Thesis Report - Highrise Constrxn PDF

PROJECT REPORT
BARRIERS TO HIGH RISE CONSTRUCTION
Guide: Mr. Muralidhar
BY
R.PRASANNA VENKATESH (213067)
PRATAP.B.PATIL (213068)
M. VENKATESH (213107)
BARRIERS TO HIGH RIS E CONSTRUCTION
CONTENTS
1.
INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................................................4
1.1.
DEFINING HIGH RIS E BUILDINGS ........................................................................................5
1.2.
HIS TORICAL DEVELOPMENT ................................................................................................6
1.3.
WHY HIGH RIS E IN INDIA? .....................................................................................................9
1.3.1. URB ANIZAT ION AT THE MACRO LEVEL .........................................................................10

1.3.2. URB ANIZAT ION PATT ERN ....................................................................................................10
2.
ARCHIT ECTURAL ASPECTS AND URB AN DEVELOPMENT TODAY ............................17
3.
FINANCING MODELS ..................................................................................................................19
3.2.
COS T MODELS ..........................................................................................................................22
3.2.1. LEAS ING......................................................................................................................................22

3.2.2. BOT ...............................................................................................................................................23
3.2.3. DEVELOPER...............................................................................................................................23
4.
BARRIERS .......................................................................................................................................24
4.1.
INFRASTRUCTURAL AS PECTS ............................................................................................24
4.2.
ECONOMIC AS PECTS..............................................................................................................25
4.3.
SOCIAL AND ECOLOGIC AL AS PECTS ...............................................................................26
4.4.
TECHNOLOGY OF HIGH-RIS E CONS TRUCTION............................................................46
4.5 CULT URAL RES PONSE...............................................................................................................83

4.6 ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS ....................................................................................................84
5
CONCLUS ION...............................................................................................................................108
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AIM: To study about the high rise structures and different barriers for the construction of high
rise building in India.
OBJECTIVE:To overcome the barriers and to find a suitable solution for the construction of high rise
building with reference to Indian context.
What is a barrier?
Barrier in dictionary means a fencing that creates an obstacle. In this thesis the term
barrier means the difficulties the construction industry faces during the actual execution
as well as the planning of the high rise buildings.
1. To study the barriers and Impact of the following aspects on High rise construction
1.1
Planning and Scheduling
1.2
Technical or Technology
1.3
Economical
1.4
Cost
1.5
Social
1.6
Environmental and
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1. INTRODUCTION
From the beginning in the middle of
the last century and right up to the present day,
high-rise buildings have always been a dominant
landmark in the townscape, visible from far and
wide, like the towers of Antiquity and the Middle
Ages. At the same time, this sky-scraping
construction method has always been an ideal
means of displaying power and influence in the
community. In the light of this goal, reasonable
economic considerations often recede into the
background during the erection and subsequent
use of these high-rise buildings. A prestige objects
for the builder, these edifices not only have an
effect on their immediate neighbours, but also
influence many areas of urban life in very
different ways. These aspects will also be taken up
in this thesis.
In the ear ly years, the builders urge to r ise to dizzying heights was lim ited
by unsolved technical problems. In recent years, however, a real competition has
developed among the builders of skyscrapers to be world champion at least for a few
months before being outdone by a rival with an even higher building. Even seemingly
Utopian projects now stand a good chance of becoming reality.
This rapid development has only become possible because the technical
conditions and methods used in constructing high-rise buildings have improved
decisively and in some cases changed fundamentally in the last few years. Up until the
end of the last century, high-rise buildings were still made of solid br ick masonry, which
ultimately required foundation walls up to 1.8 m thick. When steel frames adapted from
steel bridge construction were introduced, with their increased strength and lower weight,
builders and architects were able to soar to greater heights. With this steel skeleton, the
net weight of the structure was considerably lower than that of a solid masonry building;
it thus not only cut the costs of construction, but also gave wings to the architects
imagination. By the turn of the century, they were designing buildings that also looked
light and delicate as even at that time the skeleton structure permitted a large proportion
of windows on the outer facade. Since then, the construction of high-rise buildings has
continued to change with the requirements imposed by air-conditioning and particular ly
office communications.
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The high-rise office buildings of the nineties have little in common with
their predecessors. Instead of compact walls and ceilings, we now have a high-tech
structure made up of largely prefabricated elements which are welded and bonded
together on site. The building comprises a skeleton of steel or reinforced concrete which
is rounded off by suspended ceilings and false floors creating the space required for
installations. The originally load-bear ing outer wall has been replaced by a prefabricated
facade. However, this complex method of construction promotes the spread of fire and
fumes, and therefore, in conjunction with the considerable concentration of values
involved, represents an extremely sensitive risk both during construction and throughout
the service life of the building. The major fires which broke out in a number of high-rise
office buildings shortly before their completion in the early nineties show how correct the
appraisal of the fire risk in high-rise buildings is the losses incurred through these fires
are several times higher than the amounts of indemnity known to date.
This is consequently one of the main reasons why high rise buildings
constitute a new dimension of risk for the insurance industry, one which has made it
necessary to draw up new concepts for underwriting, loss assessment and PML
determination throughout every phase of construction and subsequent use. We are fully
aware of the fact that many of the aspects considered with regard to the construction, use
and insurance of high-rise buildings naturally apply in the case of lower buildings too.
Nevertheless, we do not wish to lim it ourselves to aspects which only apply
specifically to high rise buildings. After a brief overview, we will therefore consider in
detail all the risks and problems associated with high-r ise buildings and the techniques
that are applied in order to illuminate possible solutions from the point of view of both
construction technology. Moreover, the more broadly based general information available
will make it easier not only to assess the risk of high-rise building projects but also to
arrive at a price for such projects.
1.1. Defining High Rise Buildings

The definition of a high-rise building differs
from one country to the next. For our purposes, we will
proceed on the basis of a minimum height of 30 m and will
restrict ourselves to buildings used for residential or office
purposes. Despite the various critical voices raised, the
construction of high-rise buildings has by no means reached
its zenith.
A high-rise is a tall building or structure.
Massachusetts General Laws define a high-rise as being
higher than 70 feet (21 m). Buildings between 75 feet and
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491 feet (23 m to 150 m) high are considered high-rises. Buildings taller than 492 feet
(150 m) are classified as skyscrapers. The average height of a level is around 13 feet (4
m) high, thus a 79 foot (24 m) tall building would comprise 6 floors. Most building
engineers, inspectors, architects and similar professions define a high-rise as a building
that is at least 75 feet (23 m).
Davis Langdon (2002) states that it is not possible to define high r ise using
absolute measures. They believe that tall buildings are therefore best understood in
relative terms as buildings whose planning, design, construction and occupation is
influenced by height in ways that are not normally associated with more typical, local
developments.
High-rise buildings became possible with the invention of the elevator ( lift)
and cheaper, more abundant building materials. Normally, the high r ise structures
functions as high-rise apartment building or high-rise offices.
For the sake of this study, the terms tall building and high-rise shall be used
for structures with approximately eight or more stories while towers are tall buildings
with a slender shape.
1.2. Historical development

What could be a more appropriate point to begin our consideration of highrise buildings than with the Tower of Babel and then to trace their historical development
over the centuries. However, a distinction must be made between high buildings and
high-rise buildings: high buildings have only a few floors and not uncommonly only
one, albeit very high floor. They are crowned by a high roof and turrets (in the manner
typical of medieval and Gothic cathedrals). High-rise buildings, on the other hand,
have many, usually identical floors of normal height one above the other.
Seen in this light, high-rise buildings have their origins in the towers of San
Gim ignano rather than in the Tower of Babel or ecclesiastical structures. The first highrise office building according to this definition was built in Chicago in 1885: the Home
Insurance Building. It still stands on the corner of La Salle and Adams Street, a witness
of its times. It has twelve floors there were originally ten, but two were subsequently
added and was built in roughly eighteen months. The architect W. L. B. Jenney used an
uncommon new method for the construction of his building: the weight of the walls was
borne by a framework of cast-iron columns and rolled I-sections which were bolted
together via L-bars and the entire skeleton embedded in the masonry.
The early Equitable Life Building in New York, which was completed in
1872, also contributed towards the development of high-rise buildings, for it was the first
tall building to have an elevator. Although it only had six floors, the edge of the roof was
no less than 130 feet (roughly 38 m) above the road surface. Due to its elevator, the upper
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floors were in greater demand than the lower floors. Following completion of the
Equitable building, it was the done thing to reside on one of the top floors.
Burnham and Roofs Monadnock building, which was completed in Chicago
in 1891, must also be mentioned as one of the last witnesses of a whole generation of
solid masonry high-rise buildings. Sixteen floors of robust brick masonry rise skywards
in stern, clear lines: an astonishing s ight to eyes accustomed to the frills and fancies of
the late 19th century. Standing on an oblong base measuring 59 m _ 20 m, the building is
reminiscent of a thin slice and not only recalls the industrial brick buildings of the late
19th century, but also anticipates the formal simplification of the later 1920s.
The buildings rose higher and higher with the spread of pioneer ing
construction methods such as the steel skeleton or reliable deep foundation methods
as well as the invention and development of the elevator. The highly spectacular skylines
of North American cities, particularly Chicago and New York, originated in the ear ly
years of the 20th century. Glancing over Manhattans stony profile, the silhouettes
dotting the first 12 km of the 22-km-long is land bear vociferous testimony to this
dynamic development:
The World Trade Center, currently the tallest building in New York, 417 m high,
The legendary Empire State Building, built in 1931, 381 m,
The United Nations building erected in 1953, 215
m,
The Chrysler Building dated 1930, 320 m,
The former Pan Am Building completed in 1963,
246 m,
The Rockefeller Center (19311940), a complex
of 19 buildings,
The Citicorp Center built in 1978, 279 m, and
The AT&T Building opened in 1984, a
pioneering building by the post-modern architect
Philip Johnson, with an overall height of 197 m.
It is only recently that attention has also
turned to interesting high-rise buildings outside North
Amer ica: Norman Fosters Hong Kong and Shanghai
Bank, Ieoh Ming Peis Bank of China in Hong Kong
and the twin tops of the Petronas Towers in Kuala
Lumpur, currently the tallest building in the world at
452 m. High-rise buildings in Germany are a modern
development and are concentrated particularly in
Frankfurt am Main: today, Frankfurt is the only German
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city with a skyline dominated by skyscrapers. One of the tallest buildings in the city is the
Messeturm built in 1991 with a height of 259 m, which is not much more than half the
height of the Sears Tower in Chicago, currently the tallest office and business tower in
North America with a total height of 443 m. It was the rapid growth in population that
originally promoted the construction of high-rise buildings.
New York once again provides a striking example: land became scarce well
over a hundred years ago as more and more European immigrants streamed into the city.
From roughly half a million in 1850, the citys population grew to 1.4 million by 1899.
More and more skyscrapers rose higher and higher on the solid ground in Manhattan, as
buildings could only be erected with great difficulty on the boggy land to the right and
left of the Hudson River and East River. In this way, New York demonstrated what was
meant by urban densification despite the considerable doubts originally voiced by
experts in conjunction with this development.
The first area development code to come into force in New York was the socalled zoning law of 1916, according to which the height of a building must not exceed
two and- a-half times the width of the road running alongside the building. The building
mass was further limited by the requirement that the floor space index must not exceed
twelve times the area of the site. Among other things, the zoning law stipulated that only
the first twelve floors of a building were allowed to occupy the full area of the site and
that all subsequent floors must then recede in zoned terraces a requirement of major
aesthetic signif icance, for this terraced form still dom inates the silhouette of Amer ican
skyscrapers today.
All doubts as to the profitability of high-r ise buildings were set aside with
completion of the Empire State Building, the Chrysler Building and other skyscrapers in
the 1930s, for they would never have been built if they could not have turned a prof it.
Although rentals proceeded slowly at first when the Empire State Building was
completed in the heart of the recession in the 1930s and it was therefore known as the
Empty State Building for many years, it subsequently generated satisfactory revenues
once all the premises had been let. Cities in Europe and Asia grew horizontally and it was
only when production and services acquired greater economic signif icance throughout the
world and the pr ice of land rose higher and higher in economic centers after the Second
World War that they also began to grow vertically.
Modern Hong Kong is a striking case in point: it encompasses an area of
1,037 km2 (Victoria, Kowloon and the New Territories), of which only one-quarter has
been developed, but with maximum density and impressive efficiency. Almost all the
new buildings, office towers and particularly residential towers in the New Territories
have more than thirty floors.
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1.3. Why High Rise in India?

In current milieu of increasing urbanization more than half of world's
population is living in cities and towns. Nearly twenty eight per cent of India's population
(285 million) live in urban areas as per 2001 census. The percentage decadal growth of
population in rural and urban areas during the decade is 17.9 and 31.2 percent
respectively. It is important to note that the contribution of urban sector to GDP is
currently expected to be in the range of 50-60 percent. Increased urbanization seen today
is a result of this overall growth.
Construction activity is one of the largest activities driving the economy that
has a significant impact on the environment. As per the Confederation of Indian
Industries, the construction sector contributes to 10% of Indias GDP and is growing at
the rate of 9.2% as against the world average of 5.5%.
The high-rise building is also seen as a wealth-generating mechanism
working in an urban economy. High-rise buildings are constructed largely because they
can create a lot of real estate out of a fair ly small piece of land. Because of the
availability of global technology and the growing demand for real estate, skyscrapers are
seen as the most fitting solution to any city that is spatially challenged and can`t
comfortably house its inhabitants. And hence, maybe it is rightly said that When you
compare the population in our cities with the amount of land we have, the only way to
provide better living conditions is by building higher.
It is often argued that the process of economic liberalization and associated
structural reform would accelerate ruralurban (RU) m igration and boost the pace of
urbanization. Linking of India with global economy would lead to massive inflow of
foreign capital as also rise in indigenous investment resulting in an increase in
employment opportunities within or around the existing urban centres. The critics of
globalization, however, argue that employment generation in the formal urban economy
might not be high due to the capital intensive nature of industrialization under the new
policy regime1. A low rate of infrastructural investment in the public sector in the
attempt to control budgetary deficits would slow down both agricultural as well as agroindustrial growth, resulting in high unemployment and exodus from rural areas. This
would lead to rapid growth in urban population leading to the unregulated expansion of
the urban informal sector. Recent data from Population Census, however, question the
proposition of accelerated urban growth.
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1.3.1.
URBANIZATION AT THE MACRO LEVEL
The annual exponential growth rate of urban population during 1950s was
3.5 per cent. This was the highest the country had seen until that time and led to the
emergence of theories of over urbanization. Subsequently, this high growth rate has
been attributed to independence and partition of the country as also non-rigorous
identification of towns and cities in the 1951 Census. Formalization of the criteria for
identifying urban centres in the 1961 Census resulted in a dramatic decline in urban
growth figures in the following decade. The 1970s, however, following the same
methodology of urban population enumeration, saw a very high urban growth of 3.8 per
cent, fuelling speculation that India was on the verge of an urban explosion. Speculations
notwithstanding, the growth rate came down to 3.1 per cent in the 1980s. It has gone
down further to 2.7 per cent in the 1990s, which is the lowest in the post-independence
period. As a consequence, the percentage of population in urban areas has gone up
sluggishly from 17.3 in 1951 to 23.3 in 1981 and then to 27.78 in 2001. But, in terms of
population size, Indias urban population is vast. Moreover, population in large cities has
grown rapidly and this has led to serious infrastructural deficiencies in urban India.
1.3.2.
URBANIZATION PATTERN
An important feature of urbanization in India is dualism urban growth at

macro level is decelerating but in class I cities it is growing. An analysis of the
distribution of urban population across size categories reveals that the process of
urbanization in India has been large city oriented. This is manifested in a high percentage
of urban population being concentrated in class I cities, which has gone up systematically
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over the decades in the last century. The massive increase in the percentage share of
urban population in class I cities from 26.0 in 1901 to 68.7 in 2001 has often been
attributed to faster growth of large cities, without taking into consideration the increase in
the number of these cities.
Undoubtedly, the faster demographic growth is an important factor
responsible for making the urban structure top-heavy. One can note that the class I cities
have experienced a distinctly higher growth rate than lower order towns except those in
class VI. Indeed, the latter do not fall in line with the general pattern of urban growth in
other size categories as they are governed by factors exogenous to the regional economy.
In the context of demographic dominance of urban scene by class I cities, it is important
to note that there were only 24 classes I cities in 1901 that have gone up to 393 in 2001.
While a number of lower order towns have graduated to class I category, the process of
rural settlements acquiring urban characteristics has been weak.
The pattern of growth has remained similar over time although there is a
general deceleration in urban growth in all size categories in the past two decades. Class I
cities have maintained an edge over class II, III, IV and class V towns in terms of the
growth rate (of common towns). The gap, however, seems to have widened during 1991
01. Class I cities in the country experienc ing higher population growth as compared to
other categories (except VI) is due to both aer ial expansion as well as in-migration. A
large number of satellite towns have emerged in the vicinity of these cities.
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Many of these are becoming a part of the city agglomeration over time. There
are also outgrowths that have been treated as parts of the agglomeration by the Census.
Further, there has been expansion in the municipal boundar ies of the class I cities,
resulting in higher urban growth figures. The growth pattern of metro citiescities
having population of a million or morecorroborate further the thesis of concentrated
urban development. The demographic growth in metro cities has been higher than that of
common towns or even the class I cities in recent decades (Figure 2.5). The growth
would have been even higher but for the location of large industrial units outside the
municipal limits, thanks to the pressures exerted by the environment lobby. This is
facilitated by easy availability of land, access to unorganized labour market, besides
lesser awareness and less stringent implementation of environmental regulations in the
rural settlements at the urban per iphery. The poor are able to build shelters in these
degenerated peripher ies and f ind jobs in the industries located therein or commute to
the central city for work (Kundu 1989 and Kundu et al. 2002). The entrepreneurs,
engineers, executives, etc., associated with modern industries and business, however,
reside within the central city and travel to the periphery through rapid transport corridors.
This segmented structure of city growth, variants of which are emerging across
regions has brought the migrants to the rural peripheries in many large cities. While
demographic growth rates in the state capitals and Delhi have been at par with the 3.84
per cent growth in the million plus category of cities during 198191, the growth rates of
the former have declined substantially in the 1990s to 2.79 per cent only. It would be
important to enquire whether this is because of the strategy of structural adjustment,
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expenditure control, fall in the infrastructure investments by the central and state
governments etc., which could have adversely, affect the growth of the capital cities.
URBANIZATION TREND: AN ANALYSIS

