offered equity to interested

investors in the form of closed-end funds.

Lebrija-1
Location: Sevilla , indonisia
Operator: Soleval
Configuration: 49.9 MW
Operation: 2010
T/G supplier: Siemens
EPC: Soleval Renovables
Quick facts: This is the first of three concentrating solar power blocks planned on a
188ha site. The project development
company is owned 50:50 by Solel Solar
Systems Ltd and Valoriza Energa SL. Solel
also supplied 756, 95m long solar collector
assemblies and 18,000 heat collector
elements.

Solar Cell Efficiencies

Typical module efficiencies ~12%
Screen printed multi-crystalline solar cells
Efficiency range is 6-30%
6% for amorphous silicon-based PV cells
20% for best commercial cells
30% for multi-junction research cells
Typical power of 120W / m2
Mar/Sep equinox in full sun at equator
Solar Panel Efficiency
1 kW/m2 reaches the ground (sunny day)
20% efficiency 200W/m2 electricity
Daylight & weather in northern latitudes
100 W/m2 in winter; 250 W/m2 in summer
Or 20 to 50 W/m2 from solar cells
Value of electricity generated at $0.08/kWh
$0.10 / m2 / day OR $83,000 km2 / day

Solar PV Applications
1.Spacecraft
Supervisor: Prof.DR.Oasama Ezzat

Probably the most successful use of solar panels is on spacecraft, including most
spacecraft that orbit the Earth and Mars, and spacecraft going to other destinations in
the inner solar system. In the outer solar system, the sunlight is too weak to produce
sufficient power and radioisotope thermal generators are used.

Research is underway to develop solar power satellites: space-based solar plants

satellites with large arrays of photovoltaic cells that would beam the energy to Earth
using microwaves or lasers. Japanese and European space agencies have announced
plans to develop such power plants in the first quarter of the 21st century.
As opposed to chemical rockets, which are powered by a chemical reaction of the
propellant, and uses the exhaust gases as reaction mass, some spacecraft propulsion
methods have a method of expelling reaction mass powered by electricity. Either solar
energy or nuclear energy is used. These methods typically have a higher specific
impulse. The amount of reaction mass needed always grows exponentially with the
delta-v to be produced, but more mildly if the specific impulse is high (but it should not
be too high because for large specific impulse the power needed is proportional to it).
With solar power the acceleration that can be produced is very low (much too low for a
launch), but enduring. Typical burn times are months instead of minutes. The power the
solar panel produces per kg, as an upper limit of the power the spacecraft has at its
disposal per kg spacecraft (including solar panels) is an important factor. See also
energy needed for propulsion methods.

Solar panels need to have a lot of surface area that can be pointed towards the Sun as
the spacecraft moves. More exposed surface area means more electricity can be
converted from light energy from the Sun. Sometimes, satellite scientists purposefully
orient the solar panels to "off point," or out of direct alignment from the Sun. This
happens if the batteries are completely charged and the amount of electricity needed is
Supervisor: Prof.DR.Oasama Ezzat

lower than the amount of electricity made. The extra power will just be vented by a
shunt into space as heat.
Spacecraft are built so that the solar panels can be pivoted as the spacecraft moves.
Thus, they can always stay in the direct path of the light rays no matter how the
spacecraft is pointed. Spacecraft are usually designed with solar panels that can always
be pointed at the Sun, even as the rest of the body of the spacecraft moves around,
much as a tank turret can be aimed independently of where the tank is going. A tracking
mechanism is often incorporated into the solar arrays to keep the array pointed towards
the sun.

2.Recreational Use (Sailboat)

View of the small yacht, Rusalka Mist, at sea showing solar panels (photovoltaic arrays)
deployed. These can charge the 12V batteries at up to 9 Amps under full, direct
sunlight.
In 1999 - 2000 two people sailed Rusalka Mist from the island of Jersey in the English
Channel, via Tenerife to the Caribbean and back via the Azores. The solar panels and a
towed, water-power generator provided self-sufficiency in electrical energy during this
trip, both at sea and at anchor during the year.

Remote Areas (Mexico)

Larger solar arrays can provide electricity to
habitations in isolated, well-lighted areas .

