MEC302 The Integrity of Materials and Components

Introduction to the Module

Two definitions of Integrity are:
1. an unimpaired condition
2. the quality of being whole and complete
In Engineering we need to design materials, components, structures, objects, systems etc.
that have no defects and that are structurally sound, i.e are unimpaired and whole and
complete. However if they do contain defects through a material fault or due to operating
conditions then we need to know about failure so that it can be avoided. So this module
considers failure of components, how to identify it, and how to prevent it.
We will begin by studying the stress analysis of structures which have axi-symmetric
stress distributions, such as rotating shafts and pressure vessels. We will study the
stresses in these components, consider how they might fail, and look at ways to strengthen
their design.
Then we will move on to how to identify defects in components using non destructive
examination and consider how we might choose the most appropriate technique for a
particular component.
A set of lectures on fracture will consider how to assess the integrity of a component
under load which contains a known defect.
We will then consider the collapse of cracked structures and how to assess the failure of
such structures using R6 Failure Assessment Diagrams. This technique was developed in
the nuclear industry for fail safe design.
Failure due to contact loads, friction and wear will be addressed and a study will be
undertaken of how to prevent such failure.
In week 7 a case study will be set as a learning assignment which brings together stress
analysis, defect sizing and fracture mechanics assessments of a component. Students will
submit their solutions to this problem in Week 8 and feedback will be given on their
understanding in Week 9.
After looking at static loading of defects we will then consider fatigue loading.
All through the course we will consider the same case studies on rotating shafts and
pressure vessels, but using different approaches and loading.

Lectures 1-4 Hand out 2012.doc

Lectures 1-4 Axisymmetric Stress Distributions

Background reading: Mechanics of Engineering Materials, 2nd Ed. P P Benham, R J
Crawford and C G Armstrong, Longman 1996, pp 367-412
Several important design problems are solved by using the results of this analysis
Thick discs subjected to rotation
e.g. turbine discs , gas turbines
Thick cylinders subjected to pressure loading
e.g. gas cylinders, pressure vessels, gun barrels
Also power generating equipment, rotors, alternators, and thermal strains in pipes all
covered by this theory.
We can derive a general theory to cover all cases then modify it for specific cases to suit a
specific problem.
General Equations of Equilibrium
For an axisymmetric stress-strain system, the stresses on a typical element of material will
be as shown, the radial, hoop and axial stresses all vary with radius.
r = radial stress
y
= hoop stress
d
d r RB = body force in units

dr force/unit volume e.g. due to

dr

acceleration

RB
dr
r

r
d

d
2

Figure 1 Stresses on a typical element of material under an axisymmetric stress-strain

system in the radial and hoop directions
In order to choose an appropriate material for a design we need to determine the radial
stress, r , the hoop stress, and the axial stress, A and compare these with the properties
of the materials available. First we must consider radial equilibrium of forces.

Lectures 1-4 Hand out 2012.doc

RB

r r dr
dr

r = radial stress
= hoop stress
A = axial stress

Axial direction

Figure 2 Stresses on a typical element of material under an axisymmetric stress-strain

system in the radial, hoop and axial directions

Radial equilibrium of forces (consider unit thickness)

d r
d

dr r dr d RB r.d .dr r r.d 2 dr sin

0
r
dr
2

Assume: sin

d d

and neglect second order terms

2
2

We also assume that the stress field is axisymmetric and stresses vary only with radius.
hence on simplifying we get

r r. d r
dr

RB .r 0

(1)

From Equation (1) we can see that we have two unknowns, and r, so we need another
equation in order to solve (1).
Therefore we now consider how a typical element of material deforms such that the whole
material remains continuous, i.e., we must ensure Compatibility of Displacements. We
do this by considering the geometry of a typical displacement or deformation and using the
elastic Hookes Law relationships.
Compatible deformation
We have a disc which moves radially outwards due to rotational forces
(u + du)
Let :
u = Radial displacement at radius, r
w = axial displacement at radius, r
(out of the page)
u
dr
= strain with suffix denoting
dr + du
direction
r
= Poissons ratio
Figure 3 Deformation radially
Lectures 1-4 Hand out 2012.doc

Considering the displacement geometry we have

dr du dr

du
dr
dr
dw
A

dA
2 r u 2r
u

2r
r

radial strain
axial strain
hoop strain

If we want to calculate radial displacement, we cannot obtain this from radial strain, but it
can be easily obtained from hoop strain.
Now we use Hookes Law to express the strains in terms of stresses:
r

du 1
r A
dr E

(2)

u 1
A r
r E

(3)

dw 1
A r
dA E

(4)