The regional variations in the distribution of urban population are signif icant. A
large proportion is concentrated in six most developed states, namely Maharashtra,
Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Punjab, and West Bengal, accounting for about half of
the countrys urban population. By the 2001 Census, they report percentage of urban
population much above the national average of 27.78, whereas the less developed states
report significantly low figures. Indeed, the levels of urbanization are high in the states
with high per capita income and vice versa (Table 2.2).
The pattern of urban growth across states is significantly different from that of the
levels of urbanization. Since independence until 1991, the developed states that have high
percentage of people in urban areas have shown medium or low growth of urban
population. High urban growth has however been registered in relatively underdeveloped
states, viz. Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Orissa and Madhya Pradesh, the states that
have low percentages of urban population (Table 2.2). This implies that the relationship
between urban growth and economic development is generally negative. However, some
of the developed states like Maharashtra and Haryana are exceptions, as they record
urban growth rates higher than the country average.
Urban scenario in the post independence period has, thus, been characterized by dualism.
The developed states attracted population in urban areas due to industrialization and
infrastructure investment. Interestingly, the less developed states too, particularly their
rural districts that is, districts having predominantly rural population ear lier (for example,
Gurgaon) and small and medium towns, experienced rapid urban growth. This can partly
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be attributed to government sponsored infrastructural investment in the district and taluka

headquarters, programmes of urban industrial dispersal, and transfer of funds from the
states to local bodies through a need based or what is popular ly known as a gap filling
approach. A part of RU migration into smaller towns from their rural hinterland in less
developed states could, however, be explained in terms of push factors, owing to lack of
diversification in agrarian economy.
The 1990s, however, make a significant departure from the earlier decades, since many of
the developed states like Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Haryana, Maharashtra and Gujarat have
registered urban growth above the national average (Table 2.2). Karnataka has remained
slightly below the national average and West Bengal is an exception whose growth rate is
low due to specific policies followed by the state government. The backward states, on
the other hand, have experienced growth either below that of the country or, at the most,
equal to that. Making a comparison over the past two decades, the growth rates for
developed states have either gone up or remained the same in the 1990s5. The backward
states, however, have recorded either a decline or stability in their urban growth.
The urbanization process has, thus, become more concentrated in developed
regions with the exclus ion of backward areas in recent years (Figure 2.3). This is also
reflected in the larger cities recording relatively higher growth when compared to smaller
towns, as noted in the preceding section. This could, at least partly, and rather
paradoxically, be attributed to the measures of decentralization whereby the
responsibilities of resource mobilization and launching infrastructural projects have been
given to local bodies, as noted below. Large municipal bodies that have a strong
economic base, particularly those located in developed states; have an advantage that has
clearly been manifested in their high economic and demographic growth.
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Emerging Growth Centres

The real estate action is no longer limited to the large metropolises of India but
has now permeated to the burgeoning smaller towns and cities. These emerging centres of
growth are lending sparkle to India's booming economy. What is leading this
transformation?
The upswing of the Indian real estate sector has been an outcome of a number of
positive m icro and macro factors. Consistent and sustaining GDP growth, expanding
service sector, rising purchasing power and affluence, proactive and changing
government policies have all lent momentum to this rapidly growing sector.
Accounting for almost 80% of the total office space absorption, the Indian
IT/ITES sector has been the primary demand driver. India's low cost-high quality and
productivity model has given it a leadership position in the outsourcing arena. In a bid to
scale up their operations and to remain globally competitive, the Indian IT/ITES
companies are explor ing the smaller towns and cities. Rising manpower and real estate
costs, plaguing attr ition levels and very often risk mitigation have been the key reasons
for this movement.
Positive economic growth has also translated in r ising disposable incomes and
growing aspiration levels across India. Rising consumerism has created a demand for
new retailing and entertainment avenues.
Realising that consumers across cities have similar needs, albeit the scale may vary, new
age retailers are vying to cash in on the f irst mover advantage and are expanding into
hitherto unexplored smaller cities. Advent of organised retailing has also translated into
real estate growth in these emerging locations.
Growth of the Indian 'Rich' (annual income>USD 4,700) and 'Consuming' (annual
income USD 1,000-4,700) class coupled with falling interest rates and other fiscal
incentives on hom e loans has increased the affordability and the risk appetite of the
average Indian consumer thereby leading to a substantial rise in demand for housing. This
has been further fueled by the increase in the size of 25-55 age group of earning
population and the emergence of double income, nuclear families. Over the last decade
the average age of Indian home loan borrower has reduced by 10 years.
Another variable facilitating real estate growth in India is the growing
urbanisation. According to United Nations Population Divis ion, the urban population in
India will continue to grow at a rate of 2.5% per annum for the next two and a half
decade. As per the Census of India 2001, 41% of the total population of India will be
living in urban areas by 2011. The number of cities with a population of one million or
more is also is expected to double from 35 recorded in 2001 to 70 by 2005. This increase
in population will generate incremental demand for housing and other real estate
components.
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All these factors together with increased liquidity in the real estate sector through
the international real estate funds and private equity funds will result in radically
transforming the real estate landscape over the next 3-5 years. India's investment scenario
is already undergoing a sea change and has been seen to be making roads in rural India
with telecom, rural retailing, agricultural supply chain and logistics facilities, microcredit, etc. All these factors foretell that the real estate growth will soon spread out of the
established boundaries.
However, to support this growth and to make it more expansive, a lot needs to be
done. Foremost is the thrust on infrastructure. According to a World Bank estimate, India
needs to invest an additional 3-4% of its GDP on infrastructure to sustain its current
levels of growth and to spread the benefits of growth more widely. Some positive steps
have already been taken in this direction. Huge investments in infrastructure to the tune
of $350 billion have been envisaged over the next five years. Connectivity may get a
boost with the completion of ~13,000 kms of roads under the Golden Quadrilateral,
North-South-East-West (NSEW) corridor and with 4-laning of all the major national
highways. This will further facilitate the economic development of smaller towns and
cities in the country.
Major real estate destinations of the country and some other emerging towns can be
classified into three broad categories depending upon the stage of real estate development
that each one of them is undergoing.
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2. Architectural Aspects and Urban Development Today

As the historical development of high-rise buildings has already shown, the
construction of edifices reaching higher and higher into the sky was and to a certain
extent still is an expression of power and strength. This is equally true of both
ecclesiastical and secular buildings: the power, strength and influence of entire families
i.e. their standing in society is mirrored in the erection of ever taller buildings
culminating in a battle to build. The towers of San Gimignano are one of the best
preserved examples of this development. In many North African cities, too, this attitude
has moulded the townscape for many centuries and will no doubt continue to do so in the
future.
The names of the builders and architects have only been known since the
high middle Ages around 1000 AD. They created new stylistic elem ents and added their
signature to entire per iods. Looking back, this makes it diff icult for us today to decide
whether these master craftsmen shaped the various stylistic developments or whether a
number of master builders only became so well known because their work reflected the
contemporary fashion trends most accurately. That still holds true today, the only
difference being that tastes change very much more rapidly and degenerate into shortlived fashions. A building that reflects the spirit of the times when it is finished can
appear old within only a few years. The brevity of the various stylistic trends is one of
the reasons for the inhomogeneous appearance of modern towns and cities. Since
architects must expect that later buildings will have their own, completely different
formal identity, they do not see any reason why they should base their own designs on
existing standards, particularly as this would merely cause them to be considered
unimaginative.
The points become clear if we take a closer look at modern trends in highrise construction:
The dictate of tastes mentioned above is expressive of the egotism prevalent in
modern society with its desire for status symbols and designer brands.
Unfortunately, the public not uncommonly bows to this dictate, as when town
councilors set aside major urban development considerations and with seem ing
generosity set up public areas in the form of lobbies and plazas in high-rise
buildings.
The sheer magnitude of the projects forces all planners to adopt a scale totally out
of proportion to all natural dimensions and particular ly to the people concerned
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when planning their buildings. In the past, urban development plans were easily
drawn up on a scale of 1:100 or at most 1:200, a scale which could still be directly
related to the s ize of a human being. With todays high rise buildings, however, a
scale of at least 1:1000 is required simply in order to depict the building on paper.
This is illustrated by the example of the Sears Tower in Chicago: completed in
1974, the Tower measures 443 m in height. Drawn to a scale of 1:2000, a human
being is represented by a minute dot measuring barely 0.9 mm.
In the past, it was the master builder and architect who defined the construction
and consequently the appearance of a building; today, on the other hand, technical
developments determine what can and cannot be done; the appropriate and
basically essential symbiosis between engineer ing designer and artist has been
abandoned. This critical discourse on the architectural, urban development and
economic background is not basically to cast doubt on high-rise buildings as such,
but it does illum inate some of the facets that are central to considering the risk
potential inherent in high-r ise buildings. This almost inevitably raises the question
why high-rise buildings should have to be built in todays dimensions.
One reason is indisputably the need for a landmark. In other words, to express
economic and corporate power and domination in impressive visual terms. Nothing
has changed in this respect since the very first high-rise buildings were erected.
The steadily r ising pr ice of land in pr ime locations and an increasingly scarce
supply have made it essential to make optimum use of the air space. Prices in
excess of DM 50,000 per square metre are not uncommon for land in conurbations
and economic centres. Despite their height, however, high-rise buildings still
occupy areas of truly gigantic proportions: the ratio of height-to-base width of the
cubes in the 417-m-high World Trade Center.
However, high-rise buildings do little to prevent land being
sealed on a large scale. The suburbs of modern Amer ican cities are a prime example: as
far as the eye can see, the landscape is covered with single-family homes, swimming
pools and artif icially designed gardens simply to provide sufficient private residential
land for all the people working in a high-rise building occupying only a few thousand
square metres. Many of the techniques and materials which are also used for normal
buildings today would never have been invented and would never have become
established if high-rise construction had not presented a challenge in terms of technical
feasibility. Rationalized, automated sequences are beneficial to high-r ise buildings; at no
time in the past were such huge buildings erected in such a short space of time. Short
construction periods also mean shorter financing per iods and consequently profits which
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partly compensate for the additional costs incurred in the construction and finishing of
the building.
3. Financing Models
Today, the first question when it comes to design is still how much does it
cost? High Rise as a sample of high tech is assumed to cost a fortune. Many towers
especially in Europe and Asia have been designed with cutting edge technologies and
pioneering des igns. The first cost on those high rise structures could be substantially
higher than conventional budgets, such as Commerzbank in Frankfurt, Germany designed
by Norman foster and the SOM design of Pearl River Tower in Guangzhou China. The
Guangzhou project cost over eight times the Chinese national average for high rise
projects of its type, that is, 8,181.8 RMB/ m! compared to 1,000 RMB/ m!
(95.05USD/SF).
Emerging Business Models
Real estate itself is a regulated activity and is subject to a number of FDI restrictions.
These restrictions essentially result in a market where foreign investors with no Indian
joint venture partner must invest a s ignif icant amount and undertake substantial
development schemes with a lim ited ability to repatriate the funds in the short term.
There is therefore a lim ited ability for a foreign company to make a tentative entry into
the market as a sole investor. This position has resulted in a number of business models
being used to facilitate investment.
Four main market entry strategies have been adopted by foreign real estate players in
India:
Large scale direct entry: With an independent approach for undertaking property
development schemes
Establishm ent of an umbrella property development joint venture with a local
player in order to carry out numerous future projects
Multiple joint venture approach where a number of ventures are entered into with
local partners each negotiated on a scheme by scheme basis and often with the
local player placing land into the venture as equity
Investment into the Indian property m arket through the creation of a capital
fund which in turn facilitates local developers.
Irrespective of the method of entering the market there are a large number of potential
market opportunities. Large and well publicised property development activity has taken
place in the principal areas of Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and Bengaluru. In terms of
specific sectors of investment, housing remains the single largest new construction
activity whilst commercial office schemes, particularly for the IT sector have generated
signif icant opportunities. Organised retail although remains a relatively small sector by
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the standards of most major economies, is growing rapidly and many industry observers
have further identified the hospitality sector as an area set for future expansion.
Investment Models
Real estate, being a capital intens ive sector, offers crossborder investors with several
investment opportunities. Post the sector opening up for FDI inflows have been typically
through multinational developers or financial institutions/ venture capitalists. Pure play
financial investors are placing their money through strategic investments in projects/
companies. The investment through financial investors comes primarily in the form of
opportunity funds, private equity and venture capital. Some of the prominent investment
models are as follows:
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Private Equity/Real Estate Funds (REFs)

This is evidently the most preferred entry route for overseas investors. Currently
most of the private equity investments are directed towards unlisted real estate companies
where the REFs purchase an equity stake and thereby partner in the growth plans of the
unlisted firm. Primary reasons of preference for this entry route are the lower transaction
cost and a potentially easier exit route, i.e. via a public listing. For example, Trinity
Capital has acquired a 5.72 per cent stake in a Mumbai-based real estate company, D B
Realty at an estimated cost of US$ 51 million.
Joint Venture
While a few JVs are long term alliances for series of projects some of them are
project specific. The preference towards JVs by global developers is primarily to mitigate
the risk associated with entry in newer and emerging markets. The foreign developer
primarily contributes capital, engineer ing capabilities, brand, new construction
techniques etc whilst the Indian partner brings in land, local knowledge on market,
consumer and regulations and resources in the venture. Joint development is another
example of joint venture wherein the foreign investors set up an Indian presence and
undertake development activity jointly. The Indian partners contribute land and receive
deferred consideration in terms of share of the development or share of revenues. Though
this was the primary route adopted for FDI, even now this arrangement is prevalent
largely for integrated townships or Industrial Parks. For example, MetroCorp Housing
Corporation has entered into a Joint Venture with Jurong International Group, Singapore
to develop an integrated township project worth US$ 116 million at Coimbatore.
W holly owned Subsidiary
A relatively less preferred arrangement few overseas developers are developing
projects on a standalone basis. Ascendas Pte, Asias leading total bus iness space solution
providers, has a significant presence in India with a wholly owned subsidiary, Ascendas
India Private Lim ited.
Public Private Partnership (PPP)
With the Indian Government undertaking several proactive initiatives in physical,
urban infrastructure development and encouraging pr ivate participation, the PPP mode is
opening several opportunities for foreign developers. Further various public sector
enterprises are unlocking land value in pr ime assets held by them. With their openness
and interest in collaborating with foreign developers this is an added opportunity for an
overseas developer. In a recent development, DLF has entered into an agreement with
Kolkata Metropolitan Development Authority to develop an integrated township in
Hooghly District, West Bengal at an estimated investment of US$ 7.7 billion.
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3.1. Cost-Benefit
A real estate market shift doesnt happen unless its profitable, and this shift
is no exception. A recent study completed by Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory,
the most definitive cost-benefit analysis of buildings ever conducted, concluded that the
financial benefits of design are between $50 and $70 per square foot, more than 10 times
the additional cost associated with building. The large positive impact on employee
productivity and health gains suggests that green building has a cost-effective impact
beyond just the utility bill savings.
Buildings are generating a signif icant Return on Investment (ROI).
According to the McGraw-Hill 2006 Smart Market Report, High rise generates 3.5%
higher occupancy rates, 3% higher rent rates, an average increase of 7.5% in building
values, and it improves ROI by 6.6% on average. High r ise buildings are fetching
signif icant sales premiums. In Chicago, the John Buck Company spent US$270 million
constructing the LEED-Gold 51-story 111 South Wacker Drive tower in the citys Loop
market. Completed in late 2005 when the Loop market was struggling with an 18%
vacancy rate for Class A office space, the building leased up quickly to prestigious
tenants. In January 2006, 111 South Wacker Drive was sold to a German 25 investment
fund for US$386 million, a $116 million profit, or a total sale price of $401 per square
foot. Additionally, the buildings initial construction costs represent only 20-30 percent
of the buildings entire costs over its 30 to 40 year life (2030 Challenge, 2006), emphasis
should be placed on the life cycle costs of a public building rather than on solely its
initial capital costs.
3.2. COST MODELS

The construction costs for high-rise buildings often run into hundreds of
millions of dollars. The owner of the building will rarely be willing or able to bear these
costs without outside assistance. On the other hand, however, debt service and exhausted
credit lines will then constrict his operative freedom. Alternative financing models are
therefore frequently sought; the best known models are briefly outlined below.
3.2.1.
LEASING
Leasing of buildings, particularly high-rise buildings, can to a large extent be

compared with rentals. This alternative is commonly chosen when a company finds itself
in financial straits and needs cash. Selling the building often a prestige object in a prime
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location to a leasing company is of two-fold advantage to the company: firstly, it

acquires the urgently needed capital, and secondly, it can continue to use the building in
return for a monthly leas ing fee which, however, amounts to no more than a fraction of
the purchase price received. The composition of corporate assets is changed by such a
transaction. This can be a disadvantage when new loans are needed, for the building is
then no longer shown on the assets side as a property secured by entry in the land
register.
3.2.2.
BOT
BOT stands for build, operate and transfer (there are other variations but
these will not be discussed in further detail here). In the case of this financing model, the
owner of the land places his land at the disposal of a contractor who then erects a
building on it, such as an office tower. The owner of the land can exert a certain influence
on the planning and intended use, but does not share in the construction costs.
The contractor must organize the projects financing himself, be it with own
funds or with the aid of loans (build). In return, the owner of the land waives all or
some of the income from occupancy of the building for a certain period of time, usually
25 years. During this time, the builder must obtain rents that are calculated to cover his
debt service and draw a profit from the invested capital (operate). The builders risk
with regard to rents and debt interest is often considerable. At the end of the agreed
occupancy period, both the land and the office tower become the property of the
landowner (transfer). There are differences between these financing models: although
the BOT model grants the landowner the right to ownership, he is for a long time
excluded from occupancy of the property. With the leasing model, the high capital
investment required is transferred to the lessor and the financing costs are replaced by
monthly payments akin to rent by the lessee.
3.2.3.
DEVELOPER
The developer is a new profession born out of the explosive rise in

construction costs which has been intensified by increasingly large buildings and
structures. This was triggered by urban renewal programmes and changes in tax
regulations for large construction projects for which new financing models were
developed in the USA in the sixties and seventies. The developer usually draws up what
is known as a master plan for complete districts and then retains (usually prominent)
architects to design the various components of the master plan independently of one
another. The developer then seeks to find tenants or lessees for the building which at this
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stage only exists on paper. Construction work begins when tenants or lessees have been
found. La Defense in the Paris Basin is a typical example of such a development. This
suburb was created on the drawing board in the 1950s. A dilapidated district was
demolished and completely redesigned. The traffic systems, such as Metro, urban
railway, motorway and access roads were moved below ground level and covered by a
concrete slab 1.2 km long. Mostly office towers were erected on this slab with open
squares and green areas in between. The ensemble is rounded off by the Grande Arche de
la Defense designed by the Danish architect Johann Otto von Spreckelsen and completed
in 1989. The Grande Arche is a huge cube which is open on two sides with 37 off ice
floors and a height of 110 m equal to its ground lengths.
All the capital invested on the site came from private sources and was
controlled by a public-law community of interests. In times of sluggish investment
activity, however, it is not uncommon to find that only certain parts of the master plan are
actually realized. Or iginally planned as a homogeneous townscape, the result is then
nothing more than an unrelated fragment and areas that should have been f illed with life
appear to be deserted and uninhabited instead. In the mid-nineties Londons Docklands
provided a dramatic example of such a development: the transformation of the West India
Docks built between 1802 and 1806 resulted in what was for a while the highest
mountain of debt in the world with the high-rise obelisk on Canary Wharf. After having
consumed roughly US$ 3bn, the half-finished project was temporarily abandoned before
finally being completed and let following a variety of financial transactions.
4. BARRIERS
4.1. Infrastructural Aspects
The different fates of La Defense and Canary Wharf are not (only) due to the
extremely different planning per iods of 30 years (La Defense) and 8 years (Canary
Wharf), but above all to the manner in which the necessary infrastructure for the two
projects was tackled. In the case of La Defense, the entire necessary infrastructure was
completed before the construction work actually started: underground railway lines and
roads, service systems were all planned and built beforehand. As a result, a fully
functional and above all adequately dimensioned infrastructure was consequently
available when the buildings were taken into service. This made La Defense attractive to
investors and tenants alike; the new district soon pulsated with life as an economically
sound basis for the entire project.
A jungle of political, economic and investment difficulties must be
overcome for such prospective planning because the owner of the high-rise complex
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bears no direct responsibility for the large major ity of these far-reaching infrastructural
measures. The projects progress is consequently controlled by the municipal authorities,
as well as by supply and operating companies and not by the owner of the complex. The
situation of Canary Wharf in Londons Docklands is exactly the opposite and proves that
the La Defense type of planning is the economically more appropriate approach, despite
the associated delay in starting construction work and the longer prelim inary f inancing
required.
A second City of London was to be
created in the heart of the Docklands within the
shortest possible space of time, with thousands of
square metres of tailor-made office space, hotels,
shops and apartments for high-income tenants. A
rail-bound fully automatic cabin railway known as
the Docklands Light Railway was to ensure the
necessary access. However, this transport system
fell far short of meeting the requirements, as its
capacity was far too low and it lacked the essential
connection to the London Underground. The road
connections for private traffic and public buses were
similarly inadequate. This made the Docklands
unattractive to both commercial and private tenants.
An Underground link was finally built after
extensive planning and at the enormous cost of
roughly US$ 1.7bn; the road connections were
likewise improved at the cost of almost US$ 1bn. Only then did the precarious economic
situation of Canary Wharf improve. As these examples show, almost every high-rise
construction project is doomed to at least economic failure if the infrastructure is not
considered, planned and actually installed down to the very last detail.
4.2. ECONOMIC ASPECTS