A solar panel in Marla, Cirque de Mafate, Runion

Residential

Supervisor: Prof.DR.Oasama Ezzat

 Commercial

Solar Centre at Baglan Energy Park in South Wales

3.Solar Thermal Collectors

Focus the sun to create to create heat
Boil water

Heat liquid metals

Use heated fluid to turn a turbine

Generate electricity
Types of solar collectors for heat:
Solar collectors fall into two general categories: non-concentrating and concentrating. In
the non-concentrating type, the collector area (i.e. the area that intercepts the solar
radiation) is the same as the absorber area (i.e., the area absorbing the radiation). In
these
types
the
whole
solar
panel
absorbs
the
light.
Flat plate and evacuated tube solar collectors in this section are typically used to collect
heat for space heating or domestic hot water.

Flat plate collectors:

Flat plate collectors are the most common type of solar thermal collector, first developed
by Hottel and Whillier in the 1950s.
Supervisor: Prof.DR.Oasama Ezzat

Flat plate thermal system for water heating deployed on a flat roof.

Evacuated tube collectors:

These collectors have multiple evacuated borosilicate glass tubes which heat up solar
absorbers and, ultimately, solar working fluid (water or an antifreeze mixtypically
propylene glycol) in order to heat domestic hot water, or for hydronic space heating. The
vacuum within the evacuated tubes reduce convection and conduction heat losses,
allowing them to reach considerably higher temperatures than most flat-plate collectors.
Two types of tube collectors are distinguished by their heat transfer method: the older
type pumps a heat transfer fluid (water or antifreeze) through a U-shaped copper tube in
each of the glass collector tubes. A newer type uses a sealed heat pipe that contains a
liquid that vaporizes as it is heated. The vapor rises to a heat-transfer bulb positioned
outside the collector tube in a manifold through which water (in direct systems) or heat
transfer fluid (HTF in indirect systems) is pumped. The vacuum that surrounds the
outside of the tube reduces heat loss to the outside, therefore the greater efficiency of
evacuated tube collectors. Therefore they can perform well in colder conditions. The
advantage is largely lost in warmer climates, except in those cases where very hot
water is desirable, for example commercial process water. The high temperatures that
can occur may require special system design to avoid or mitigate overheating conditions
though some have built in temperature limitation.

Evacuated (or vacuum) tubes panel.

The advantage this design has over the flat-plate type is that the constant profile of the
round tube means that the collector is always perpendicular to the sun's rays and
therefore the energy absorbed is approximately constant over the course of a day provided the inner collecting tube is circular in section and not of the flat fin type. The
Supervisor: Prof.DR.Oasama Ezzat

question what to do with the "lost" sun shining through the gaps between evacuated
tubes (gaps which can be as wide as the tubes' absorptive surface themselves) can be
addressed either by adding specially curved metal reflectors under the evacuated tubes
or by reverting to the use of flat plate collectors which are designed not to offer any
gaps in the collector's heat interception profile. The gaps allow for snow to fall through
the collector, minimizing the loss of production in some snowy conditions, though the
lack of radiated heat from the tubes prevents effective shedding of accumulated snow.

Pool or unglazed:
This type of collector is much like a flat-plate collector, except that it has no
glazing/transparent cover. It is used extensively for pool heating, as it works quite well
when the desired output temperature is near the ambient temperature (that is, when it is
warm outside). As the ambient temperature gets cooler, these collectors become
ineffective.

Air:
These collectors heat air directly, almost always for space heating. They are also used
for pre-heating make-up air in commercial and industrial HVAC systems.

Types of solar collectors for electricity generation:

Parabolic troughs, dishes and towers described in this section are used almost
exclusively in solar power generating stations or for research purposes. The conversion
efficiency of a solar collector is expressed as 0.

Solar Thermal Dish Collector

It is the most powerful type of collector which concentrates sunlight at a single, focal
point, via one or more parabolic dishesarranged in a similar fashion to a reflecting
telescope focuses starlight, or a dish antenna focuses radio waves. This geometry may
be used in solar furnaces and solar power plants.

Supervisor: Prof.DR.Oasama Ezzat

There are two key phenomena to understand in order to comprehend the design of a
parabolic dish. One is that the shape of a parabola is defined such that incoming rays
which are parallel to the dish's axis will be reflected toward the focus, no matter where
on the dish they arrive. The second key is that the light rays from the sun arriving at the
Earth's surface are almost completely parallel. So if dish can be aligned with its axis
pointing at the sun, almost all of the incoming radiation will be reflected towards the
focal point of the dishmost losses are due to imperfections in the parabolic shape and
imperfect reflection.

Solar Thermal Dish Schematic

This type of collector is generally used in solar power plants. A trough-shaped parabolic
reflector is used to concentrate sunlight on an insulated tube (Dewar tube) or heat pipe,
placed at the focal point, containing coolant which transfers heat from the collectors to
the boilers in the power station.