Using the strain displacement relationships in equations (2,3,4) gives

r 1

d
r RB .r .r.E. d A
dr
1
dr

(5)

Note: The introduction of expressions for RB and A enables (1) and (5) to be solved
simultaneously.
Stresses due to the rotation of thick discs of uniform thickness.
Consider an element of unit axial thickness.
centrifugal force
dr
r

Let the specific weight of the material =

Centrifugal force = 2r x (volume of
element)
force
2 r
RB
unitvolume

Figure 4 Centrifugal force due to rotation

We must now make an assumption regarding A. For a thick disc we assume that the plane
sections remain plane. This implies that the axial strain A is constant with radius.
i.e. A = constant

d A
0
dr

Thus equation (1) can now be written as:

Lectures 1-4 Hand out 2012.doc

 r r. d r . 2 .r 2 0
dr

(6)

and equation (5) as

r 1

d
r . 2 .r 2
dr

(7)

These lead to:

A B 3 2
2
2 r 2
2 r
81
A B 1 2
2
2 r 2
2 r
81

(8)

These equations (8) solve the problem once we put in boundary conditions to find A/2 and
B. The boundary conditions will depend on the component to be studied and several
examples follow.
******************************
Note: For all problems in this course we will assume that (8) is appropriate.
In practise, if the disc is thin, then we do not assume that

d A
0 but assume that
dr

A=0.

This leads to
A B 3

2 r 2
2 r2
8
A B 1 3
2
2 r 2
2 r
8

Lectures 1-4 Hand out 2012.doc

(8a)

Case Study On A Rotating Shaft

Find the maximum stresses in the shaft in Figure 5

Ro= 0

Ro
Ro

r
Figure 5 A long shaft of radius, Ro rotating at radians/second
To find A/2 and B we must specify appropriate boundary conditions:
i.e. r at r = Ro will be zero i.e. Ro = 0.
This is the only boundary stress we can specify in this problem. But we need two
conditions since we have two unknowns.
B
Examine equations (8). Both these equations include 2 as a term and we have material r
r

= 0.
If B 0, then

B
, which says that we will have infinite stress at the centre of the shaft,
r2

which is impossible. Therefore, for a solid shaft B must equal 0.

Equations (8) become
A 3 2

2 r 2
2 81
A 1 2

2 r 2
2 81

We now use the condition r = 0 at r = Ro

0

A 3 2

2 Ro 2
2 81

A 3 2

2 Ro 2
2 81

3 2 2 R 2 r 2
o
81
3 2 2 R 2 1 2 r 2

o
3 2
81

(9)

At the centre of the shaft r = 0,

r

3 2 2 R 2
o
81

which are the maximum stresses in the shaft.

****************************
Lectures 1-4 Hand out 2012.doc

Case Study On A Hollow Rotating Shaft, or Hollow Cylinder

Derive an expression for the radial and hoop stresses for the hollow rotating shaft in
Figure 6
Ro

R1
Ro
r

R1

Figure 6 A long hollow shaft of outer radius, Ro and inner radius R1, rotating at
radians/second
The boundary conditions here are that at r = R1, and r = Ro, r = 0, that is:
R1 = 0, and Ro = 0
The expression for r in equations (8) becomes
R1 0
Ro 0

A B 3 2
2
2
2 R1
2 R1
81

A B 3 2
2
2
2 Ro
2 Ro
81

solving these simultaneously

A 3 2

2 R1 2 Ro 2
2 81
3 2 2 R 2 R 2
B
1
o
81
2
2
2

R1 Ro

3 2
2
2
2

r
R1 Ro

r
2

81
r

2
2
2
R1 Ro

1 2 r 2
3 2
2
2

R1 Ro

2
3 2
81
r

Lectures 1-4 Hand out 2012.doc

(10)

Rotating Components Example 1

(a) A thin steel disc is rotated at 6000 r.p.m. Plot the radial and hoop stresses with
increasing radius if = 8000 kg/m3, Inner radius Ri = 0.075 m, Outer radius Ro = 0.3 m
(b) If this were a long cylinder, how would the stresses differ?
(Hint: Which equations should be used? Equations (8) or (8a)?)