Hundreds of companies and thousands of people depend on the smooth
operation of a high-r ise building, from the one-man business of a newspaper vendor or
shoe shiner and corporations with thousands of employees, such as banks, brokers or
global players with a daily turnover in the order of several billions to radio, television and
telecommunications companies which use the roofs and tops of high-rise buildings for the
transmission and receiving installations. In addition, there are innumerable other
businesses and workers with their fam ilies whose economic situation is directly or
indirectly linked with the high-rise building. These range from transport companies and
catering firms to tradesmen under long-term contract in the building. Nor should it be
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overlooked that even the municipal authorities and the service companies are also
affected by the failure of a high-rise building and that its effects can be felt nationwide
or even worldwide in the worst case. This scenario not only applies to such total failure
as a major f ire or collapse of the building. Despite (or precisely because of) its size, a
high-rise building is an incredibly sensitive and vulnerable system. Even a brief power
failure can result in operational and economic chaos. The same applies to outside
disturbances in the form of strikes by public transport corporations or a malfunction in
the underground or urban railway system.
4.3. SOCIAL AND ECOLOGICAL ASPECTS

Criticism today focuses particularly on the social and ecological effects of
high-rise buildings. The most commonly voiced reservations with regard to high-rise
apartment blocks concern the social aspect. It is claimed and there are probably a
number of studies to prove that cohabitation in high-rise buildings does not work as
smoothly as in homogeneous, historically grown districts with numerous small,
manageable dwellings. The anonymity suffered by the people in these residential
factories is criticized in particular above all on account of the total isolation from other
residents in order to avoid the stress of permanent contact. Organic, homogeneous
population structures with their positive effects on social conduct are rarely found and the
charge that high-rise apartment blocks are hostile to families and children is consequently
not entirely unfounded.
Two diametrically opposed ghetto situations can eas ily ar ise in high-rise
apartment blocks: since the costs for construction and maintenance of these buildings are
disproportionately high, correspondingly high rents must be charged, with the result that
these blocks are more or less reserved for the well-off, while the socially weaker classes
are excluded. Conversely, however, high-rise apartment blocks can rapidly cease to be
attractive if compromises are made with regard to the building quality, maintenance or
infrastructure on account of the high investment costs entailed.
A building in disrepair will soon drive away the good tenants and become
a slum. The ghetto situation is intens ified when high-rise apartment blocks are built in
newly developed fringe areas far away from cultural and social centers on account of
the high cost of land in inner city areas. It is not without good cause that these areas are
commonly referred to as dormitory towns. Studies have also proved beyond all doubt
that criminal activity is promoted by huge apartment blocks and particularly high-rise
buildings. According to these studies, this phenomenon is attributable to the anonymity of
the residents, as well as to the pro-crime environment with elevators, poorly lit
corridors devoid of human beings, refuse collection rooms and bicycle garages, laundries
and above all underground parking lots.
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It is a proven fact that considerably more murders, burglaries, muggings,

rapes and other crimes are committed in such buildings than in residential areas with
smaller rented or private homes. Not only high-rise apartment blocks have a usually
negative effect on peoples social environment: office towers are equally
disadvantageous. The vertical structure of the buildings simultaneous ly underlines the
vertical hierarchy: the location of the office space becomes an indicator of a companys
importance and, if the company occupies several or all the f loors in a high-rise
building, it may also be indicative of the employees standing in the company. The
companys top executives reside on the uppermost floors with the best views; the floors
below provide a shield and every employee can positively see the distance between
himself and them up there. It is therefore not wrong to question whether high-rise
office towers are really appropriate to modern organizational structures with their
emphasis on team work and interdisciplinary cooperation. Excessive energy consumption
is a major shortcoming of high-rise buildings and one which could possibly lead to their
demise one day. High-rise buildings are the farthest removed from the ideal form as
regards energy efficiency namely the sphere, or the cube in the case of houses.
That applies to both heating and cooling: some skyscraper facades have to
be cooled by day and heated by night in order to avoid undue stresses and the resultant
damage. The World Trade Center, for example, consumes some 680,000 kWh/day
electricity for air-conditioning dur ing periods of strong solar irradiation; the Messeturm
in Frankfurt burns up energy worth DM 40 per square meter of useful floor space for
heating and cooling every month. A well insulated low-energy house, by comparison,
uses energy worth less than DM 1 per square meter. The energy balance of high-rise
buildings is also poor in other respects such as the water supply, which usually only
operates with the aid of booster pumps, as well as in terms of the disposal systems and
operation of the elevators, etc. From the point of construction economy in general, highrise buildings will probably always be the poorest conceivable solution, from the
particular ly energy- intensive and therefore expensive construction as such to the
disproportionately high demolition costs.
Moreover, high-rise buildings are made almost exclusively of materials
which a construction biologist would take great pains to avoid, namely concrete, steel,
light metal, plastics and a wide variety of chemicals. Although subjectively unaware of
the fact, the residents are frequently exposed to constant stresses in the form of pollutant
emissions and electrosmog. High-rise buildings are sometimes described as microcosms;
that is no doubt m eant in a positive sense, but the reality is different. The people in a
high-rise building are totally cut off from the world around them, from wind and weather,
from temperature, from smells, sounds and moods. They live in an artificial world.
At the same time, however, the high-r ise buildings also have a negative
effect on the world around them, for they not uncommonly generate air turbulence and
downdrafts in their immediate vic inity; they can be a source of unpleasant reflections and
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some adjacent areas remain permanently in the shade. Illuminated facades and large glass
fronts are a death trap for many birds. The people outs ide the high-rise buildings also
often have the feeling that they are being observed or threatened by the possibility of
falling objects. That fear is surely not entirely unfounded, for there have been cases in
which parts of buildings, such as glass panes, have been torn out of their anchorage by
strong winds and injured or even killed people on the street below. Our love-hate
relationship with high-rise buildings is finally also revealed in such recent box-office hits
from Hollywood as Deep Impact, Godzilla or Independence Day. It seems that
their directors simply cannot avoid the temptation of reducing one of New Yorks most
beautiful buildings the Chrysler Building to a smoulder ing heap of rubble with the
help of floods, monsters or meteorites. As a result, these skyscrapers more or less become
the real stars of the film on account of their magic attraction and immediate
recognizability.
4.4 PLANNI NG and Scheduling

4.4.1.1 PLANNERS
The complexity of the trades to be coordinated has become several times
greater since then. Take, for example, the new block built for Sdwest-Landesbank in
Stuttgart: many disciplines and different experts were involved solely in the project
planning:
Architects
Planning engineers for the supporting structures (engineering des ign and structural
analyses)
Construction and site management (resident engineer)
Planning of the technical building services (particularly heating, ventilation,
sanitation, cooling and air conditioning)
Interior designers
Planning and site management for data networks
Planning of the lighting and materials handling
Planning of the electrical and electronic systems
Planning of the facades
Surveying engineers
Geotechnology, hydrogeology and environmental protection
Design of outdoor facilities and vegetation
Surveying of the actual situation in surrounding buildings
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If we were to include all the contractors and specialists involved in the

project as well, the list would probably be ten times longer. And if we then consider that
bankers, construction authorities, legal advisers and even advertis ing agencies or brokers
must also be coordinated in the course of the entire planning and construction of a
skyscraper project, it soon becomes clear that highly professional management is
essential for such a project. Project management companies have come to play an
increasingly important role in recent years as they take over the entire organization,
structurization and coordination of construction projects. They act as professional
representatives for the client and embody the frequently voiced desire for the entire
project to be coordinated by a single partner.
SCHEDULING FOR HIGH-RISE
SIMULATION TECHNIQ UES
BUILDING CO NSTRUCTION
USING
SUMMARY
High-rise buildings are commonly built in densely populated countries or urban
areas. A balanced floor construction cycle is critical for construction of the frame
structures. The objectives in scheduling the floor cycle are to ensure smooth flows of
resources and to optimise the use of formwork and other materials. The floor area is
usually divided into zones to allow the labour force and formwork materials moving
between zones. The preparation of the floor construction cycle would therefore be a
resources allocation exercise. However, the process is complex and difficult when it is
done manually. Floats are created deliberately in the schedule to ensure the balance in
resources and to provide buffers. Simulation that can demonstrate the real world
operations is an effective tool in handling this scheduling problem. This case study
examines the constraints in planning the f loor cycle and the effects of working period on
the overall schedule. Network based simulation model is used to investigate the
problems. It is noted that variations in working per iods have significant impacts on the
time schedule. A saving of 37.2% in time could be achieved when the working period is
extended by 20%. The findings indicate that simulation can be used to assist planners to
improve their decisions and decide the strategies in scheduling and reviewing the floor
construction schedule.
INTRODUCTIO N
High-rise buildings are still the essential form of building structure constructed
extensively in urban areas, in particular, in the hearth of the commercial zones of
metropolitan cities. On the other hand scarcity of land supply encourages the construction
of high-rise buildings.
In scheduling the f loor construction cycle, a simple approach is to adopt a constant
duration for the construction of the typical floors. However, this always induces a false
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impression to s ite personnel that the construction processes are simple and could be
achieved easily. For the construction of high-rise buildings, site planning including
activity scheduling and site production layout has to be reviewed and re-plan from time to
time in practice as site conditions and resources are dynamic and uncertain. Although
Genetic Algor ithms and other AI techniques have been used by researchers in optimising
complex problems, practitioners are sceptical in applying these techniques with which
they are not fam iliar. This paper evaluates the scheduling of typical f loor construction
using network based simulation techniques, a more practical and easily apprehensible
approach, to improve decision making in site planning in response to the changing site
conditions.
TYPICAL FLOOR CO NS TRUCTION CYCLE
In the construction of a high-rise building, one of the planning objectives is to
ensure the early completion of the structural frames to generate floor areas for the
execution of finishing works, building services installation and internal f itting out. The
completion of the structural frames is therefore critical in the overall programme. For a
building of 42-storeys high, it may consist of 40 typical floors resting on two podium
floors. It is not surprised to have construction programme aiming at a 2-day or 4-day
cycle for the typical f loors. It would be a time-cost trade off problem in determ ining the
duration for a project in project-wise considerations or in selecting construction methods
for major construction activities. Planning engineers have to balance the resources inputs
and the duration for activities in order to ensure a smooth flow of work sequences in
meeting the project duration.
In minim izing the construction costs for constructing a reinforced concrete frame,
the formwork cost is one of the key concerns. It is well recognized that formwork is a
temporary work for forming moulds for wet concrete. The cost of formwork is highly
related to the number of re-use or re-cycling. It is a general assumption that a set of
formwork can be re-used for at least six to eight times and 100 times for timber and steel
form respectively. Steel formwork systems are prevailing in high-rise building
construction because of their durability, good concrete finish and environmental
sustainability.
However they are expensive unless the formwork system is designed to yield a high
number of reuse. Taking the above example, a set of formwork for 40 typical floors is
still uneconomical. Consequently, it has to subdivide the floor area into zones in order to
generate a high number of reuse. The subdivision of a floor into two or four zones will be
a feasible solution. It is obvious that dividing the floor into four zones would yield a high
number of re-use that is 160 times. The following example shows the arrangements of a
6-day floor cycle for a typical residential building block.
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Construction of a 42-storey building

Each floor is divided into four zones. One set of steel wall form covering the
quantity of one zone and two sets of slab timber forms with each set covering the whole
area of one floor are used. In order to speed up the construction, precast faades and
semi-precast slabs are employed. The construction cycle aims at ensuring smooth and
balanced resource allocations between trade workers, concreting work and formwork
installation. As a result the resources rotate horizontally between zones at the same floor
level and move upward to the upper floor in the next cycle. Figure 1 shows the schedule
for a typical 6-day floor construction cycle including ten critical activities. The schedule
is prepared assuming that the activities are carried out at constant duration. However, the
duration of activities varies due to factors such as supply of materials, skill of workers,
weather and efficiency of plant and equipment.
On the other hand, material hoisting plays an important role in high-rise building
construction. As the building grows, the transportation time increases and thus extends
the duration for the crane-related activities. Researchers have studied and developed the
optim isation models for cranes aim ing at reducing the transportation costs (RodriguezRamos and Francis, 1983; Choi and Harris, 1991 and Zhang, Harris and Olomolaiye,
1996). Leung and Tam (1999) developed prediction models for improving the prediction
of hoisting times. One of the objectives of this study is to use the simulation technique to
review the typical construction floor cycle.
SIMULATION MODEL FOR TYPICAL FLOOR CYCLE

The building up of simulation models requires planners to have a good knowledge
of simulation. A network based simulation has been used in this study. This simplif ies the
skills and knowledge required for modelling a simulation network as general simulation
programme can be difficult for general users. Planners who have the knowledge in
constructing critical path network and bar charts could be able to use the simulation
model. The constructing of simulation network for modelling is similar to the critical path
network using the activity on node format except that loops are allowed to show the recycling of resources. During the simulation process, the activities may either in an active
if the constraints are met or otherwise in an idle mode. The typical construction floor
cycle shown in Figure 1 can be easily developed into a simulation network as shown in
Figure 2.
Although only one floor cycle is shown in the network, it covers the activities in
the four zones, which are handled within the simulation algor ithm. The ten activities are
scheduled in a sequential order. Two loops are teed off from the main network indicating
the dependence relationship between installation of precast faade, the activities for wall
construction and crane-related activities. Normally, a tower crane can only be installed
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for a building block owing to both economic reasons and space availability. Therefore,
the crane can only serve one activity at one time and it is important to optim ise the usage
of a tower crane which is one of the critical resources in high-rise construction.
A Start and Stop node is assigned in the network for controlling the numbers of
simulation. During the simulation process, activity boxes are attached with a coloured
spinning icons showing their status. Resources shared by activities can be represented by
graphics moving between the activities boxes.
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SIMULATION FOR TYPICAL FLOOR CONS TRUCTION CYCLE

In order to optim ize the duration of a floor cycle or to determ ine the daily
schedule, modellers can modify the duration of the activities to suit the site conditions. It
has to point out that the duration of the activities can be shortened or extended by
increasing or decreasing the input resources, mainly the human resources in concrete
frame construction generally. Table 1 shows the duration for the activities of a typical
floor construction cycle.
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In order to generate realistic results, the duration assigned for the simulation has
taken into account the effects on hoisting times due to variations in hoisting height. For
example, the hoisting and fixing of eight precast faades takes about 51 minutes at the
lower floors and 75 minutes at the upper. Planners can adjust the duration if they identify
signif icant differences between the original input and the actual s ite conditions.
Alternatively, planners can carry out simple work study techniques on site to collect data
for predicting the hoisting time.
Apart from modifying the duration to suit the dynam ic site conditions, planning
engineers can review the effects of working hours for a working day to a f loor cycle.
Exam ining the standard floor cycle shown in Figure 1, it is evident that there are idling
times in the schedule. The idling tim es are created for levelling the resources. However,
manual resource levelling is complex and difficult and optimum solution cannot be easily
found. The numbers of working hours for a working day can be input as a constraint in
the simulation. In Hong Kong, most of the residential areas are densely populated and the
government has imposed stringent noise control ordinance to restrict the working hours
for using noisy construction plant and equipment. The normal working period to which
there is no restriction is between 7:00am and 7:00pm. On the other hand, the normal
working hours for the building industry lie between 8:00am and 6:00pm. Any time
beyond the normal working hours, the trade workers need to be paid with an overtime
allowance of 50% of their basic wages. It is vital to minimize the labour costs while
meeting the programme of the project. In this study, four working period scenarios have
been reviewed by using the simulation model. The summary of the simulation results is
shown in Table 2.
In the four scenarios, the first working period follows the industry normal working
hour and constant activity duration was used. The remaining scenarios have been tested
with stochastic activity duration. The simulation results confirm that the first scenario is
working approximately on a 6-day cycle. However, it is noted that there are signif icant
saving in time when the durations of activities are varied. In the second scenario, there is
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a saving of 25.8% even the activities are scheduled within the normal working per iod.
However, when the working period is extended by one hour in the third scenario, further
decrease in time is minimal. In the last scenario, the working period is extended by two
hours; a further saving of 11.4% (a total saving of 37.2%) is yielded. It means that the
increase of the working hours by 20% is not effective since the labour costs will be
increased by 40%. This is a typical time-cost trade off problem when time is approaching
to the crash time solution.
SELECTIO N OF APPROPRIATE WORKING SCHEDULE
The simulations described above provide alternatives for planners to make
decisions on initial scheduling and subsequent updating. The simulation results enable
planners to locate the upper limit of the floor cycle, ie approaching to the crash time
solution. However, it is a general rule in planning that the normal time should be used in
the planning stage unless the project duration would have already been overrun. An
aggressive project manager may consider applying the second scenario in order to shorten
the frame construction by 62 days (ie. 40 x [ 6.0 4.45]) without spending overtime
payments. If the project is undergone delay, a more drastic decision will be to extend the
working period by two hours as if in the fourth scenario. Therefore, when deciding the
appropriate floor cycle duration, planners have to review the factors and the merits prior
to determine the strategies.
This case study examines the application of simulation techniques in evaluating
and scheduling the floor construction cycle of a high-rise building. The typical floor
construction cycle is always the main concern of planning engineers. The early
completion of the floor slabs releases working areas for the subsequent activities.
The initial planning and the subsequent re-scheduling are therefore important for
the successful management of a high-rise building project. The traditional schedule for a
typical floor aims at balancing the resources, in particular the formwork system, to assure
a steady movement of resources while maintaining the progress. Simulations for the floor
cycle using stochastic duration and different working period had been conducted in this
study. The simulation results generated show that the duration for the floor cycle could be
shortened by 25% to 37%. The shortening is achieved by reducing the idling time of the
resources. In deciding the duration of the floor cycle, planning engineers have to consider
the project budget because additional overtime costs for labour would be incurred. The
simulation results could provide useful information for planners to decide upon their
strategies in scheduling a typical floor construction cycle at different stages of the project.
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Regulations and Directives
The various laws, regulations, directives and standards in force must be