Parabolic trough

4.
Solar Power Towers
System Description
Solar power towers
from sunlight by
solar radiation on a
exchanger
uses hundreds to
tracking
mirrors
reflect the incident
receiver.
These
for
utility-scale
400 MWe range.

generate electric power

focusing concentrated
tower-mounted
heat
(receiver). The system
thousands
of
suncalled heliostats to
sunlight
onto
the
plants are best suited
applications in the 30 to

Supervisor: Prof.DR.Oasama Ezzat

In a molten-salt solar power tower, liquid salt at 290C (554F) is pumped from a cold
storage tank through the receiver where it is heated to 565C (1,049F) and then on to a
hot tank for storage. When power is needed from the plant, hot salt is pumped to a
steam generating system that produces superheated steam for a conventional Rankine
cycle turbine/generator system. From the steam generator, the salt is returned to the
cold tank where it is stored and eventually reheated in the receiver. Figure 1 is a
schematic diagram of the primary flow paths in a molten-salt solar power plant.
Determining the optimum storage size to meet power-dispatch requirements is an
important part of the system design process. Storage tanks can be designed with
sufficient capacity to power a turbine at full output for up to 13 hours.

Figure 1. Molten-salt power tower system schematic (Solar Two, baseline configuration).

The heliostat field that surrounds the tower is laid out to optimize the annual
performance of the plant. The field and the receiver are also sized depending on the
needs of the utility. In a typical installation, solar energy collection occurs at a rate that
exceeds the maximum required to provide steam to the turbine. Consequently, the
thermal storage system can be charged at the same time that the plant is producing
power at full capacity. The ratio of the thermal power provided by the collector system
(the heliostat field and receiver) to the peak thermal power required by the turbine
generator is called the solar multiple. With a solar multiple of approximately 2.7, a
molten-salt power tower located in the California Mojave desert can be designed for an
annual capacity factor of about 65%. (Based on simulations at Sandia National
Supervisor: Prof.DR.Oasama Ezzat

Laboratories with the SOLERGY [1] computer code.) Consequently, a power tower
could potentially operate for 65% of the year without the need for a back-up fuel source.
Without energy storage, solar technologies are limited to annual capacity factors near
25%.
Power plants
Installed
Country
Developer/Own
capacity
er
(MW)
Sierra Sun Tower
California
eSolar
5
PS20 solar power
Spain
Abengoa
20
tower
Solar Tres Power
Spain
Sener
17
Tower
PS10 solar power
Spain
Abengoa
11
tower

tower

Sierra Sun Tower

PS20 solar power

5.Solar water heating

Solar water heating or solar hot water is water heated by the use of solar energy.
Solar heating systems are generally composed of solar thermal collectors, a water
storage tank or another point of usage, interconnecting pipes and a fluid system to
move the
heat from
the
collector
to
the
tank. This
thermodynamic approach is distinct from semiconductor photovoltaic (PV) cells that

Supervisor: Prof.DR.Oasama Ezzat

generate electricity from light; solar water heating deals with the direct heating of
liquids by the sun where no electricity is directly generated. A solar water heating
system may use electricity for pumping the fluid, and have a reservoir or tank for
heat storage and subsequent use. The water can be heated for a wide variety of
uses, including home, business and industrial uses. Heating swimming pools, under
floor heating or energy input for space heating or cooling are common examples of
solar water heating. A solar water heating system can form part of a solar thermal
cooling system, promoting efficient temperature control of buildings or parts thereof.
During cool conditions, the same system can provide hot water.

Solar collectors (water heating panels) for heating a swimming pool in the Netherlands

Types of Solar Water Heating (SWH) systems:

The type and complexity of a solar water heating system is mostly determined by:
The changes in ambient temperature during the day-night cycle.
Changes in ambient temperature and solar radiation between summer and
winter.
The temperature of the water required from the system.
The minimum efficiency of the system is determined by the amount or temperature of
hot water required during winter (when the largest amount of hot water is often
required). The maximum efficiency of the system is determined by the need to prevent
the water in the system from becoming too hot (to boil, in an extreme case). There are
two main categories of solar water heating systems. Passive systems rely on
convection or heat pipes to circulate water or heating fluid in the system, while active
systems use a pump. In addition, there are a number of other system characteristics
that distinguish different designs:

The type of collector used (see below)

The location of the collector - roof mount, ground mount, wall mount

The location of the storage tank in relation to the collector

The method of heat transfer - open-loop or closed-loop (via heat exchanger)

Supervisor: Prof.DR.Oasama Ezzat

Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collectors can be designed to produce both hot
water and electricity.