************************************************************************
***
Rotating Components Example 2
A rotor in the form of a long hollow cylinder is shrunk onto a shaft such that the interface
radial pressure due to shrinkage is 50MN/m2.
(a) Find the speed of rotation when the shaft ceases to drive the rotor
(b) Find the maximum stress in the cylinder at this speed
= 8000 kg/m3, E = 21 x 1010 N/m2, = 0.3
Inner diameter di = 100 mm, Outer diameter do = 600 mm
Note : The radial stress due to shrinkage is compressive (i.e. ve)
The radial stress due to rotation is tensile (i.e. +ve)
***********************************************************************

Lectures 1-4 Hand out 2012.doc

Lam Equations - Thick cylinders subjected to internal and external pressure

The same theory as has been developed for rotating thick walled cylinders may be used for
thick cylinders subjected to internal and external pressure, but now the body forces are
zero (since = 0).
Equations (8) lead to:
A B
B
2 C 2
2 r
r

Radial stress:

Hoop stress:

A B
B
2 C 2
2 r
r

Lam Equations

A 0
A E A r
A E A 2C

Axial Stress:

for open ends

for closed ends, i.e. independent of r

As before, B and C are found from boundary conditions.

Note: r and both increase as r decreases. So the maximum stresses always occur on
the inner surfaces in this case.
We can use the Lam Equations is terms of the diameter, provided we are consistent.
i.e.
B*
d2
B*
C * 2
d

r C *

and remember that the constants C* and B* will be different from C and B.

Since the problem is axisymmetric

the hoop and radial stresses are
principal stresses.
i.e. 1 =
2 = r

2max

ri
ro

ro
r

Figure 7 Stress distribution of radial and hoop

stress in a thick walled cylinder subject to
internal pressure
Lectures 1-4 Hand out 2012.doc

Hoop stresses are positive

Radial stresses are negative
(for internal pressure conditions)

max

1 2 r

2
2

The maximum shear stress in

the cylinder is at the inside
(i) r (i)
max
2

Yielding in a cylinder
Let k = ro/ri for an internally pressurized cylinder with pressure P
Using the Lam Equations
B
r2
B
C 2
r

r C

with the boundary conditions:

At r = ro, r = 0 C

B
ro

At r = ri , r = P C

B
ri

We obtain the expressions:

ro 2
P 1
r

r 2
k 1
ro 2
P 1
r

2
k 1

max

r
2

k 2P
at r = ri
k 2 1

Since yield will commence in the bore, using Trescas criterion

max

k 2P

2
2
k 1

1
1 2
2 k

************************************************************************
Pressurised Cylinders Example 1
A cylinder where ri = 0.5 ro has an internal pressure, P and closed ends. Plot the stress
distribution along the radius and find the maximum shear stress.
************************************************************************
Pressurised Cylinders Example 2
A pipe of 100 mm ID is subjected to internal water pressure of 10 MN/m2. If the pipe
material has a safe tensile stress of 20 MN/m2, and a safe shear stress of 40 MN/m2, find
the OD of the pipe.
************************************************************************
Lectures 1-4 Hand out 2012.doc

10

Turbine discs of variable thickness

Turbine discs are seldom flat, but they thicker near the shaft. Optimum weight is attained
if the stresses r and are equal, and uniform at all radii.
For varying thickness, we require a new equilibrium equation, as thickness, t varies with
radius, r.

rt

d
t.r. r t. t. 2 r 2 0
dr

may be derived from the free body diagram.

If r = f(r), the solution gives:
0.5 2 r 2

t t o exp
r

Thickness, t

and this is an ideal shape to be used in turbines.

Uniform thickness cylinders
In order to strengthen a pressurized cylinder one would automatically make the walls
thicker. However for uniform thickness cylinders, above thickness, wopt , we get very little
reduction in i or max for massive increases in wall thickness.
i
max
Wopt
Cylinder wall thickness
For internal pressure, is tensile, i.e. positive. If we can induce an initial negative, i.e.
compressive hoop stress, the initial pressurisation of the cylinder would be employed in
overcoming the negative initial .
In practice to contain a higher pressure one can:
(a) shrink fit one or more cylinders around the pressure containing cylinder (e.g.
hydraulic cylinders, gun barrels etc.) to form a compound cylinder to induce
compression
(b) wind wire on a cylinder under tension to induce compression at the bore.
(c) overstrain once with a pressure beyond yield, to leave compressive residual stress
distribution near the bore.
Lectures 1-4 Hand out 2012.doc

11

Shrink Fit Example 1 - Comparison of stresses in a single cylinder with

those in a compound cylinder under the same internal pressure.
(a)

Single Cylinder
r A

B
d2

B
d2

Internal Pressure = 45 MPa

r = -45 -45 = A + 100B }

d = 0.1

0.1 m

r = 0

d = 0.2

0=A+

B = -0.6
A = 15

25B

0.2 m

r 15

0.6
d

15

0.6
d2

Stresses are max at d = 0.1:

Max. Tensile Stress, 15

0.6

75 MPa
0.12
r 0.6
Max. Shear Stress,

60 MPa
2
0.12
d (m)
(MPa )
r (MPa )
0.1
-45
75
0.15
-11.7
41.7
0.2
0
30

(MPa )

60
26.7
15

(b) Compound Cylinder - An outer cylinder shrunk onto an inner cylinder.