taken into account when planning and erecting a building. The planning engineers are
also obliged to observe what are known in India, for instance, as the generally accepted
technical rules for construction; in other words, generally applicable technical and trade
rules must be taken into account and observed in addition to the standards and
regulations.
Although each country has its own regulations and directives governing the
construction of high-r ise buildings, they are all bas ically sim ilar in content with a few
differences depending on the local circumstances. It is standard practice in some
countries to base the bidding and planning phase for projects on foreign standards
(particularly on the American ANSI Codes and UL Standards, Br itish Standards or the
German DIN standards) or to include various elements of these foreign standards in the
national system of standards. As a rule, these regulations are primarily designed to ensure
personal safety and then to protect the building against damage and defects. In addition to
the requirements imposed by public authorities, there are also requirements imposed by
insurance companies with the aim of ensuring greater protection for property.
REQ UIREMENTS FOR HIGH RISE BUILDINGS:
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1. High Rise buildings / Complexes shall not be allowed in Congested areas/existing

areas and settlement areas/ Abadi /Gram khantam areas.
2. The minimum size of plot for High Rise building shall be 2000 sq. m.
3. In respect of sites proposed for high rise buildings and affected in road widening
where there is shortfall of the net plot size, upto 10% of such shortfall in net plot
area would be considered with the proposed height and corresponding minimum all
round setbacks.
4. The building bulk, coverage and height shall be governed by the minimum alround
setbacks to be left, the organized open spaces to be left and the height restrictions
imposed by the Airport authority ( if applicable) / Defence authorities (if
applicable) and Fire Services Department and the City- level Impact fee on built up
area required to be paid, as applicable.
5. Prior Clearance From Fire Dept. and Airport Authority:
For any High Rise building located in vicinity of airports as given in the
National Building Code, the maximum height of such building shall be decided
in consultation with the Airport Authority and shall be regulated by their
rules/requirements. Interstitial sites in the area which are away from the
direction of the Airport Funnel zone and already permitted with heights cleared
by the Airport Author ity shall be permitted without referring such cases to the
Airport Authority.
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6. Every application to construct or reconstruct a High Rise building or alteration to

existing High Rise building shall be made in the prescribed form and accompanied
by detail plans floor plans of all f loors along with complete set of structural
drawings and detail specifications duly certified by a qualif ied structural engineer.
Necessary prior NOC shall be submitted from the Airport Author ity (if applicable)
and Directorate of Fire services, along with the application.
7. The minimum abutting road width and all round open space for High rise Building
/ Complex shall be as follows:
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7.1
The abutting road has to be black-topped with minimum 2 lane

carriageway. Service roads where required as per these Rules, shall be
minimum 7 m wide with minimum 2-lane black topped carriageway.
7.2
For upper floors from 2nd floor onwards, balcony projection of up to 2 m

may be allowed projecting onto the open spaces.
7.3
The open space to be left between two blocks shall be equivalent to the open
space mentioned in Column.
7.4
It is permitted to transfer upto two metres of setback from one side to the
other side, which needs to be uniform at any given point, subject to
maintaining of minimum setback of 7 m on all sides.
7.5
Where the lighting and ventilation of a building is through the means of a

chowk or inner courtyard or interior open space/duct, such open space shall
be open to sky and of area at least 25 sq m and no side shall be less than 3 m.
8
8.1
8.2
8.3
TOWER AND PODIUM TYPE HIGH RISE STRUCTURE may be allowed

with the following:
For podium, i.e., Ground plus first floor: alround setbacks shall be 7 m
alround
For the Tower block: The maximum permissible coverage and minimum
alround setbacks shall be 50 % of the Podium Block, and shall be at least 3m
from the Podium edge.
The fire safety and fire escape measures for the Tower Block shall be
independent of the Podium Block.
STEPPED TYPE OR P YRAMIDAL TYPE HIGH RISE STRUCTURE
Such type of high rise building may be allowed with the following open space
requirements:
9.1
At ground level : Minimum 9 metres alround open space for the first five
floors
9.2
At upper floors: increase of 1 metre alround open space or more, for every 5
upper floors or 15 m height or part thereof, over and above the ground level
open space of minimum 9 metres.
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10
Provision of greenery:
10.1
In every high r ise building s ite, an organized open space which shall be
utilized as greenery, tot lot or soft landscaping, etc. shall be provided over
and above the mandatory open spaces to be left in and around the building.
This space shall be at least 10% of total site area and shall be a minimum
width of 3mts. This may be in one or more pockets and shall be open to sky.
10.2
In addition to the above, a minimum 2 metres wide green planting strip in
the periphery on all sides within the setbacks are required to be developed
and maintained with greenery and trees in all high rise building sites.
10.3
Rain water harvesting structures shall be provided in the prescribed manner
within the setbacks.
COMPLI ANCE OF NATIONAL BUILDING CODE PROVISIONS FOR AMENITIES

AND FACILITIES IN ALL HIGH RISE BUILDINGS
The building requirements and standards other than heights and setbacks specified
in the National Building Code, 2005 shall be complied with.
Such buildings shall be undertaken by owners by engaging registered architect,
licensed builders/developers and licensed structural engineers. The designs and
building plans shall be countersigned by the owner, licensed developer, registered
architect, licensed engineer and a qualif ied & licensed structural engineer who
shall be responsible for the supervision, and structural safety of the high-rise
building and ensuring that such buildings are designed for compliance with earth
quake resistance and resisting other natural hazards, and a fire engineer / fire
consultant who shall be responsible f ire and life safety and specifications
compliance in such buildings. The Completion Certificate shall clearly mention
that the norms for the above structural safety and fire and life safety requirements
have been followed in the design and construction of buildings for making the
buildings resistant to earthquake, compliance with structural safety and fire safety
requirements.
The work of the building services like sanitation, plumbing, fire and life safety
requirements, lifts, electrical installations, and other utility services shall be
executed under the planning, design and supervision of qualified and competent
technical personnel.
In addition to the required staircases and lifts, there shall be at least one fire escape
staircase and lift. These lifts shall be got certif ied from the manufacturers
authorized Service technical personnel from time to time.
Provision for power generator shall be made in such buildings.
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Such buildings shall be planned, designed and constructed to ensure fire and safety
requirements are met and maintained and shall comply in accordance with the Fire
Protection Requirements of National Building Code of India.
The facilities for providing fire protection and fire f ighting facilities in such
buildings shall be in compliance with the stipulations laid down and clearance
issued by the Fire Department from time to time. NOC from the Fire Department
shall be obtained from time to time regarding the f ire safety requirements and
facilities installed. The designs and installations regarding fire protection and
safety measures including exit requirements and smoke containment and smoke
management measures shall be undertaken through a fire engineer / fire consultant.
Compliance of the parking requirements shall be as given in these rules. The
parking facilities and vehicles driveways etc. shall be maintained to the satisfaction
of the sanctioning Authority.
Such buildings shall be provided with solar water heating system in the building
and solar lighting in the site for outdoor lighting, etc. and give a bank guarantee to
this effect to the sanctioning authority for compliance of the same.
All High-Rise buildings with covered area above 300 sq m shall be designed and
constructed to provide facilities to the physically handicapped persons as
prescribed in the National Building Code of India,2005.
In all buildings irrespective of above height provisions, the requirements of parts of
the building like size and area requirements of habitable rooms, kitchen, bathrooms
and Water closets, other areas, corridor and staircase widths, service ducts, etc.
shall conform to the provisions of the National Building Code of India,2005.
All environmental aspects like provision of Rain water harvesting structures,
greenery, solar heating and lighting systems and provisions of the Andhra Pradesh
Water, Land and Trees Act 2002 shall be complied in such of the sites and
Schemes where these are applicable.
Notwithstanding anything contained in these Rules or any other orders, the minimum
clear setback on the sides and rear sides of any high-rise building under any
circumstances and in cases where a concession or incentive is availed in terms of
setbacks shall not be less than 7 meters, and such minimum setback area shall be clear
without any obstructions including balcony projections, to facilitate movement of fire
fighting vehicles and for effective fire fighting operations.
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Park ing space
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In case of high r ise buildings parking space may be provided in the set back after
leaving a m inimum setback of 6 Mtrs alround the building to enable movement of
Fire Tender.
Alternate means of parking such as terrace parking, multi stage parking, parking
silos may be permitted, subject to production of NOCs from the Authorities (in
case of high rise buildings). In such cases, a clear height of 3.6 Meters in the
basement floor has to be provided, and the space to be earmarked per unit of Car
parking may be determined by the authority.
Parking in the upper floors can be allowed only if ramps are provided after leaving
the minimum setback line to reach such floors.
Ventilation shaft
For lighting and ventilating the space in water closets and bath rooms, when no
opening is provided towards any open spaces, they shall open on to the ventilating shaft,
the size of which shall not be less than as indicated below:
Exit requirements for high rise buildings, public and industrial buildings
Every building m eant for human occupancy shall be provided with exits sufficient
to permit safe escape of occupants, in case of fire or other emergency.
In every building for multi fam ily dwellings and all places of assembly, exits shall
comply with the minimum requirements of these bye-laws.
All exits shall be free of obstructions.
No building shall be altered so as to reduce the number, and size of exits to less
than that required.
Exits shall be c lear ly visible Routes to reach the exits shall be clearly m arked and
signs posted so as to guide the persons using each floor.
Wherever necessary, adequate and continuous illumination shall be provided for
exits.
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Fire fighting equipment shall be suitably located and clearly marked.

Alarm devices shall be installed to ensure prompt evacuation of the persons
concerned.
All exits shall provide continuous means of egress to the exterior of buildings or to
the exterior open space leading to a street.
Exits shall be so arranged that they may be reached without passing through
another occupied unit.
Number of exits
The location, width and number of exits shall be in accordance with the travel
distance, capacity of exits and the population of building based on occupant load;
There shall not be less than 2 exits serving every floor for buildings of 15 mtrs
height and above and at least one of them shall be an internal stairway.
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SAFETY IN HIGHRIS E
5.4 FIRE PROTECTIO N AND OPERATIONAL SECURITY
Many of the construction regulations
concern fire protection. There can be many
thousands of people in a high rise building at any
one time. If a fire breaks out, they must all be able
to leave the building in the shortest possible space
of time and without risk of injury. This is why
regulations concerning the number and execution
of escape routes and fire escapes, fire
compartments and the choice of materials must be
observed
Operational security encompasses
regulations governing the safety of elevators and
escalators, the execution of stairs, railings and
parapets or the installation of emergency lighting. Some regulations also include CO2
alarm systems for underground parking lots; indeed, there are even regulations governing
the non-slip nature of floor coverings in traffic areas, sanitary rooms and kitchens.
5.4.1.1 STABILITY AND CO NSTRUCTION PHYSICS

The regulations governing the stability of a building are usually met by the
requisite structural analyses. In addition to demonstrating the internal structural strength
of the construction and safe transfer of loads to the subsoil, the stability calculations must
also include possible deformation due to thermal expans ion, wind loads and live loads or
dead weight, for example. This is closely related with demonstrating the safety of the
construction, for instance by taking steps to lim it the (unavoidable) cracks in concrete
elements.
5.4.1.2 PRO TECTION AGAINST NATURAL HAZARDS
The regulations and directives governing protection against natural hazards
are usually closely associated with the demonstration of stability. Windstorms and
earthquakes are the most serious natural hazards for high-rise buildings. As a rule, the
assumed loads and design rules for the load cases of earthquake and windstorm will be
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specified by the regulations in order to ensure that the building will withstand windstorms
or earthquakes up to certain load lim its. At the same time, this will serve to rule out the
risk of bodily injury due to falling parts of the building, especially parts of the facade.
5.4.1.3 SOCIAL ASPECTS
SURRO UNDI NGS
AND
PRO TECTION
OF
THE
The regulations governing social aspects and protection of the area

surrounding high-rise buildings are designed above all to prevent any indirect risk or
threat to people. Such regulations may concern planning aspects, such as the minimum
distance between a high-rise building and neighbouring buildings, or they may take the
form of rules defining the maximum permissible influence that a building can have on the
microcosm surrounding it. Depending on the location of the high-rise building,
corresponding statutory instruments may also govern the effects on air traffic safety or
the buildings influence of radio communications.
This exceedingly concise outline of applicable regulations illuminates only
some of the rules to be observed when building a skyscraper. If all the regulations
governing high r ise construction were to be stacked one on top of the other in printed
form, they would themselves be as high as a multi-storey building.
4.4. TECHNOLOGY OF HIGH-RISE CONSTRUCTION

5.4.2 Layout and Space
Layout and Space design is the cadenza of a symphony to the architects. A
great design can significantly improve the sustainability of the high rise.
5.4.3 Service core
The size and location of the service core in a high rise building play a
predominantly part in the whole design. That is well stated by Ken Yeang in his Highrise
Elevator Cores (2002). He believed the arrangement of primary mass position can help to
shade or retain heat within the building form. Of the var ious possible service-core
positions i.e. central core, double core or single-sided core, the double core is to be
preferred. The benefits of a peripheral service core position are:
No fire-protection pressurization duct, resulting in lower initial and operation costs
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A view out with greater awareness of place for users

Provision of natural ventilation to the lift lobbies ( and thus further energy savings)
Provision of natural sunlight to lift and stair lobbies
A sager building in event of total power failure
Solar buffer effects and/or wind buffer effects
Winter gardens allow vast amounts of light deep within the building and provide
Pleasant views to those working deeper within the building.
Creating a central atrium space in a high rise building
Centralized core area for circulation, mechanical, and other basic building needs.
The core functions were pushed to the outer corners of the building to make way
for the atrium space.
Winter gardens had to be rotated around the facade of the building.
The central atrium, free of structural members, was essential to provide light both
vertically, from the glass roof at the atriums top, and horizontally, from the winter
garden facades to the office across the atrium
Role of Tower Cranes in High Rise Structures