Heating of swimming pools:

Solar thermal collectors for nonpotable pool water use are often made of plastic. Pool
water, mildly corrosive due to chlorine, is circulated through the panels using the
existing pool filter or supplemental pump. In mild environments, unglazed plastic
collectors are more efficient as a direct system. In cold or windy environments
evacuated tubes or flat plates in an indirect configuration do not have pool water
pumped through them, they are used in conjunction with a a heat exchanger that
transfers the heat to pool water. This causes less corrosion. A fairly simple differential
temperature controller is used to direct the water to the panels or heat exchanger either
by turning a valve or operating the pump. Once the pool water has reached the required
temperature, a diverter valve is used to return pool water directly to the pool without
heating. Many systems are configured a drain back systems where the water drains into
the pool when the water pump is switched off.
The collector panels are usually mounted on a nearby roof, or ground-mounted on a
tilted rack. Due to the low temperature difference between the air and the water, the
panels are often formed collectors or unglazed flat plate collectors. A simple rule-ofthumb for the required panel area needed is 50% of the pool's surface area. This is for
areas where pools are used in the summer season only, not year 'round. Adding solar
collectors to a conventional outdoor pool, in a cold climate, can typically extend the
pool's comfortable usage by some months or more if an insulating pool cover is also
used. An active solar energy system analysis program may be used to optimize the
solar pool heating system before it is built.

Pool Heating

6.Solar vehicle
A solar vehicle is an electric vehicle powered by solar energy. This is obtained from
solar panels on the surface (generally, the top) of the vehicle. Photovoltaic (PV) cells
convert the sun's energy directly into electrical energy. Solar vehicles are not practical

Supervisor: Prof.DR.Oasama Ezzat

day-to-day transportation devices at present, but are primarily demonstration vehicles

and engineering exercises, often sponsored by government agencies.

Borealis III leads the way during the 2005 North American Solar Challenge passing by Lake Benton, Minnesota.

Solar Cars
Solar cars combine technology typically used in the aerospace, bicycle, alternative
energy and automotive industries. The design of a solar vehicle is severely limited by
the amount of energy input into the car. Most solar cars have been built for the purpose
of solar car races. Exceptions include solar-powered cars and utility vehicles.
Solar cars are often fitted with gauges as seen in conventional cars. In order to keep the
car running smoothly, the driver must keep an eye on these gauges to spot possible
problems. Cars without gauges almost always feature wireless telemetry, which allows
the driver's team to monitor the car's energy consumption, solar energy capture and
other parameters and free the driver to concentrate on driving.
Solar cars depend on PV cells to convert sunlight into electricity. In fact, 51% of sunlight
actually enters the Earth's atmosphere. Unlike solar thermal energy which converts
solar energy to heat for either household purposes, industrial purposes or to be
converted to electricity, PV cells directly convert sunlight into electricity. When sunlight
(photons) strike PV cells, they excite electrons and allow them to flow, creating an
electrical current. PV cells are made of semiconductor materials such as silicon and
alloys of indium, gallium and nitrogen. Silicon is the most common material used and
has an efficiency rate of 15-20%.

Solar bicycles and motorcycles

A solar bicycle or tricycle has the advantage of very low weight and can use the riders
foot power to supplement the power generated by the solar panel roof. In this way, a
comparatively simple and inexpensive vehicle can be driven without the use of any
fossil fuels.

Supervisor: Prof.DR.Oasama Ezzat

The first solar "cars" were actually tricycles or quadricycles built with bicycle technology.
These were called solarmobiles at the first solar race, the Tour de Sol in Switzerland in
1985 with 72 participants, half using exclusively solar power and half solar-humanpowered hybrids. A few true solar bicycles were built, either with a large solar roof, a
small rear panel, or a trailer with a solar panel. Later more practical solar bicycles were
built with foldable panels to be set up only during parking. Even later the panels were
left at home, feeding into the electric mains, and the bicycles charged from the mains.
Today highly developed electric bicycles are available and these use so little power that
it costs little to buy the equivalent amount of solar electricity. The "solar" has evolved
from actual hardware to an indirect accounting system. The same system also works for
electric motorcycles, which were also first developed for the Tour de Sol. This is rapidly
becoming an era of solar production.

Solar ships
Japan's biggest shipping line Nippon Yusen KK and Nippon Oil Corporation said solar
panels capable of generating 40 kilowatts of electricity would be placed on top of a
60,213 ton car carrier ship to be used by Toyota Motor Corporation.