(Both cylinders are made of the same material)
Shrinkage pressure between cylinders = 7 MPa
Internal pressure = 45 MPa
Resultant Stress = Stress due to shrinkage
+ stress due to internal
pressure.
0.1 m
0.15 m
0.2 m

Lectures 1-4 Hand out 2012.doc

12

Due to shrinkage pressure:

d 0.1, r 00 A 100B
Inner cylinder,

= -12.6 -

0.126

0.126

d 0.15, r 7 7 A '
'

d 0.2, r 00 A 25 B

,MPa

0
-7

-25.2
-18.2

400 '
B
9

B ' 0.36
A' 9

'

d, m

r , MPa

, MPa

0.15

-7

25

0.2

18

Due to
shrinkage
pressure

r
0
-25.2
-7
-18.2
-7
25
0
18

Due to internal
pressure

0.36
d

r , MPa

d2

Outer
Cylinder

r 9

d, m
0.1
0.15

d2

A 12.6

400
B
9

d 0.15, r 7 7 A

r = -12.6 +

B 0.126

0.36
d2

Resultant Stress
d, m

Inner
Cylinder
Outer
Cylinder

0.1
0.15
0.15
0.2

r
-45
-11.7
-11.7
0

75
41.7
41.7
30

Resultant

60
26.7
26.7
15

r
-45
-18.7
-18.7
0

49.8
23.5
66.7
48

47.4
21.1
42.7
24

Stress D istribution
100
80

S tress, MP a

60

Single
Cylinder

40

Compound
Cylinder

20
0
-2 0

0 .1

-4 0
Lectures 1-4 Hand out 2012.doc

-6 0

0 .1 5

0 .2
d, mm

13

Diametral interference required to produce a shrunk fit

In order to produce a shrink fit, the outer diameter of the inner cylinder must be slightly
greater than the inner diameter of the outer cylinder. These dimensions need to be
accurately machined in order to obtain the required interface pressure due to shrinkage.
R = initial radial difference

outer
Ro

Ri
+ve R

Ri = change in radius of
inner cylinder
Ro = change in radius of
outer cylinder

Final position of
common radius

-ve R

R R o R i or D D o Di for interference allowance.

General case for cylinders of different materials

II

R1 R2 R3

Hookes Law

1
r
E

(1)

Assuming A = 0.
Hoop strain
change in circumfere ntial length
original circumfere ntial length
D D D D

D
D

Diameter change D = D

Lectures 1-4 Hand out 2012.doc

(2)

14

At the interface diameter, D2:

D2 I D2 I

D2
2 II II r 2 II for outer cylinder (II)
E
D
I
I
2 2 I r 2 for inner cylinder (I)
E

D2 II D2 II

Now r2I = r2II = r2

Diametral interference allowance = D2 = D2II - D2I
This gives us the general expression:
II

2I
2
D2 D2 II I
E

II

r 2
E I E II

(3)

If both cylinders are the same material this expression reduces to:
D2

D2
2 II 2 I
E

(4)

Shrink Fit Example 2

Look at the case in Shrink Fit Example 1
Consider the effects due to shrinkage only. What is the diametral interference allowance?

Case of sleeve on solid shaft

Let the interference pressure = -P
For the sleeve then the procedure is as before.
B
d2
B
C 2
d

r C

For the shaft:

Since there is material at r = 0, then B = 0, so that we do not have r = = at r = 0.

B = 0 for the shaft
r = = C = (-P)
i.e. in the shaft we have a uniform compressive stress (-P), everywhere

Lectures 1-4 Hand out 2012.doc

15

Summary of Axisymmetric Stresses

Derived expressions for radial and hoop stresses in rotating thick cylinders

A B 3 2
2
2 r 2
2 r
81
A B 1 2
2
2 r 2
2 r
81

(8)

Solution method use boundary conditions to find A and B substitute back into
equations.
Rules:

Solid Shafts: B = 0
Hollow shafts r = 0 at inner and outer radii
Long shafts give similar solution to thin discs

Lams Equations Thick cylinders under pressure

Compound Cylinders to reduce stress at bore
Diametral Interference how to design to shrink fit

Lectures 1-4 Hand out 2012.doc

16