India is witnessing construction of large number of high rise structures including
tall buildings up to 320m height, power station chimneys (275m high) and Natural
Draught Cooling Tower (180m high). The use of tower cranes in all such cases is an
absolute necessity. While some tower cranes are being manufactured/ assembled in India,
cranes to service upper end of the spectrum are being imported.
Tower cranes now-a-days are sophisticated items of construction equipment,
requiring detailed planning in procurement and utilization. They are electrically operated
and come with wide variety of options in terms of working range, jib arrangement, mass
configuration etc.
Use of tower cranes in India started modestly in the S ixties. Tower cranes were
then imported. Today the population of tower cranes in operation in India is in thousands.
A factory in Pune was setup by a multi-national manufacturer of tower cranes for use in
India, Middle East and Far East. In addition there are couple of factories setup
indigenously to manufacture tower cranes.
Electronics on the advance
Electronics is now extensively used for the operation of the tower cranes. The
starting point has been in the use of Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC). These
controllers make sure that the various operating parameters like hoisting, trolleying and
slewing are displayed to the operator. Another development is the var iable frequency
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drive for var ious operations listed above using s imple squirrel cage motors. This
transforms the standardized three phase supply network into a net with variable voltage
and frequency. This means the motor can continuously absorb every revolution, working
to full capacity even in the part load operational range. The crane can be positioned
smoothly and accurately. Hoisting speeds are increased and with that turnover capacity.
The motor does not require high starting current which to certain extent reduces the
consumption of energy.
A recent milestone is the operational add-on module of radio transmission of
machine data. This makes constant on line monitoring and evaluation of the crane data
possible and allows for fast diagnosis and trouble shooting in the case of breakdowns.
Flat top tower cranes
The first trolley jib crane with a compact top was introduced in the Nineties. This
is an advantage when several cranes are swivelling on-site at the same time and when
height restriction applies, for example airports. While there are advantages of lesser space
requirements, problem includes the necessity for erection of full jib in one operation and
consequent requirement of space and higher capacity crane required for erection.
Tower crane Brief Description
Tower crane is the only type of crane specially des igned for buildings and other
high rise structures. They can distribute material for whole plan area of a tall structure.
Tower cranes can be fitted with a derricking jib or horizontal jib with traversing trolley.
A derricking jib is necessary if required to be raised to clear obstructions. A horizontal jib
is easier to operate, is faster and has lower power consumption.
Tower cranes can be rail mounted but require properly laid level track; the travel is also
electrically operated. Other options include f ixed base tower crane or climbing tower
cranes when attached in the height to the frame work of the building. In such cases the
designer of the building should permit attachment with resultant loads, at appropriate
points. With winches of higher capacity, the maximum height of the attached crane can
be increased.
Site conditions regulate the height of the unattached crane depending upon
exposure to high winds etc. The fixed base may involve substantial area and depth of
concrete. Cabins are usually on top of the mast and jib slews either with the mast or
around the mast. Control is usually by the operator; remote control is also possible. The
cranes are usually electrically operated.
Climbing Cranes
The mast climbs with the building being erected. The maximum height to which
these can be used is dependent only on site condition where wind pressures can seriously
affect the load and the type of load handled. A world record has been created during the
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construction of the tallest building in the World (Bur j Dubai); climbing tower cranes have
been used for building height of more than 600m. the design of the building is an
important element in the economics and efficient use of climbing cranes. Such cranes can
be located in lift shafts and service wells. The permanent structure must be sufficiently
strong for the crane reaction. The control of the climbing crane is usually remote.
Choosing the correct type of crane
Tower cranes feature a high maneuverability, a large space below the crane and
high arrangement of the boom which can pass over the erected structures.
The type and number of cranes to be used will depend on the plan, size and shape
and the height of the building and the access spaces around it. Where the tower crane is
located outside a high r ise structure, it has to be often tied to the structure at intervals to
stabilize the mast. The structure assists in taking up the reaction at a certain points, in
which case the structure has to be designed for the stresses generated by the anchors.
Mobile tower cranes are subdivided with respect to their running gear into rail mounted,
truck, wheeled, and crawler cranes. Most widely are rail mounted cranes, they are simple
in service and ensure a high safety.
Cranes employed in construction have a lifting capacity of 3 to 25 tonnes and a
maximum swingning radius is 90m. separate motors are used for hoisting, travelling,
luffing, traversing etc. Stationery Cranes are mounted on a foundation and they serve the
construction site from one point. Climbing tower cranes are usually common in the
construction of multi storied and high rise buildings.
Where access around the site is restricted, a tower cranes might be used internally
by leaving out the floor panels or making use of the lift shaft or stair well. Thus it is
possible to poperate from a more central point in the structure and makes most use of its
reach. Alternatively, a c limbing crane may be more economical. A disadvantage when
the lift shaft is used is that the lift installation is delayed pending removal of the crane.
However, it is possible to construct the lift lining and assemble from the bottom up,
following the passage of the crane.
Avoid Scaffolding
For maximum speed and economy, where the cranes are installed, the use of
scaffolding should be avoided as far as possible and external elevational work shall be
kept to a minimum. In such a case pre glazed windows and designed c ladding panels or
proprietary curtain walling which can be fixed from inside, can be used. Many cantilever
units, stairs or intricately shaped concrete items are best pre-cast.
Tower cranes and plan shape of building
Internal or fixed external tower cranes are suitable for square and Y or star
shaped plan buildings. For long and narrow buildings, a rail mounted travelling crane
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may be used. For cluster of low raised buildings, a tyre mounted self erecting tower crane
is most appropriate. Such cranes are light in weight, with a generator mounted on base
frame. The erection as well as holding up is computer controlled and takes less than one
hour. Such self erecting tower cranes are available with mast height up to 25m and jib
length of about 30m.
Erection and commissioning a tower crane
A specialist group with knowledge of erection and commissioning the tower crane
should be employed in order to optimize the operation. The fountains, where required,
should be cast in advance after obtaining the drawings from the manufacturer. Using a
crew with optimized training, the erection and commissioning of a typical tower crane
should be completed within three days. In the absence of trained crew and management,
it may take up to one or two weeks to erect and commission the centre. A mobile crane is
required to assist in erection of a various components of the tower crane. For tower
cranes of large capacities, a 100t. capacity mobile has been used.
Rail track
Proper performance of the crane is dictated by the state of the rail track. The gauge
and specification for the rails are normally provided by the tower crane manufacturer.
Concrete sleepers are normally used. The maintenance of the rail track during the service
of the tower crane similar to that of a rail line passing high speed trains.
Control and Safety Devices
To ensure safe operation and better use of cranes, they are fitted with safety and control
devices and instruments.
Anemometres
Pressure due to high winds may force the crane to derail or collapse. Wind pressure
is determinted with anemometers where a crane operator ca n read the wind velocity.
Cranes are safe to operate in wind velocities up to 40 Km per hour. PLC devices assist in
automatically shutting down the crane when the wind velocity is exceeded.
Lim it switches are used in cranes to limit the hoisting height. Safety to restrict the cane
travel. Swinging radius indicator is secured on the jib. The scale can be graduated to
indicate not only the jib radius, but also the safe loads that can be handled at the given
radius.
Components of a typical tower crane
The various components are indicated in the fig.1. The major components are : the
mast, the jib, the trolleys, hoisting, s lewing, luff ing and lowering mechanisms. The mast
is in sections, convenient to handle during erection and dismantling (usually 3 to 6
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50
metres). Sections are connected by pin or bolted joints. Special torque wrenches are
required in the case of bolted joints and are usually supplied along with the crane.
Erection and Dismantling of tower crane
These are specialized activities and are required expert guidance. In particular, the
method of dismantling the tower crane from the top of the high r ise structure requires
careful planning and tools. This is usually planned by the supplier of the crane who also
provides the necessary fixtures for dismantling purposes. The intermittent anchoring
systems by guy ropes for very tall structures are also carefully designed by manufactures.
The designer of the permanent structure should interact with the manufacturer and ensure
that the permanent structure is not taxed beyond its designed stress limits. Sometimes it
may be necessary to locally strengthen the structure around the anchorages by additional
reinforcement, higher grade of concrete etc. so that the construction speed is not
compromised.
Safety in Erection, Commissioning, Use and Dismantling Tower Cranes
The first requirement is to have qualif ied, trained and exper ienced operator. Indian
project sites do not give adequate attention to this aspect, resulting in inefficient
operations, avoidable accidents, work-down time, causalities etc. the operator should
have adequate language skills for reading the operation manuals and following them.
Minimum qualif ication should be at least ITI certificate. It is paradoxical that in real life
situation, the contractor spends a few crores on purchase of tower crane and selects an
th
unqualif ied operator, who had not even passed 8 standard!
Some of the ITI certificate holders may also not be proficient in English; it is
desirable that the operations manuals are printed in the local language in addition to
English. If this service is not provided by the equipment manufactures (normally they
should provide), the end user should get the translation done in one or two prominent
languages and provide the copies to the operators.
The tower crane operators must have read the operations instructions in particular,
the chapters concerning safety. The personnel must wear safety clothing/ protective
equipment during maintenance/ repair work. They should not wear loose and long hair,
loose clothing, jewellery etc.
Repairs and adjustments must be made only by qualif ied and trained m echanics.
No modifications shall be allowed to be made without the consent of the manufacturer.
The rail track should invariably on concrete foundations and not on timer sleepers. The
rail track foundation details should be obtained from the manufacturer. While not in use
the boqie should be locked to the rail and the jibs should be free to rotate. The hook
should be raised and locked to the jib trolley. The tower crane should not be operated
during high winds with speed exceeding 40 Km. per hour. The crane should not be
travelled with load. The jib should not be slewed by more than 360 Degrees.
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While traversing, the lim it switches should restrict movement of trolleys to within
the operating range of the jib with automatic slow down at both ends of jibs. Lim it
switches should control the hook movement so that the hook dose not hit the ground or
the jib. S imilar ly lim it should be used for slewing a maximum of 360 Degrees with
automatic slow down at the end of the movements.
Var ious electronic lim it switches are provided as standard fittings to the tower crane:
Hoist limit switch
Slewing lim iter
Trolley lim it switch
Travelling limit switch
Load limiters
Moment cut out
High speed and maximum safe working load cut outs
Var ious
audio warning and indicator lights are provided in the operators cabin
On Power indicates crane is energized
On indicates crane in service
Load and dynamic moment indicates load and dynamic moment achieved
Fault Hoist indicates malfunctioning of the hoist winch
Fault slewing indicates malfunctioning of slewing
Fault trolley indicates malfunctioning of the trolley winch
Hoist limit Switch avoids possible driving errors. It allows to stop the hoisting
motion as soon as the pulley block comes near the jib trolley. When lowering, it
forbids the rope to unwind completely and wind up onto the drum in the reverse
direction.
Trolley Lim it Switch avoid possible driving error by stopping the trolley motion
before reaching the stops at the jib foot and jib nose.
Track
Use slightly worn rail for good bearing surface. Rails should be absolutely parallel
and well bedded down on a solid base. Tracks should be earthed. It should be perfectly
straight, unless otherwise designed. Use same type of rail throughout.
Fit rail stops at least 1m before end
A travel lim it switch
A spring stop (buffer)
A fixed stop, welded to the rail
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Counterweight (Ballast)
Base: Reinforcement concrete blocks. The reinforcement and hooks for hoisting
and hanging the blocks should be designed for safety. Paint the weights on the side of
blocks.
Erection- Safety
Do not work with overload
Use slings in good condition
Erect in the order indicated
Fit the counter jib & jib parallel to the track
Fit rail clamp & wedges on rails
Exam ine pins. Some are made to manual.
Telescoping operations according to manual.
During rais ing, DO NOT- slew the jib, move the trolley or carry out any
hoisting/ lowering
Telescoping only if wind speed < 40 Km/Hr.
Safety during Operation
Check loads to be lifted/ working heights, permissible wind speeds, loads with
more than 1 sq.m. /ton, surface area exposed to wind. When several cranes are working
close together the distance between two cranes must be at least 2m longer than the lowest
jib likely to meet the mast of the other machine. Alternatively anti collision devices must
be used.
FORMWORK FOR HIGHRISE CONS TRUCTIO N
SLIP FORMS
Slip forming was introduced into Australia around 1952, mostly for silo
construction. It has been in use overseas much longer. A slip form is made so that it can
move slowly whilst being continually kept full of concrete. The form is not deep and it
moves so that concrete is not in the form for long. The concrete is left behind by the form
when it is just strong enough to support itself.
Typically, the concrete stays in a vertical s lip form for 1.5 - 6 hours. In horizontal
slip forming, as in forming the kerb of a roadside, the concrete can be exposed sooner.
Because the form is continually filled it produces jointless concrete. That's useful for
construction of containers, such as water tanks, silos, cooling towers and reactor shields
where breaks in the concrete must be avoided. It is also used in the construction of tall
structures such as lift wells, where the surface needs few spaces or protrusions.
It has been used for many years in the construction of tall buildings which have flat
walls and the same dimensions all the way up It is also very good for circular structures
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which have changing dimensions, such as cooling towers because the size of the form can
be changed as it moves. The height of a vertical slip form can range from about 1 m to 2
m with the most common size being 1.2 m tall. The surrounding supporting structure and
work platforms add to the size of the structure. A schematic diagram of a vertical slip
form is shown below.
Slip forming is suitable for round the clock pouring and so structures can be built quite
quickly. Typically, slip forms rise at about 30 cm per hour, allowing a tall structure to be
built in days. Horizontal slip forms, such as in those used for forming of water or road
surfaces, move along more quickly. Hundreds of metres, even kilometres per day and can
be achieved.
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Components of Slip forms

Slip-forms are special structures. They are specially designed by engineers for specific
constructions.
The structure consists basically of five parts:
form face and its supports;
yokes and cross members;
jacking equipment which keeps the form moving;
work platform at the top level of the form; and;
hanging work platform, below the form face where the workers finish the surface
as it exits the form.
Drawings of the forms will indicate the spacing walers, the design of the yokes, the
work platforms and the jacking mechanism.
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The height of the form will depend on the temperature, the type of concrete used and its
hardening rate. In cold climates, a taller form is used which allows the concrete to be in
the form longer, allowing it to harden. Slip forms can be made from proprietary panels if
the job is a standard one where such panels can be used. It can also be designed to
become bigger or smaller as it rises producing a bigger or smaller structure.
CALCULATI NG MATERIAL QUANTI TIES
The most important calculation in the design of slip forms is the length of time the
concrete needs to be in the formwork. When you know that, the rate of rise can be
adjusted to suit.
The time (T) that the concrete spends in the slip form is calculated from the formula:
T = [D - (F + t + t' + L)] / R
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Where the letters refer to the diagram:

D is the depth of the form
R is the rate of rise of the form
F is the free board
L is the distance between point of separation and toe of the form
t is the thickness of layer of fresh concrete
t' thickness of the next layer needing revibration. This is usually considered to be a
quarter of the fresh layer.
Advantages of Slip forms:
Slip forming is best used when there is little need to change the formwork for large
buildings and there are few changes in dimension. Even though the formwork is complex,
takes a long time to set up, and needs a lot of labour at the time of the slip, the time taken
to complete the job is small. The costs are higher in setup but reduced overall due to the
speed of completion.
There is a minimum height of construction of about four floors, above which the
cost of slip forming becomes economical. Slip forming is a good choice for a tall building
core, but not so good for a three storey lift-well. To build a special slip form that
probably won't be used again will be more expensive than using standard panels which
are cheap and easy to erect.
Before choosing slip forming some of the things to consider are:
The concreting will take place in a very short time.
The initial setting up time ins itu will be longer than for conventional forms but can
be reduced by construction of the forms in large slabs off site.
The cost per square metre of the equipment will be more than for conventional
forms.
Labour costs will be higher due to shift work but productivity will be good.
There are no construction joints.
The process is less weather sensitive than other methods. Working platforms can
be covered from the weather and the surface of the concrete can be protected.
Standby plant and workers are needed.
It is easy to obtain a good key for subsequent finishes.
The final tolerance for the completed work is about same as that for other methods.
Spiralling and non verticality have almost been eliminated.
Economising on the des ign of the slip form may lead to major and expens ive
problems.
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CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES:
Core Wall Survey Control System for High Rise Buildings.
In recent years there has been considerable interest in the construction of super
high-rise buildings. From the prior art, various procedures and devices for surveys during
and after the phase of erection of a high-rise building are known. High-rise buildings are
subject to strong external tilt effects caused, for instance, by wind pressures, unilateral
thermal effects by exposure to sunlight, and unilateral loads. Such effects are a particular
challenge in the phase of construction of a high-rise building, inasmuch as the high-rise
building under construction is also subject to tilt effects, and will at least temporarily lose
its as a rule exactly vertical alignment. Yet construction should progress in such a
way that the building is aligned as planned, and particularly so in the vertical, when
returning into an un-tilted basic state.
It is essential that a straight element be constructed that theoretically, even when
moving around its design centre point due to varying loads, would have an exactly
vertical alignment when all bias ing conditions are neutralised. Because of differential raft
settlement, differential concrete shortening, and construction tolerances, this ideal
situation will rarely be achieved.
For this reason a regular matching of the reference system is required for surveys during
the construction phase of a high-rise building once this has attained a certain height or a
certain ratio of height to cross section.
Up to now, surveying on high-rise buildings is done by geodetic electro-optical
total stations yielding non-contact optical measurements of the points to be surveyed,
these instruments periodically being referenced to fixed external reference points with
known coordinates. The precision of the entire surveying procedure depends on the
reference points serving as fixed points for the total station; therefore, points are selected
for which absolute constancy of the position is guaranteed. Pr imarily points close to
ground are suitable that are not subject to influences producing shifts. However,
increasing construction heights, possibly aggravated by densely built-up surroundings,
give rise to difficulties in the use of ground-level fixed points, inasmuch as the distance
between the total station installed on the uppermost construction level of the high-rise
building and the reference points becomes excessive for exact referencing of the total
station while the relative distances between the fixed points become too small,
particular ly so in heavily developed zones.
Beyond a certain threshold height, it becomes altogether impossible to use groundlevel reference points. Particularly in the Far East, demand increases for high-rise
buildings having heights beyond this threshold and a ratio of height to cross section that
gives rise to strong tilt and sway of the building. The strong movements of the structure
create a number of problems for the correct design of controls. It will be essential at any
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particular instant in time to exactly know how much the building is off from its design
position, and at the same time to know the precise position of the total station. The
situation is further complicated by vibrations in the building due to the construction work
and by movements of the building making it very difficult, if not impossible, to keep
instruments levelled.
This presentation describes a procedure developed by Leica Geosystems using
GPS observations combined with a precision inclination sensor to provide reliable
coordinated points at the top of the worldwide highest-rise building under construction in
Dubai.
INTRODUCTIO N
Overview
The Burj Dubai tower in Dubai, UAE, will rise to a height of over 800m when
complete in 2008. In addition to being very tall it is also quite slender and it is anticipated
that there will be movement of the building at upper levels due to wind loads, crane
loads, construction sequence and other factors. The self climbing formwork system for
the building is complex, due to the shape of the structure and requires a large number of
control points. It has been necessary to develop a survey system that can efficiently
provide the large number of control points and can be used when the building is moving.
An analysis of predicted movements has been completed and a system installed which
delivers accurate positioning for construction set out at the top level of the formwork.
Lim ited results are available to date but monitoring indicates that the required accuracy is
being achieved.
Building Movements
The various components resulting in the displacement and motion of the structure can be
divided in to three groups.
Long Period Movements
These components may cause movement in the tower in a period of from one week
to 6 months.
Uneven Raft Settlement: As the load on the raft foundation increases it will
continue to settle and if the settlement is uneven this will cause a corresponding tilt
in the tower structure.
Raft Deformation: Due to the greater load at the centre of the tower the raft
foundation will deform as construction progresses and this deformation may affect
the verticality of the structure.
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Construction Sequence: Construction is progressing in a circular sequence on a 5

7 day cycle for each level and this will cause the centre of mass of the building to
move from the vertical axis and may cause a corresponding movement in the
structure. Refer Figure 3.
Building Design: The design of the building, with the set back on wings occurring
at different levels introduces a movement of the centre of mass in the building as it
rises and the final position of the theoretical design shape is offset from the vertical
axis. This may cause a movement in the tower position which is closely linked
with the construction sequence.
Concrete Creep and Shrinkage: Long term, differential, creep and shrinkage in the
tower columns may cause the tower centre to move by small amounts over a long
period. The amount of deflection will depend on the level at which the differential
shortening develops.
Daily Movements
This component may cause movement in the tower over a 24 hour period.
Solar Effects: The concrete surfaces exposed to the sun will expand when
compared to those on the opposite side of the building. This will result in the building
moving away from the sun. Mathematical modelling of solar effects on the structure
indicate that with a temperature differential of ten degrees centigrade a movem ent of up
to 150mm at the top of the concrete is possible over a six hour period. This equates to a
movement of 25mm per hour at that level. Most of the control for the formwork needs to
be set during the day when the solar effect will be at a maximum.
Dynamic Movements
These components cause movement in the tower with periods of as little as 10 seconds up
to 15 minutes
Building Resonance: According to information from the structural engineers the
building will have a natural period of 10 to 11 seconds in two axis which if the
position data is computed at say every 0.5 seconds then the shape of a point plot of
30 minutes of data would resemble an irregular ellipse. If wind speed increases
then the size of this ellipse would also increase.
Wind Drag: Wind loads will cause the building to move off centre by amounts
which are dependant on wind speed, direction and structural factors.
Crane Loads: It is anticipated that the building will move to some extent when a
tower crane picks up or releases a load. These movements will be completely
random with periods of 5 to 15 minutes. When positioning surveys are being
carried out it will be necessary to shut down the cranes to reduce the chances of a
random bias in the measurement of the displacement. The loads and other effects
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on the tower will cause it to move from the theoretical vertical axis and the natural
building resonance will cause it to oscillate about this offset position. The survey
system had to be designed to tolerate this movement and allow construction to
proceed in a continuation of the alignment of the previous levels.
Form work System
The formwork for each concrete pour is comprised of a series of individual forms
which all require control. This has resulted in 240 control points for the formwork system
for each level. It was not practical or safe to use the traditional method of plumbing up
through floor penetrations and at the beginning of the project it was decided to use
resection as the primary procedure for survey control.
Initial Surveys
At contract commencement six permanent bench marks were established around
the site and precisely surveyed. These marks consisted of a concrete encased steel I
beam extending down to about 15m below ground level. A cap was cast at the top to
provide a solid work platform. These marks were used for all the initial set out surveys
and as a base for the monitoring work.
Lower Levels
Due to the large number of control points required for the formwork it was
necessary to develop a method so that the control was only measured once. The only
solid part of the building is the concrete and the technique sets marks in the top surface of
the newly cast concrete.
A total station instrument is also set up on the concrete and position established by
resection to the external bench marks. The marks set in the top surface are measured by
radiation from this resected control position and the precise coordinates for each mark
calculated. When the formwork is raised to the next level the marks are offset onto the
main working deck of the formwork which is tied in to the concrete at that position. The
back of the shutters can then be positioned from these marks. From ground to about Level
20 resection was possible from the external control marks which were distant about 100
to 150 m from the base of the tower. Observation redundancy was possible and very high
quality results were achieved. Verticality observations confirmed that the tower was not
moving and raft foundation measurements indicated there was no differential settlement
to cause the tower to tilt. Hence it was a straight forward surveying task to set out control
for the formwork using this method.
Upper Levels
As the building r ises it will come under the influence of various forces as described
in 1.2 above and will start to move by varying amounts and sometimes in random
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directions. Above Level 20 it became increasingly difficult to sight the external control
on site due to obstruction from the upper decks of the formwork system. In Dubai the
nearest tall, stable, buildings were over 500m distant from the site and could not be used
because of potential vis ibility problems and poor geometry.
At this stage it became necessary to implement a new method of resection and a
measurement system that could tolerate building movement. It was also necessary to
install a means of measuring the building movement to ultimately identify any long term,
permanent movement of the tower in a particular direction which might need to be
counteracted.
CORE WALL SURVEY SYSTEM
The movement of the structure creates several problems for precise survey; at a
particular instant in time, theoretically, you need to know exactly how much the design
centre line of the building is offset from the vertical axis and at that same instant you
need to know the precise coordinates of the instrument. However a mean position taken
over a short period for both elements can provide a suitable solution.
Instrument Position Determination
GPS operating in static mode are being used to
establish survey control at the upper levels. The
system comprises a minimum of 3 GPS antenna/
receivers mounted on tall f ixed poles at the top
level of the formwork.
A tiltable circular prism is placed below
each antenna and a Total Station instrument
(TPS) is set up on the concrete visible to all GPS
stations. The GPS plus TPS comprises a
measurement system. In static GPS mode,
satellite signal data is received and recorded for a
period of up to 1 hour. During this same period of
time, the TPS instrument is used to measure a
series of angles and distances to the prisms
mounted below the GPS antennas. The TPS then
measures to the reference marks placed on fresh
concrete which are the reference points for
control of the formwork as described in 1.4.1.
After completion of observations, data is returned
to the office for processing. Computation of GPS
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antenna positions is carried out, processed against data from a Continuous ly Operating
GPS Reference Station Leica GPS GRX1200 Pro with AT504 chokering antenna and
Leica GPS Spider software, using Leica Geo Office software (LGO).
Computation of TPS position is then carried out actually as a least squares
resection. Finally transformation is performed of the 3 no WGS84 antenna coordinates
and resected TPS coordinates into the local coordinate system and from this a
determination of coordinates of all measured reference marks is made. These steps yield
coordinates of survey instrumentation and reference marks in the site project coordinates.
A total station, or more generally any theodolite, can be considered as a dual axis system
supporting the line of sight of a transit/telescope. For reducing the effect of the
mechanical misalignments on the observations, classical operational procedures have
been applied since the first use of such instruments.
Today, a total station can take these axis misalignm ents into account using an
inbuilt dual axis compensator and special f irmware to correct the resulting error in the
measurements. However, the operational range of the compensators is restricted,
typically to about six m inutes of arc. The operator aligns the main axis coarsely by
keeping the bubble of the station inside the graduation. In case of a compensator out of
range signal, the station must be realigned manually.
This procedure known by experienced operators as simply inappropr iate when
operating a total station in this case when we expect dynamic behaviour and overal as we
the building main axis will not be aligned with the direction of local gravity To remove
that restriction it will be necessary to consider this instrument as a local 3D axis system.
The coordinates computed by using the observations (directions and distance) are
internally consistent but must be transformed into the reference frame defined by the set
of GPS antennas. In our case as we use a single total station, the problem is simply a 3D
transformation also known as similar ity transformation or Helmert transformation.
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Building Alignment Determination