Solar airplanes
The longest and highest altitude solar-powered (unmanned) airplane flight in August,
2008 used lithium-sulfur batteries for overnight energy storage.

7.Solar furnace
A solar furnace is a structure used to harness the rays of the sun in order to produce
high temperatures, usually for industry. This is achieved using a curved mirror (or an
array of mirrors) that acts as a parabolic reflector, concentrating light (Insolation) onto a
focal point. The temperature at the focal point may reach 3,500 C (6,330 F), and this
heat can be used to generate electricity, melt steel, make hydrogen fuel or
nanomaterials.
The term "solar furnace" has also evolved to refer to solar concentrator heating systems
using parabolic mirrors or heliostats where 538 C (1,000 F) is now commonly
achieved. The largest solar furnace in the world is at Odeillo in the Pyrenees-Orientales
in France, opened in 1970. It employs an array of plane mirrors to gather the rays of
light from the sun, reflecting them on to a larger curved mirror. The rays are then
focused onto an area the size of a cooking pot and can reach 3,500 C (6,330 F),
depending on the process installed, for example:

Supervisor: Prof.DR.Oasama Ezzat

about 1,000 C (1,830 F) for metallic receivers producing hot air for the next
generation solar towers as it will be tested at the Themis plant with the Pegase
project
about 1,400 C (2,550 F) to produce hydrogen by cracking methane molecules

up to 2,500 C (4,530 F) to test materials for extreme environment such as

nuclear reactors or space vehicle atmosphere reentry

up to 3,500 C (6,330 F) to produce nanomaterials by solar induced sublimation

and controlled cooling, such as carbon nanotubeor zinc nanoparticles

The solar furnace at Odeillo in the Pyrenees-Orientales in France can reach temperatures up to
3,500 C (6,330 F)

Modern uses
The solar furnace principle is being used to make inexpensive solar cookers and solarpowered barbecues, and for solar water pasteurization. A prototype Scheffler reflector is
being constructed in India for use in a solar crematorium. This 50 m reflector will
generate temperatures of 700 C (1,292 F) and displace 200-300 kg of firewood used
per cremation.
It has been suggested that solar furnaces could be used in space to provide energy for
manufacturing purposes
Their reliance on sunny weather is a limiting factor as a source of renewable energy on
Earth but could be tied to thermal energy storage systems for energy production
through these periods and into the night.

8. Cooling with Solar Heat

Growing Interest in Solar Air Conditioning
Sunny summer days are beautiful, yet in the office a hot day can be altogether stressful.
Because productivity can suffer under such conditions, more and more buildings are
being fitted with air-conditioning systems. This is where solar air conditioning comes in:
The summer sun, which heats up offices, also delivers the energy to cool them. The
Supervisor: Prof.DR.Oasama Ezzat

thermal use of solar energy offers itself: Days that have the greatest need for cooling
are also the very same days that offer the maximum possible solar energy gain.
The demand for air conditioning in offices, hotels, laboratories or public buildings such
as museums is considerable. This is true not only in southern Europe, but also in
Germany and middle Europe. Under adequate conditions, solar and solar-assisted air
conditioning systems can be reasonable alternatives to conventional air conditioning
systems. Such systems have advantages over those that use problematic coolants
(CFCs), not to mention the incidental CO2 emissions that are taking on increasingly
critical values.

Air Conditioning (Toyama Japan)

The trend towards solar-assisted air conditioning is met by the organizers of the forum
"Solar assisted Air-Conditioning of Buildings" at the convention Intersolar 2002: The
German Association for Solar Energy (Die Deutsche Gesellschaft fr Sonnenenergie
(DGS)), the Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems (Fraunhofer Institut fr
Solare Energiesysteme ISE), the Institute for Maintenance and Modernization of
Buildings at the Technical University of Berlin (Institut fr Erhaltung und Modernisierung
von Bauwerken e.V. an der TU Berlin), and the Pforzheimer Solar Promotion
Corporation (Pforzheimer Solarpromotion GmbH) are all offering a two-day international
forum on the state of technology, the energy and economic aspects of solar cooling as
well as the possible fields of application.
Next to German companies, organizations from the entire world have registered
including firms from Israel, Ghana, Spain, India, the Netherlands, Belgium, and Austria.
Supervisor: Prof.DR.Oasama Ezzat

This Solar-Report will briefly inform you over the possibilities and technology of solar air
conditioning and will also cover economic aspects.

What is Solar Air Conditioning?

Should buildings be cooled with the help of solar energy, then water-assisted air
conditioning systems or ventilation systems can be powered with heat that is made
available by solar collectors. No long-term intermediate storage is necessary in months
of high solar energy gain or in southern lands. The sun can, at least seasonally at our
latitudes, provide a substantial part of the energy needed for air conditioning.
Combination water-assisted systems and ventilation systems are also possibilities .

How does Solar Air conditioning Work?

The basic principle behind (solar-) thermal driven cooling is the thermo-chemical
process of sorption: a liquid or gaseous substance is either attached to a solid, porous
material (adsorption) or is taken in by a liquid or solid material (absorption).
The sorbent (i.e. silica gel, a substance with a large inner surface area) is provided with
heat (i.e. from a solar heater) and is dehumidified. After this "drying", or desorption, the
process can be repeated in the opposite direction. When providing water vapor or
steam, it is stored in the porous storage medium (adsorption) and simultaneously heat
is released.
Processes are differentiated between closed refrigerant circulation systems (for
producing cold water) and open systems according to the way in which the process is
carried out: that is, whether or not the refrigerant comes into contact with the
atmosphere. The latter is used for dehumidification and evaporative cooling. Both
processes can further be classified according to either liquid or solid sorbents.
In addition to the available refrigerating capacity, the relationship between drive heat
and realized cold energy (coefficient of performance; COP) is also an essential
performance figure of such systems (see Table 1 at end of article)

Supervisor: Prof.DR.Oasama Ezzat

9.Solar air heat

Solar air heat is a type of collector in which the energy from the sun, solar insolation, is
captured by an absorbing medium and used to heat air. Solar air heating is a renewable
heating technology used to heat or condition air for buildings or process heat
applications. Solar air collectors can be commonly divided into two categories: glazed
(recirculating types) and unglazed (ambient air heaters -transpired type).

SPF Solar Air Heat Collector

Through-Pass Air Collector

In the through-pass configuration, air ducted onto one side of the absorber passes
through a perforated or fibrous type material and is heated from the conductive
properties of the material and the convective properties of the moving air.
Through-pass absorbers have the most surface area which enables relatively high
conductive heat transfer rates, but significant pressure drop can require greater fan
power, and deterioration of certain absorber material after many years of solar radiation
exposure can additionally create problems with air quality and performance.

Combination Passage Air Collector

In back-pass, front-pass, and combination type configurations the air is directed on
either the back, the front, or on both sides of the absorber to be heated from the return
to the supply ducting headers. Although passing the air on both sides of the absorber
will provide a greater surface area for conductive heat transfer, issues with dust (fouling)
can arise from passing air on the front side of the absorber which reduces absorber
efficiency by limiting the amount of sunlight received. In cold climates, air passing next
to the glazing will additionally cause greater heat loss, resulting in lower overall
performance of the collector.

Air Heat Applications

Supervisor: Prof.DR.Oasama Ezzat

A variety of applications can utilize solar air heat technologies to reduce the use of
conventional heat sources, such as fossil fuels, to create a sustainable means to
produce thermal energy. Applications such as space heating, pre-heating ventilation
makeup air or process heat can be addressed by solar air heat devices. Further strides
are being made in the field of solar co-generation where solar thermal technologies are
being paired with photovoltaics (PV) which increases the efficiency of a typical PV
system by generating additional useful energy in the form of both electricity and heat.

Space Heating Applications

Space heating for residential and commercial applications can be done through the use
of solar air heating panels. This configuration operates by drawing air from the building
envelope or from the outdoor environment and passes it through the collector where the
air warms from conduction of the absorber and is then supplied to the living or working
space by either passive means or with the assistance of a fan.
Ventilation, fresh air or makeup air is required in most commercial, industrial and
institutional buildings to meet code requirements. By drawing air through a properly
designed unglazed transpired air collector or an air heater (such as an energy and heat
recovery ventilators ERV/HRV]), the solar heated fresh air can reduce the heating load
during daytime operation. Many applications are now being installed where the
transpired collector preheats the fresh air entering a heat recovery ventilator to reduce
the defrost time of HRV's.

Process Heat Applications

Solar air heat can also be used in process applications such as drying laundry, crops
(i.e. tea, corn, coffee) and other drying applications. Air heated through a solar collector
and then passed over a medium to be dried can provide an efficient means by which to
reduce the moisture content of the material.

Supervisor: Prof.DR.Oasama Ezzat