The Core Wall Survey System (CWSS) uses NIVEL200 dual-axis precise
clinometers to accurately determine displacement of the tower alignment from vertical.
Clinometers measure absolute tilt to +/-0.2 arc. This angular measure can be applied to
the vertical distance of the clinometers sensor above the foundation raft to provide a
computed plan displacement in X and Y at that elevation due to the tilt of the structure.
A total of 8 precise clinometers are to be networked at approximately every 20
floors up the tower as construction proceeds. Each instrument will be mounted in the
center core wall in a boxout within the wall where casual disturbance is unlikely.
When the clinometers are installed initially they will be calibrated in relation to the
survey control at that level by verticality observations from the raft foundation. A series
of observations will provide a mean displacement in X and Y for that tilt meter at that
time and will then be applied to all future readings so that the output will reflect the
displacement of the tower alignment at that level in relation to the vertical axis.
Clinometers will be connected through an RS-485 single bus cable to the LAN port of a
dedicated PC located at the survey office running Leica GeoMoS software.
Continuous, real-time measurements of structure tilt can be logged for each instrument
floor, and data output as X and Y components of building alignment from the vertical.
Amplitude peaks of smoothed data represent structure oscillations.
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The mean displacement of the regression line represents total mean displacement
of the structure. A block of data corresponding to the GPS observation data will be used
for this purpose. Differentiation of the tiltmeter data at different heights will allow
correction for nonlinear structure tilt.
Core Wall Survey System
The GPS Reference Station, the GPS receivers and antennas with circular prism,
the Total Station are combined with the precise clinometers network as shown below
composed the 4 measuring sub-elements of the complete data fusion system.
PRECISION
An examination of the likely errors in the
CWSS indicates that it will be possible to
continue to set out the formwork along the
vertical alignment of the structure to a precision
of 15mm. It should also be possible to identify
any long term movement of the tower that has a
value of >20mm in any given direction.
ANALYSIS
Monitor ing
surveys
will
provide
information on raft foundation settlement and
deformation and this can be used to accurately
determine the offset of the tower at a particular
level due to the inf luence of these factors.
Similarly surveys to measure the differential
shrinkage and creep in the core walls and
columns can be used to derive this possible
component of tower movement.
A dynamic model of the building has been
developed and from this it has been possible to
derive values at any given level for the effects of
construction sequence, building design and solar
effects. For the period of the control survey if the
tower cranes are shut down then the only
remaining unknown component of building
movement is that due to wind.
Weather stations are to be established at
three locations on the tower and these will stream
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continuous data on temperature, wind speed and direction. This can be correlated with the
tilt meter data to determine a relationship. It is anticipated that this analys is will reveal
any long term movements in a given direction and if necessary corrective action can be
taken. The Nivel200 Network segment of this system can be used for tower monitor ing,
both during construction and after completion of the structure. If this is integrated with
other monitoring information it will provide a complete system of structure monitoring.
A combination of GPS survey techniques, Automatic Total Station, clinometers
readings and mathematical modelling will provide a means to drive the construction of
the worlds tallest building as a straight structural elem ent and provided a wealth of data
on building movement. Its only the start of a long journey up to the final completion of
the Bur j Dubai tower and the authors know that they will have to complement the
existing data fusion system with other elements the time being.
MATERIAL FOR HI GHRISE CO NS TRUCTIONS:

In building practice, materials have to be selected to meet specific functional
requirement. The degree of protection, comfort and pleasure that a building of nay kind
provides throughout its working life depends on the materials that are used. Building
materials account for 70 to 75% of the total cost of construction.
High r ise structures are designed for static as well as dynam ic loading. The construction
materials for high r ise structures should have high strength under these loads. The
materials should be light, so as to reduce the cost of foundation and overall costs as well
as be durable.
Some major materials of construction are considered below :
High grade materials
1. Cement
The economics of concrete construction depends on the design of concrete mix,
which in turn depends on the correct grade of cement and best combination of
ingredients. Considering the relative costs of its constituents, the economic design aims at
minimizing the cement content.
In construction of high-rise structures, concrete of high strength is required. Higher
grade of concrete can be achieved either by using more quantity of cement in the mix or
by using high strength cement.
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High cement content is costly, generates high heat of hydration and leads to more
cracking and shrinkage. Hence, high grade cement (G43,G53) are effectively used to
produce high grade concrete.
For the same cement content as that of G33, we can produce high strength concrete
which can be used to produce sleek and elegant structures. Alternately, by using lower
cement quantity we can produce concrete of same strength. Since there is not much
difference in the cost of G33 and G43/G53 cements, savings in cement is the direct
saving in cost of construction.
Comparative studies carried out on concrete using G33 and higher grades of
cement show that the use of high strength cement results if following savings.
I. In the cost of cement
20-30%
II. In the cost of steel
5-10%
III. In the cost of shuttering
5%
High grade cements produce more durable(less permeable) concrete. High ear ly
strength enables the shuttering to be removed earlier and thus speeds up construction.
2. Reinforcement
In RCC, reinforcement accounts for 30-40% of the total cost of construction per
m3 of concrete. Use of high grade steel substantially reduces this cost. For eg. In case
of doubly reinforced beam, use of Fe500 results in reinforcement savings of 44-47%
over mild steel (Fe250) and 14-15% over Fe415 in terms of weight and 35-37% over
mild steel and 6-8% over Fe415 in terms of cost.
3. Advantages of using high grade materials
I. Sleeker and elegant structures, giving more f lexibility in generating the
design concept.
II. Earlier hardening and high ear ly strength speeds up the construction process.
Scaffolding can be removed in just 7-10 days instead of the usual 15-21 days
hence centring cost is considerably reduced.
III. Use of high grade cement to produce high grade concrete reduces the section
and consumption of steel .
IV. Buildings can be designed with smaller sections to meet the same function
and to take the same load. This result in mater ial saving and increase in the
useful carpet area.
V. As result of lesser cement consumption in concrete, G53 grade gives low
heat of hydration, giving crack free mortar and concrete.
VI. Saves cement consumption.
Sr. Item
Cement
Cement %
%
no.
G43
G53
Saving
Saving
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in
Material
in Cost
28.5
13.8
26.0
10.8
13.8
10.8
1:1.5:3
1:5:10
1:2.5:4.
5
1:2.5:4.
5
1:2:4
18.75
15.8
1:4
1:6
25
22
1:6
1:6
1:4
1:4
of cement
1:8
1:8
1:6
1:6
33
21
30
25
20
18.5
27
22
Concrete
1
Foundation
2
Footing
1:4:8
1:2:4
1:2:4
Columns/slabs/be
ams
4
Water tanks
Mortar
1
Flooring
/Tilework
2
Br ickwork
3
Internal Plaster
4
External P laster
5
Ceiling Plaster
Table (1) : Savings for various types
Light Weight Concrete

Normal concrete imposes heavy load on the structure, thus creating technical and
economical problems in design of foundations particularly in poor soils.
Lightweight concrete reduces overall cost of the structure by considerably reducing the
dead load. Saving in structural steel depends on the height of the building. In lightweight
concrete construction, since the dead load is reduced, the earth quake forces are reduced.
Hence lightweight concrete buildings are better for earthquake prone zones.
Since the dead load is considerably reduced, buildings can be built taller without
exceeding the S BC of soil. When used in building f loors, it increases the ratio of LL/DL
and permits wide spacing of columns, allowing more column free area.
Light weight concrete increases thermal insulation and sound proofing. Use of
lightweight concrete panels and structural members cuts down the energy consumption
on air conditioning and heating of rooms to an absolute minimum.
Flyash
Flyash can be used in the form of ready mixed flash concrete, precast flyash
concrete building units (hollow or solid), clay f lyash bricks, cellular concrete, sintered
flyash lightweight aggregate etc.
Walling accounts for about 14% of the total cost in building. Hence saving in wall units
to leads to certain economy. Clay flyash bricks are cheaper than clay burnt bricks, have
the same lifespan and are used for construction in Andhra Pradesh. Aerated lightweight
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products lead to appreciable economy in consumption of cement and steel due to their
lightweight and high strength to weight ratio. Aerated concrete products are ideally suited
for walling blocks.
Flyash lightweight aggregate is suitable for use in produation of structural light weight
concrete and precast lightweight concrete buildings units.
1. Calc ium silicate bricks
Production of calcium silicate br icks requires 30% less energy as compared to
traditional bricks. They reduce the cost of construction by around 40%. Less mortar is
required as compared to conventional clay br icks. Lesser wall thickness are obtained
giving more carpet area.
2. Cellular concrete blocks
They are lighter than clay bricks by around 40-45% and possess technical
advantages such as better strength to weight ratio, low thermal conductivity, better sound
insulation and resistance to fire and water seepage.
There are appreciable savings in wall thickness and foundation cost. Plaster can be
completely avoided. From considerations of transportation, within a radius of 40km from
the plant site, cellular concrete blocks are cheaper by 10-15% are compared to traditional
bricks.
Their density is almost one-fourth of concrete and one-third of bricks, leading to
reduced dead load and savings in cement and steel. They are easy to handle, transport and
hoist, therefore are suitable in low bearing soils and in seismic zones.
3. Clay flyash aggregate concrete
These are lighter and easy to transport. Clay flyash bricks have low thermal
conductivity therefore have better insulation properties.
4. Sintered flyash aggregate concrete
This lead to a lower bulk density of concrete, resulting in a reduction of dead
weight of buildings by 30-40%. There is a corresponding reduction of 20-22% in the cost
of steel as well as the cost of steel as well as the cost of foundation.
This concrete has better thermal and acoustical properties. It is more resistant to fire and
earthquake hazards. It gives more living space for the same plinth. Precast units can be
speed up the construction process.
Polymer Concrete
Polymer addictives such as powdered emulsions and water soluble polymers
produce a concrete of higher tensile and flexural strength. It has much higher ductility
and elasticity. Polymer concrete is highly res istant to chemical attack, abrasion and
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cavitation. Polymer concrete has good bond strength, low permeability and its hardens
rapidly. Polymer impregnated concrete is used for precast wall panels. It enhances
durability of concrete and increases its strength by as much as five times.
Ferrocement
Precast units ferrocement produce light and thin structures, resulting in
considerable savings in formwork and costs. Ferrocement encased RCC columns were
cast and tested for direct compression ta the Government college of Engineering Pune.
These columns carried same load as RCC columns and saved the cost of formwork. The
ferrocement casing acted as inbuilt formwork.
A ground plus one structure has been constructed using only ferrocement precast chajjas,
doors, walling units, staircase are widely used in Pune for various constructions.
Insulating Material
Fibreboards and gypsum plaster boards are light and fire resistant. These are
available in various dimensions. In particular they are used for false ceilings, lightweight
partitions and insulation walls. Phenotherm and decofoam are fire resistant insulation
forms. They have exceptionally low thermal conductivity and low water absorption.
Wonder wood
This precast concrete with wood like grains is used for frames for doors and
windows. It is highly economical compared to wood, steel aluminium, FRP or any other
comparable material used for frames. These high strength and load bearing members
elim inate the need for casting lintel.
Precast Units
Precast units elim inate costly shuttering. Furthermore, since the units are made
under factory conditions, there is greater quality control. Hence, uniform units of high
quality and strength can be obtained.
Precast units require less labour and can be erected faster. Therefore, construction
can be speeded up. Shrinkage cracks are elim inated, which avoids the corrosion of
reinforcement and makes the structure more durable. Precast unit construction is
statically determinate. Therefore standardised sections are used.
Hollow blocks are light, economical and easy to handle. They have better appearance,
better insulating properties and require lesser maintenance. The can be made in various
sizes and shapes.
Siporex Blocks
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Siporex blocks are as strong as RCC, but weight is only th of RCC. The save 3040% in cement and 35-50% in steel, leading to economical des ign. The yare 10 tim es
more insulating than concrete and 4 to 6 times than masonry. Thus, they are economical
for air conditioned units. They require less maintenance.
The compressive strength can be as much as 40kg/cm2 in dense form. Its reinforcement
is specially treated against corrosion and for better bond. The dead load weight on
foundations can be reduced by 50-75%. They are suitable for structures on low bearing
soils and in earthquake prone areas. The strength to weight ratio is 21 for siporex as
compared to 15 RCC.
Erection can be speeded up with siporex and they are convenient for additions and
extensions to structures. Prefabricated slabs are used for floors roofs and walling for
which they are 25 to 30% cheaper than conventional RCC. Use of siporex systems saves
up to 10% energy.
Plastics
Plastics used for doors, windows profiles, water distribution pipe, toilet fittings and
fixtures, drain ways, water storage tanks and indoor panelling. They are resistant to
corrosions, light in weight, strong and easy to handle and install.
They are dimensionally stable, possess high strength to weight ratio and are excellent
sound and thermal insulators. Plastics save on cement and steel and are economical to
use.
EXTERIOR INS ULATION AND FINISH SYS TEMS (EIFS)
THE ISSUES
Exterior insulation and finish systems (EIFS) are light weight exterior cladding systems
consisting of insulation board mechanically and / or adhesively attached to a wind loadbearing substrate, and covered with an integrally reinforced base coat and a protective
surface finish. EIFS are based on the concept that optimal wall performance is achieved
when all of the temperature and moisture sensitive components are placed on the interior
side of the insulation.
To protect the insulation from the environment while providing an architecturally
pleas ing finish, the insulation must be coated with a thin finish layer. This layer needs to
be reinforced to resist cracking from temperature, wind and structural movement. The use
of a source drained1 barrier approach to moisture management is considered the
minimum for best practice for EIFS and is an essential component of any EIFS assembly.
Moisture barrier protection of the substrate, drainage and ventilation strategies may also
be required depending on particular project and climatic conditions.
Advantages of EIFS include:
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location of the insulation protects the primary structure from temperature extremes
and moisture-related damage,
exterior insulation, particular ly in steel framed buildings, can result in energy
savings, and reduced cost of HVAC equipment,
complex surface features are possible in a wide range of finish colours and
textures,
smaller dead loads and reduced structural costs,
thinner walls will increase usable area and reduce building footprint,
an EIFS can be pre-manufactured in tranferrable panels.
Disadvantages include:
sensitivity to def iciencies in workmanship, particular ly at joints penetrations and
sealants,
susceptibility to mechanical damage.
Consideration should also be given to three key elements of EIFS:
Rain Penetration at Joints
Interstitial Condensation
Cracking of the Lamina
DESI GN CONSIDERATIO NS
The most serious and widespread problems associated with EIFS relate to moisture
damage, often to the substrate system or sheathing since EIFS themselves are made up of
essentially moisture tolerant materials.
Rain Penetration at Joints
Face sealed joints are not recommended; use 2-stage seals in joints that provide for
water drainage at the source.
A drained subsill under windows is essential in most applications.
The EIFS finish should stop at least 8 above grade & a special system is required
below grade. Manufactuers should be consulted for the appropriate details.
Interstitial Condensation
Where possible, additional insulation should not be placed in the stud space. This
will maintain the interior side surface temperature of the substrate sheathing above
the dew point of the interior air. If insulation is required in the stud space a
dynamic analysis for the prediction of condensation should be carried out prior to
finalizing the design.
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A vapour barrier is required in EIFS clad walls. A membrane or trowel applied

vapour barrier can be used between the insulation board and the sheathing.
Alternatively, a separate vapour barrier on the inside of the wall can be provided.
Cracking of the Lamina
Cracking caused by excessive stresses can occur as a result of inappropr iate
location of joints between insulation boards, or insufficient or inappropriate control and
movement joint spacing and location.
EIFS with thin glass-mesh reinforced high polymer content lam inas may
experience durability and performance problems if the mesh is not properly embedded in
a base coat of the proper thickness. The base coat provides the primary water penetration
resistance, and when reinforced, the majority of the structural properties of the lamina.
PRESSURE EQ UALI ZED RAINSCREEN (PER)

THE ISSUES
Rainscreen walls are assemblies that provide a cavity behind the exterior cladding.
The principal function of the cladding is to deflect intruding rainwater without damage to
moisture sensitive materials within the wall assembly. However, water that is present on
the outer face of the cladding, may enter the cavity as a result of a number of forces,
including momentum, surface tension, gravity and air pressure differences. The cavity
acts as a capillary break to prevent water reaching the remainder of the wall assembly.
The cavity also acts as a drainage space to shed moisture to the exterior by means of
flashings and vents provided at the bottom of each cavity compartment.
Pressure equalized rainscreen (PER) wall assemblies attempt to reduce water
penetration of the wall assembly as a result of pressure differences. Wind forces create in
higher air pressures on the exterior of the wall than within the building or the wall
assembly. Air movement in response to this pressure difference can transport moisture
present on the exterior of the cladding into the wall.
PER wall systems and assemblies require that they be designed so that the pressure
difference across the exterior cladding is nearly zero at all times. This reduces the driving
force associated with pressure differences, and prevents moisture from moving through
the wall assembly. The air barrier, in conjunction with a vented and compartmented
cavity, acts to reduce or elim inate air pressure differences across the cladding.
The control of airflow is inherent in the PER wall systems and assemblies. If the
airflow through and within the fabric of the wall is not controlled, the air pressure
difference across the rainscreen (or outer section of the wall) cannot be equalized.
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Even with the best design concept and

construction practices, however, there is always the
possibility that some water will f ind a way inside the
wall cavity. Therefore, the wall system also has to
contain features that will drain this water to the
outside. As in a rainscreen assembly, any incidental
water which may enter the cavity is drained to the
outside by means of the cavity and flashings.
At any time, the air pressure loading on walls
varies significantly from one location to another. As
wind loads change, positive pressures are created on
some areas of the building envelope and negative
pressures on others. It is necessary to divide, or
compartment, the cavity into smaller areas. In this
way, the range of pressure differences acting on each
compartment can be significantly reduced.
The design parameters for PER wall systems
are still in development. Considerable research
information on this subject, however, is now
available from a number of Canadian organizations.
Rainscreen walls require certain design features in
order to achieve pressure equalization under dynamic
wind conditions. To obtain pressure equalization
across the rainscreen, the airflow through the wall
system and the lateral air f low within the wall cavity
must be controlled.
The design of the wall system must include:
Air Barrier Systems
Sealed Compartments
Appropriate Venting
Quality Control
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Air Barrier Systems
The importance of the air barrier system to effective building envelope
performance has been discussed earlier in this section. Air barriers are particular ly
important in pressure equalized rainscreen wall assemblies.
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The wall system must contain a continuous and durable air barrier that controls
airflow through the wall. The air barrier system must be made of structural elements, or
be supported by structural elements capable of resisting wind loads. The air barrier
system should be rigid to minim ize material fatigue, especially at the points of attachment
to the structure.
Sealed Compartments
Air pressures induced by winds vary over the width and height of the building.
Steep gradients can develop towards the corners and the roof line while pressures can be
fairly uniform near the centre of the walls. These pressure differentials can induce lateral
airflow within the cavity unless interrupted at suitable intervals by sealed compartments.
The frequency of these cavity compartments should be such that the air pressure within
any compartment can be nearly instantaneously equalized with the exterior pressure.
The size of the compartments should vary over the face of the wall, with larger
compartments located at the centre where pressures gradients are lower, and relatively
smaller compartments located at higher pressure gradients locations near the building
edges. Cavities must be closed at the corners because wind flowing around the building
produces high pressure differences at these locations. Specific design guidelines include:
the cavity depth should be at least 25mm,
the cavity should contain sealed compartments at each corner and at 1.2m intervals
for 6m from the corners and the top,
sealed compartments located at the centre of the wall in both directions at every
3m to 6m.
Venting
Sufficient venting is required in the pressure equalized rainscreen to ensure that
cavity air pressure is quickly equalized to the outside pressure. The location and size of
vents must allow air to flow into and out of the cavity, thereby achieving pressure
equalization across the rainscreen. The effective area and location of the vents should be
based on the envelope air leakage and the cavity volume.
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The stiffness of the outer wall layer and air

barrier system will affect the volume of the
cavity and must be taken into account when
designing the venting requirements.
Venting must also be provided at locations
that will facilitate drainage of the cavity.
Vent holes should be at least 10mm in
diameter to prevent blockage.
To obtain pressure equalization of the
rainscreen, a rule of thumb is the venting
area should be 25 to 40 times larger than
the leakage area.
Care must be taken in masonry
construction to ensure that vents are not
blocked by mortar.
Asymmetrical Venting
Appropriate sizing and location of vents
can provide an additional means of improving
rain penetration resistance. The asymmetrical
venting concept is based on concentrating vents
in places where the wind pressure on the face of
compartment is greatest. This has the effect of
raising cavity pressure so that most of the
compartment experiences an outward pressure.
The raised cavity pressure forces water out of
leakage paths rather than in. Asymmetrical
venting is achieved by concentrating the required
vent area on the side of the compartment closest
to the centre of the faade.
Quality Contol
The quality control and commissioning process has been discussed previously in
the Air Barriers section. A similar process should be applied to other envelope systems
including pressure equalized rainscreens.
The commissioning of a rainscreen wall will verify building performance
objectives before completion of construction. This is accomplished through performance
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engineering and f ield or laboratory testing. To assist with performance engineer ing,
CMHC has developed a computer program (RAIN) that simulates the pressure
equalization (P.E.) performance of any design.
The quality control process for pressure equalized rainscreen walls should include:
determining that facade areas and windows to be designed as pressure equalized
rainscreens,
locating vertical and hor izontal compartments and determining the number of
rainscreen cavities,
developing basic design of wall or window system to include an air barrier
system,
compartment seals, and cladding system with vents/drains,
determining physical attributes to each rainscreen cavity i.e. volume, vent area,
leakage area, and stiffness of cladding and air barrier systems,
simulating the performance of each rainscreen cavity using CMHCs RAIN
Rainscreen 2.1 and iterate the design until performance attributes are attained (90%
pressure equalization),
constructing a mock-up to test the P.E. performance of a design at preconstruction,
assessing the complete design of envelope and prepar ing construction
documentation,
preparing a tender package requiring on-site mock-up test to verify field
performance and workmanship quality,
complete testing of rainscreen wall and window system, correct problems as
required, and report results,
ensuring rainscreen P.E. performance complies with design objectives and
certifying that workmanship as complies with drawing and specifications,
providing design information necessary for proper maintenance of walls
systems
RETROFI T OPPORTUNI TY
PERs should be used in all high-rise retrofit or recladding projects. In addition to
providing an appropr iate level of water management performance, rainscreen assemblies
also include an effective air barrier and offer an opportunity to add additional insulation
to the exterior of the building. Changing from face-sealed walls to raiscreen assemblies
may result in additional wall thickness. Careful detailing will be required at interfaces
with components such as windows and other penetrations. In many older buildings
replacing windows at the same time as recladding will allow for correct detailing of
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interfaces with walls and will also improve overall envelope thermal performance. Highrise envelope retrofit projects will often involve scaffolding of the building exter ior. The
cost of providing access in this manner is expensive; upgrading all envelope assemblies
and components at one time may result in lower life-cycle costs.
5.5
Technical Analyses and Special Questions
Planning a high-rise building would be

inconceivable today without the help of experts and
technical consultants. Extensive soil analyses are
required to determine the strength of the subsoil
before deciding on the location for a high-rise
building. In the majority of cases, cores are drilled
into the load-bear ing subsoil to obtain soil samples.
The drilling profile of the geological strata making
up the subsoil and laboratory analyses of the soil
samples provide the basic data for the soil report
which is in turn used as the basis for planning the
supporting structures and choosing a suitable
foundation structure with due regard for the loads
exerted by the high-rise building.
The forces acting on the high-rise structure in the event of an earthquake
must be taken into account when erecting high-rise buildings in areas prone to seismic
activity. The same applies to wind loads and particularly to the dynam ic effects of
windstorm or earthquake loads. The additional vibration loads can result in overall loads
of the same order of magnitude as the load exerted by the dead weight of the structure.
The situation is particularly critical if the vibrations reach the resonant frequency of the
building: in such a case, the vibrations can intensify until the entire building collapses.
The collapse of the Tacoma Bridge in Washington State, US A, was probably
the most spectacular case of destruction due to resonant vibration in a man-made
structure. In many cases, these effects cannot be determined by ordinary computation.
Even computer simulation cannot always help. Sometimes a decisive element may be
lacking to obtain a mathematical approxim ation; in other cases, the computer may be too
slow or the storage capacity inadequate. This frequently makes it necessary to carry out
model experiments in a scientific laboratory. Models of the high r ise buildings are
exposed to artificial earthquakes on a vibratory table or subjected to a simulated
hurricane in the wind tunnel. A detailed knowledge of mathematics and physics is
necessary to ensure that the same physical properties and serviceable results are obtained
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despite the reduction in scale. For this reason, these studies can only be carried out by
highly specialized test institutes.
5.5.1.1 CONSTRUCTION LICENSI NG PROCEDURE

The construction licensing procedure is normally specified in the
construction laws of the country concerned. As a rule, the pr incipal will file an
application with all the requis ite documents (description, plans, analyses, etc.) to the
relevant construction supervisory authority. The involvement of specialists is obligatory
in the case of larger and more complicated projects, such as those involving high rise
buildings. Such specialists include experts from the municipal f ire brigade, water
authorities, trade supervisory offices, environment protection agencies or similar offices
in other specif ic fields. These specialists review the applications for a construction
licence and specify any additional requirements to be met. The licence is then sent to the
principal together with the requirements specified by the specialists; responsibility for
complying with these requirements rests with the principal or owner of the building.
5.5.1.2 OTHER CONS TRAINTS
Even in our high-tech era, the planning and construction of a high-rise
building are not dictated only by naked factual constraints. Tradition, religion and even
the belief in spirits and demons still play a not insignif icant part in many countries.
Take, for example, the Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank building in Hong Kong: during
the planning phase, a geomancer or expert on fung shui ( i.e. wind and water)
repositioned the escalators and moved executive off ices and conference rooms to the
other side of the building on the bas is of astrological investigations and measurements in
order to guarantee an optimum sense of well-being for clients and employees. However,
it must be said that such intervention is lim ited by technical and structural requirements.
In western countries, too, the owners are guided by similar considerations when the 13th
floor is omitted from the planning or the technical installations are deliberately located on
this floor in order to avoid the unlucky number 13.
5.5.1.3 CONSTRUCTION PRACTICE
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The construction of high-rise buildings will be dominated by four factors in

future, namely: time savings, personnel savings and financial savings, in addition to the
energy savings already mentioned above.
As examples in Japan show, it is already possible to erect buildings with the
help of assembly robots. The required elements are designed and drawn with the aid of
computers (CAD = computer-aided design). The computer automatically retrieves all the
required (dimensional and des ign) data from the saved architectural and engineer ing
drafts, as well as from detailed libraries. The parts are then manufactured by fully
automatic machines on the basis of these production data (CAM = computer-aided
manufacture) and transported to the site just in time. Assembly robots pick out the right
part in the right sequence, transport it to the assembly point and install the finished
element in the right place.
Thanks to the efficiency of the computers and robots, buildings erected in
this way bear little resemblance to the conventional edifices erected with prefabricated
parts: the precision and arithmetic accuracy of these machines permits a hitherto
inconceivable variety of forms and even the most complex structural analyses are
mastered with the help of computers. If the engineers who developed and built these
robot-controlled construction machines are to be believed, then this method can not
only considerably cut the time required for construction work, but can also reduce the
construction costs by up to 40% and reduce the workforce required for conventional
construction projects by up to one-third (roughly one half of these would then f ind work
in the component manufacturing plants). Above all, the dangerous and physically
strenuous work would be eliminated.
In this way, something that was considered Utopian only a few years ago has
already begun to become an everyday reality: huge edifices and even complete towns are
erected by robots as if guided by a ghostly hand. In spite of this, however or perhaps for
precisely this reason highly qualified experts will be needed to develop, operate and
control the necessary computer programs, techniques and technologies.
RISK PO TENTIAL IN HIGHRIS E
5.5.1.4 DESI GN ERRORS
Fortunately, no-one really knows just how many rumoured design errors by
architects are actually true. They are said to have forgotten not only the toilets, but even
complete stairwells in multi-storey buildings. And todays construction practice makes
such design errors more probable than ever: since the supporting structure, shell and core,
and interior finishing are totally isolated from one another not only during the design
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phase, but also during the subsequent construction phase, errors may possibly not be
discovered until the work has reached a fairly advanced stage.
This leads to time-consuming and costly changes and corrections, usually at
the expense of the professional indemnity insurance prescribed for architects in many
countries. The most commonly occurring design errors can be subdivided into two
groups: failure to observe building and planning codes on the one hand, and errors in the
choice of materials and wrong or inadequate construction details on the other.
5.5.1.5 FAILURE TO OBS ERVE BUILDI NG AND PLANNI NG CODES

It may be assumed that, in the major ity of countries, when a building
exceeds a certain size and this will certainly apply to high-rise buildings
corresponding plans must be submitted to the construction licensing and supervisory
authorities for inspection. The inspection and approval procedure not only encompasses
aspects under the building code, such as compliance with specified distances and the
specified height and size of a building or its type of use, but also the safety of the people
inside the building. Such aspects include compliance with fire protection requirements in
the building, the position and number of escape routes and the number, location and
execution of stairwells and traffic areas. Even such seemingly less important aspects as
compliance with accident prevention regulations are reviewed, for instance as regards the
height of railings or the distance between bars in railings and grids.
In many cases, however, the design is changed at short notice during the
construction phase, with the result that the plans submitted for inspection no longer
reflect the actual situation. If errors are made by the designer at this stage in violation of
building and planning codes, they will only be discovered (if at all) during f inal
inspection of the building by the construction supervisory authority as specified in many
countries. Such changes frequently cannot be undone, and this forces both sides to accept
compromises possibly at the expense of the buildings safety.
Despite the numerous statutory instruments and court rulings in test cases,
the complex legal relationship between principal and architect makes it necessary for the
courts to decide who is to bear the costs incurred as a result of such errors. In most cases,
both the architects legal protection insurer and his professional indemnity insurer will be
involved. If the errors are not discovered and the building is taken into service, however,
this may not only increase the probability of a loss occurring, but also pose an acute risk
to life and limb for its users. Particularly grave defects only become evident when the
loss actually occurs, for instance when a fire occurs.
Fire insurers, personal accident, health and life insurers, and occupational
disability insurers and once again the liability insurers may all be called upon to bear the
costs once the courts have settled the question of blame. If a guilty party can be
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identified, that party can face considerable penalties for any shortcomings ascertained. It
is irrelevant in this context whether this party was actually aware of these shortcomings
or merely must have been aware of them. For this reason, all insurers and particular ly
fire insurers are well advised to ascertain whether all of the safety requirements have
been met before they conclude a policy for buildings entailing high risk potential.
4.4.3.13. MATERIALS AND CONS TRUCTION DETAILS

Not only the legal relationship
between principal and architect is
exceedingly complex; just as complicated
is that between architect and (sub)
contractors and particularly among the
(sub) contractors themselves. Although the
architect or specialist engineer specifies
which materials are to be used or installed,
the (sub) contractor must check whether
these materials are indeed suitable for such
use.
Modern
and
unconventional
construction practices frequently make it
difficult or even impossible for (sub)
contractors to determine whether the
specified mater ials or the execution
intended by the designer are indeed
suitable and correct.
Unsuitable mater ials and connections in sanitary installations, for instance,
can rapidly result in water damage due to burst pipes. Unsuitable insulating materials can
give off toxic gases or acids in the event of a fire; incorrectly dimensioned f ixtures for
suspended ceilings or facade elements can cause bodily injury or property damage if they
fall down. In extremely simplif ied terms, it could be said that most of the damage
incurred in or on a building is ultimately attributable to design errors.
4.4.3.14 PRECAUTIONS DURING CONS TRUCTIO N
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The loss potential dur ing construction is an aspect which cannot be

neglected. Although the stability of the building during the various construction phases is
documented by corresponding structural analyses, such equipment items as facade
elements or temporary structures are usually not taken into account, or only inadequately.
Additional precautions must therefore be taken during the construction work, particularly
if the contractor is given sufficient advance warning of an impending windstorm. A loss
of more than DM 5m was incurred during construction of a 90-storey high-rise building
in the Far East. Subcontractors had temporarily stored such electrical installation mater ial
as control cabinets and relays on the upper f loors of the building shell, but delivery
bottlenecks led to a delay in assembly of the facade elements on these floors. A
considerable proportion of the electrical material stored on these floors was soaked by
Typhoon Herb as it passed over in 1996 and consequently exposed to the risk of
corrosion. Since the damage was foreseeable and precautionary measures were not taken,
the insurer was only obliged to indemnify part of the loss under the policy.
4.4.3.15 Other Risks
For the sake of completeness, mention must also be made of a few other
risks which, although closely associated with high-rise buildings, either occur very rarely,
such as terrorism, are unavoidable, such as wear, or are often underestimated, such as the
consequential costs due to physical damage.
High-rise buildings with their characteristic silhouette in a citys skyline not
only represent a magnet for tenants, customers and guests, but unfortunately also become
a popular, sometimes inadvertent, target for terrorist attacks, as the 1998 bombing attacks
in Nairobi and Dares Salaam show. A skyscrapers famous name is enough to assure the
terrorists of the desired media attention following an attack. In many cases, however, the
dominant presence of a high rise building will suffice to obstruct the devastating shock
waves of an explosion somewhere else.
4.5
CULTURAL R ESPONSE
The skyscrapers are built for only two reasons: to make money, responding
to existing demand, or to advertise and flaunt the money one already has Said Philip
Nobel11. Nowadays we can rarely tell the location of a high rise structure due to their
similar style. Some architects even feel proud that their work can be located anywhere in
the world. Obviously, tall building is not a typology to fix in with its context. It prefers to
soar above, and dominate its surroundings. But that does not mean it cannot become a
positive element in the urban composition. It can and should relate to its surroundings
and respond to the history cultural context. Antony Wood in his New Paradigms in High
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Rise Design (2004) introduced several approaches to design help cities in their quest for
an appropriate high rise expression.
4.6
ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS
Concerns for the susceptibility of our environment are increasing. The

deterioration of the ozone layer and air quality in urban areas, the depletion of fresh water
supplies and the degradation of water courses, and the loss of natural habitats all
represent societal problems that need to be addressed. Residential development has a
major impact on the environment at both local and global scales.
A new building can destroy local natural ecosystems, and can impact negatively on
adjacent development. Both the construction and operation of residential buildings
consume vast quantities of energy, materials, water, and land. The waste emissions and
pollution associated with buildings are also significant. In order to sustain the quality of
the environment and healthy lifestyles, it is crucial that residential development use
resources more effectively and more efficiently, while preserving the integr ity of the
local ecosystem.
In response to these needs, the design and construction industry has begun to make
advances. In most cases, environmentally responsive design will not signif icantly
increase design or construction costs. For example, orienting a building to optim ise solar
gains, or specifying low flow water fixtures, can result in operating cost savings. At the
same time, there are many precedents of residential developments where an
environmentally responsive design approach resulted in greatly reduced infrastructure
costs. Indeed, when a lifecycle assessment approach is used, the benefits of green
design far outweigh the costs.
The following section provides an overview of possible approaches for enhancing the
environmental performance of high-rise buildings. It discusses this issue from the point
of view of local ecological impacts, resource use and attendant waste emissions, and
indoor occupant health.
The primary design concern for many tall buildings is their operational efficiency
rather than their environmental impact. A new balance needs to be struck between these
two factors.
4.6.1 Site Selection and Clearing
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A city centre site is often a brownfield site and therefore regarded as more
sustainable than using a greenf ield site. One of the main dr ivers for tall buildings is 66 to
minimize the use of land. If a city centre developer wants to minimize the impact on land
use, the only way to expand is upwards. Therefore, high-rise buildings are likely to be the
preferred option in dense urban areas. (Alison Crompton Ant Wilson 2003) The sites of
most new built high rises were occupied by some low rises.
Normally, there are two ways to clear the site, recycle or reuse. It is possible
to recycle the materials of the old buildings to a less important new built facility and
reuse them, like a public bathroom or a landscape building. For example, in One and Two
Potomac Yard, Arlington, VA, all affected material, mainly cinder ballast generated by
coal-burning locomotives and then used for railroad subgrades, was removed from the
site and used to build roads in a Richmond, Virginia, landf ill. Some high rises may
choose the sites where former high rises were built on. And using the existing footing
could cause a major saving of the construction like 4 Times Square in New York City and
111 South Wacker in Chicago.
Standard:
Reduce the environmental impact from the location of a building on a site.
Reuse the existing building
Reduce the pollution while construction
Recycle the landfill
SITE PLANNI NG
THE ISSUES
A building has a permanent environmental impact on its site, both in terms of
changes to the surrounding ecosystem, and its relationship to the local community. Initial
site planning is key to the overall environmental performance of the building. It has
ramifications on all other aspects of design. Through careful attention during ear ly stages
of design, the building designer can anticipate negative ecological impacts, improve the
quality of the development, and enhance the sustainability of the neighbourhood.
The basic considerations include:
Preservation and Protection of Natural Features
Building Location and Footprint
Building Orientation
Preservation and Protection of Natural Features
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The site plan should be prem ised upon preserving, protecting, and enhancing such
natural features as site contours, stream channels, hydrological flows, existing vegetation,
scenic views, and wildlife habitats. These features all play integral roles in the proper
functioning of the ecosystem as a whole, and can contribute signif icantly to proper
building functioning. Restrictions on development of environmentally sensitive or
important productive lands are crucial. Agr icultural, forest renewal and hazardous lands,
or lands that might result in extensive environmental damage, should have lim ited
development. For example, steep slopes and hillsides, flood plains, and wetlands are all
examples of areas where development should be restricted and / or regulated.
Building Location and Footprint
The construction of high-rise buildings can affect the local microclimate,
modifying wind and sun patterns in the area, and shading other buildings and ecosystems.
The building should be s ited to create des irable summer and winter microclimates at the
pedestrian level. The location of a building on a site can result in positive or negative
environmental impacts. Consideration should be given to the impact of the building on
views, how much of the site will be disturbed both during construction and operation, soil
capabilities, linkages to transportation networks, existing buildings on site, changes to the
microclimate caused by altering the contours of the land, and so on.
In order to minim ise site disturbance for construction, buildings and access roads
can be aligned to follow the length of existing contours. The buildings impact upon local
solar access is an important consideration. Buildings should be located to minim ise the
loss of solar access to surrounding buildings and publicly accessible, open space areas.
This is an important consideration for colder climates in particular.
Ideally, high-density development should have good access to services and
amenities, maxim ising the potential for pedestrian travel and m inim ising the need for the
automobile. Easy access to public transit, stores, health services, schools, and recreational
facilities all provide for a more sustainable approach to development. Opportunities for
mixed uses at the lower levels of the building can reduce infrastructure costs and provide
for a livelier community aspect in the building. Examples of mixed uses include daycare
space for children and the elder ly, as well as the more typical small-scale retail,
professional and commercial facilities.
Design of site features such as outdoor sitting areas, playgrounds and allotment gardens
provide an opportunity for building residents to enjoy the outdoors and socialise around a
common interest.
There are many other opportunities to enhance the relationship of the building to
the neighbourhood. These include orienting the building to pedestrian traffic, massing
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and siting the building to relate to the scale of surrounding structures, providing an
entrance design that is pedestrian friendly, and minim ising the use of large quantities of
pavement.
Building Orientation
A buildings orientation has enormous impacts
on the ability to optimize all opportunities for
environmentally-responsive design strategies. For
example, natural daylighting, heating, and ventilation
strategies are all linked to the buildings proper
orientation. A sites latitude determines the suns
azimuth at any given time of day and year. Simple
calculations will determ ine the path of the sun and a
buildings orientation should be determined to take
advantage of this information. The effectiveness of
passive and active solar systems will be enhanced with
appropriate building orientation and maximum access
to sunlight (SSE to SSW 5% to 15%).
Consideration should be given to the minim isation of solar shadows. The
calculation of site shading can avoid the creation of on-site solar voids and cold-air
drainage dams that collect pools of cold air. The shading of adjacent buildings and lots
should also be avoided. This is particular ly important in temperate and cold clim ates. The
building should be orientated to consider existing airf low patterns and their cooling effect
in both summer and winter. Consideration should also be given to the buildings effect
upon local wind patterns and snow accumulation, avoiding adverse effects upon adjacent
buildings or public open spaces.
A building should also be oriented so as to maxim ize the safety, ease of access and
protection from the elements of its entranceway. The use of overhead structures near
entranceways, for example, can provide pedestrian protection from cold downdrafts.
RETROFI T OPPORTUNI TI ES
While there are few changes that can be made to a buildings location or
orientation through retrofits, there do exist some opportunities for improving the
environmental performance of a building through site alterations.
At the site level, the most readily available and least costly opportunities are
through modifications to the surrounding m icroclimate. In many cases, such retrofits can
improve the energy performance of the building at the same time as improving the
relationship of the building to its natural context. For example, alter ing paving materials
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(from asphalt to pervious pavers) can lead to reductions in surrounding micro-climate

temperatures that in turn reduce the cooling loads on the building while also addressing
storm water run-off issues.
Another example is to add landscaping interventions that enhance the natural
features of the site while also improving the buildings energy performance. These can
include such things as adding deciduous plants on the south and west sides of a building
to allow for summer cooling and winter solar access.
4.6.2 Shadow cast and Wind impact
Tall buildings in an urban context can
suffer from more problems with over shading and rights
to light, can cause or be the cause of glare, and can
create wind tunnels. However it should be possible to
overcome all of these issues through good design. While
an individual high rise can be ideally suited to capturing
the heat and light energy of the sun, a second or a third
tower constructed in its shadow would be adversely
affected. As clusters of tall buildings are contemplated
and solar analys is of these clusters can optimize the
location and orientation of towers, both of which are
crucial to their sustainable development.
The wind funnelling effect of clusters of buildings will impact on the
planning and arrangement of future developments if they are to be sustainable. Designers
and researchers are exploring opportunities for harnessing wind power from tall
buildings. Wind speed increases with height, and new tall buildings have the potential to
reduce the consumption of fossil fuels by generating electricity with wind turbines.
Funnelling effects from the profile and orientation of a tower or group of towers can be
used to gain the optimum electricity generating capacity. As Ken Yeang (2002) indicated
in his book wind can be utilized as a free tool available to the designer and occupant
rather than being shut out of the building. Natural air conditioning can be achieved by
allowing air in and through the internal spaces of the building, as appropriate. As well as
being energy efficient, fresh air can create a healthier internal environment and raise the
comfort level of occupants. Building occupants get the opportunity to regulate fresh air
coming into the building, helping them to adjust the airflow as required.
Standards
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Reduce the shading and glare impact on surroundings

MATERIALS SELECTIO N
THE ISSUES
The materials used for the construction, operation, maintenance and renovation of
buildings represent enormous quantities of resources. As well, the extraction,
transformation, use and disposal of raw materials cause equally significant impacts on the
environment. Habitat destruction, resource depletion, air pollution, and solid waste
represent some of the environmental costs associated with the f low of construction
materials. For this reason, design professionals now often inc lude environmental
considerations into the materials selection process. In particular, life-cycle assessment /
analys is of construction materials and design guidelines that specify the use of green
materials are available.
The key considerations involved in the selection of materials include:
Source / quality of materials
Embodied energy
Quantities of materials
Impact on occupant health
Impact on natural ecosystems
Materials selection guidelines
Source / Quality of Materials
Many mater ials come from sources which are considered non-renewable or which
involve more severe negative environmental impacts than others. Tropical hardwoods are
considered a scarce resource, not just because they represent an endangered species, but
also because the acquisition process causes dire ramifications on biodiversity. The
selection of materials should involve consideration of the source in order to ensure that a
non-renewable material is not being used. For wood products, third-party forest
certification is the best way to guarantee the suitability of the source.
The source of materials also refers to whether materials are virgin or whether they
are salvaged. Using salvaged mater ials and mater ials with recycled content reduces the
extraction of raw resources. Assemblies that allow easy extraction of the material for
recycling when the building is eventually replaced also result in reduced environmental
impact.
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It is also necessary to consider the quality of the materials. Lower quality, less
durable materials will require frequent replacementmeaning that more resources will
be used without adding any value to the building. While lower quality materials may cost
less at the buildings inception, both the economic and environmental cost will be much
higher over the lifetime of the building. Durable materials with a long service life
typically are those that are low-maintenance and that result in lower operation costs. Hard
flooring, for example, has several times the service life of vinyl flooring or carpets, and
reduces both waste and cleaning requirements.
Em bodied Energy
Embodied energy is the term used to describe the energy input invested in a
material during extraction, manufacturing, transportation, and installation. Through
choice of materials, the designer can greatly influence the embodied energy invested in
the building as well as the energy required to operate the facility. The goal is not to
minimize embodied energy per se, but to consider its significant contribution to total lifecycle energy associated with the building. As a case in point, processing of recycled
alum inium requires only 5% of the energy necessary to produce aluminium from bauxite.
Because only 7% to 10% of the embodied energy in buildings is the result of the on-site
construction process, it is crucial to expand embodied energy calculations to include the
entire life-cycle of the building and its attendant material requirements. For example, if
the construction of a new building involves the demolition of an existing on-site building,
the initial embodied energy calculations should include mater ials removed through
demolition.
Reducing the embodied energy of a building can be achieved through:
Increasing the useful life of buildings and their components,
Reducing the energy intensity of building materials (such as fly-ash substitution in
concrete),
Reducing the amount of material in a building,
Reducing construction waste,
Using advanced framing techniques,
Increasing the amount of recycled material in a building,
Using more durable materials,
Using local rather than imported products.
Quantities of Materials
Very large quantities of materials are used to construct and maintain buildings. The
failure to optimize designs results in an excessive amount of mater ials being used.
Opportunities exist to elim inate oversized and decorative materials and still achieve
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appropriate aesthetic appeal. Finishes with short life spans, such as carpeting, account for
a large percentage of lifecycle costs.
Waste also results from non-standard dimensions in the design. Off-cuts from studs
and wall panels are examples. By using the common dimens ions of materials such waste
can be reduced. Use of engineered wood products, such as stair stringers, can also help to
minimize material quantities.
Initial and Lifecycle Embodied Energy
Impact on Occupant Health

Many materials used in constructing and operating buildings have negative impacts
on the quality of the indoor air, and can result in health problems for the occupants.
Indoor air pollution can be partially attributed to chemicals emitted by materials, to
materials that trap dust and odours, or that support the growth of bacteria and molds.
Examples include products containing formaldehyde glue, new carpets, various flooring
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materials, paints and sealants, and so on. Examples of materials that are healthy include
low-VOC paints and adhesives, low emission carpets (often made of natural fibres) and
hard non-porous materials (see Indoor Air Quality in this document).
Impact on Natural Ecosystems
Many industries today are adopting a life-cycle product stewardship model as a
way of incorporating environmental concerns into all stages of the products life. For
building des ign, this means comparing the environmental impact of materials resulting
from: extraction and processing, manufacturing, transportation and packaging,
installation, operation, maintenance and replacement, and eventual disposal or recycling
potential. Certif ication programs, such as for wood from sustainably managed forests,
represent a key strategy for ensuring limited impact on natural ecosystems.
Materials Selection Guidelines
At the design concept stage, it is helpful to develop comprehensive design
guidelines that include selection of green materials. The following guidelines are
examples of practices that can be included and that could improve the design and
materials specification process.
While there are few changes that can be made to a buildings location or
orientation through retrofits, there do exist some opportunities for improving the
environmental performance of a building through site alterations. At the site level, the
most readily available and least costly opportunities are through modif ications to the
surrounding microclimate. In many cases, such retrofits can improve the energy
performance of the building at the same time as improving the relationship of the
building to its natural context.
For example, altering paving materials (from asphalt to pervious pavers) can lead
to reductions in surrounding micro-climate temperatures that in turn reduce the cooling
loads on the building while also addressing stormwater run-off issues. Another example
is to add landscaping interventions that enhance the natural features of the site while also
improving the buildings energy performance. These can include such things as adding
deciduous plants on the south and west sides of a building to allow for summer cooling
and winter solar access.
Exam ples of Green Building
Materials
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Foundations
ABS drain tile with recycled content
Pier foundation systems
Concrete with fly-ash content
Walls
Insulation with high recycled content
CFC and HCFC-free insulations
Cellulose insulation
Drywall with high recycled content
Steel / alum inium/ vinyl with recycled content
Roofing
Recycled rubber roof deck
CFC and HCFC-free rigid insulations
Green Roofs`
Interior Finishes
Zero- and Low-VOC paints
Zero- and Low-VOC caulks and adhesives
Bio-based natural materials (cork, linoleum, wool, sisal, etc.)
Landscaping
Rubber flooring from recycled tires
Chipped wood waste for flower beds
Crushed concrete as aggregate for road sub-base
Materials Selection
Specify recycled products and attendant strategies.
Specify reuse of salvaged building materials.
Design with panel, pre-cut and engineered construction products.
Specify durable exterior and interior finishes.
Specify wood from sustainable-managed sources.
Use low-emissions finishes and interior materials.
SOLID WASTE
THE ISSUES
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In 1998, an estimated 4.6 million

tonnes of solid waste was generated from
construction and demolition sources in
Canada. This total represents 157 kilograms
for each Canadian. The generation of solid
waste results in pressure on landfill space, and
the contamination of soils and water. It can
also indicate that a material object has been
removed from the productive cycle well
before the end of its useful life.
In terms of residential buildings, solid waste
is created during both the construction and
operation of the building. Researchers
estimate that for every $1 billion spent on
construction, 40,000 tonnes of waste are produced. Currently, 16% of the total volume of
Canadas landfills can be attributed to residential construction waste.
The amount of solid waste generated
from day today operations varies, but is
equally signif icant. For these reasons, it is
crucial that the generation of solid waste
during construction and daily operations be
reduced. Along with these environmental
issues, rising disposal costs and bans on
disposal of some construction materials
require that the construction industry
integrates waste management planning into its
projects.
Key considerations to address with respect to solid waste include:
Building construction
Building operation
Building demolition
Waste management plans
Building Construction
Construction waste makes up a significant proportion of the total waste stream:
residential construction wastes are estimated to represent approximately 16% of wastes
taken to landfill.1 As much as 1 1/4 tonnes of new products brought to the site are wasted
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in the construction of an average house. Both the economic and environmental costs of
disposing of this waste are enormous. However, construction waste can be cut by as
much as 85%, and disposal costs significantly reduced by implem enting plans which are
based on the 4 Rs of waste management.
Building Operation
The solid waste that is generated during the operation of res idential buildings is
typically comprised of consumer products and organic waste from food preparation and
landscaping. About half of the solid waste stream from residences consists of packaging
materials; approximately 30% of organic materials, and the remaining 20% is made up of
other paper products, textiles and small amounts of old appliances and household
hazardous products. Through recycling and composting strategies, up to 80% of this
waste stream could be reduced.
If appropriate dedicated facilities for composting and for recycling storage /
handling / pickup are integrated into a buildings design, residents will have the
opportunity to achieve such reductions.
Building Demolition
The waste caused by demolition represents one of the largest contributors to the
waste stream. The economic costs associated with disposing of this waste are also
signif icant. It is estimated that approximately five to eight percent of the total job costs
are allocated to disposal. By managing demolition responsibly, however, signif icant
quantities of demolition waste can be diverted from disposal. Case studies have shown
that up to 90% of waste generated in demolition can be diverted cost-effectively. Through
dismantling rather than demolishing a building, for example, such savings can be
achieved from both cost and environmental perspectives.
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Waste Management Plans

Establishing waste management plans can reduce the costs associated with
disposal, and can improve demolition and construction practices. Waste management
plans are based on reviewing, reducing, reusing and recycling.
Review
Perform a waste audit, tracking amount and type of average construction waste,
Review conventional practices which contribute to excessive waste generation and
develop alternative procedures,
Identify disposal costs and restrictions.
Reduce
Implement purchasing options that minim ize packaging and product waste (i.e.
bulk purchase of sealants, reusable packaging containers, no packaging left on site
by suppliers, etc.),
Avoid damage and deterioration of construction materials by proper on-site
handling practices,
Select equipment and materials which allow for repair of parts and components
rather than requiring replacement.
Reuse
Conduct pre-project waste inventory to optimize re-use opportunities,
Retain existing buildings or materials,
Reuse materials on site (i.e. crushed masonry for driveway fill, drywall scraps in
inter ior partitions, etc.),
Sell or give away demolition materials.
Recycle
Identify markets for recycle materials,
Separate materials on site as they are produced for recycling purposes,
Use recycled content and recyclable construction materials where possible.
The focus of retrofit opportunities in terms of solid waste is on ensuring the most
appropriate facilities for collecting, storing and handling waste for recycling and
composting. Although the best opportunities for providing dedicated waste management
spaces exist during initial design and construction, the conversion of interior and exterior
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spaces to perform waste handling functions is possible. While it is unlikely that a

building will be retrofitted with recycling collection chutes or shafts, it is possible that
spaces can be modified to permit the separation, collection and storage of materials for
recycling and / or composting. These spaces should be large enough to accommodate a
signif icant diversion rate, and should be easily accessible to occupants and to custodial
staff.
WATER
THE ISSUES
Increasing residential demand for water is placing significant pressure on water
supply, delivery, and treatment infrastructure. It is an issue that results not only in
negative environmental impact, but that also is signif icant from health and economic
perspectives. From a resource point of view, the issue is one of declining supplies, as
manifested in lower lake, river, groundwater and aquifer levels. From an ecological point
of view, it is an issue of degraded fish and riparian habitats. From a health point of view,
it is an issue of declining water quality. From an economic point of view, it is an issue of
the need for municipalities to keep pace with the required costs for upgrading and
replacing infrastructure.
The key considerations included in water consumption and conservation includes:
Domestic indoor water uses (toilet flushing, bathing, washing cleaning and
drinking)
HVAC components (cooling towers)
External water use
On-site water treatment
Storm water retention
HVAC Systems
The principal water use associated with HVAC components in a high-rise building
relates to evaporative losses from cooling towers. It should be possible to reduce
evaporative losses to less than 5% through better design. Opportunities to reuse water for
make-up purposes should be explored, rather than using potable supplies.
Exterior Water Use
Outdoor water consumption is a major concern to water authorities. Peak monthly
demand for water occurs during late summer when municipal reservoirs are at their
lowest levels. Most municipalities that impose watering restrictions do so during summer
months when outdoor water use substantially increases overall consumption. There are
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many conservation practices that can reduce outdoor water consumption. Some of the
most common approaches are discussed later in this section, in Landscape Practices.
On-Site Water Treatment
Centralised wastewater treatment is the status quo for most municipalities. These
sewage collection and treatment networks represent extensive infrastructure with large
energy requirements. Canadian municipalities use substantial amounts of energy in the
operation of water and wastewater treatment facilities. The total amount of energy used is
approximately equal to the energy required to operate all munic ipally-owned buildings
and facilities.
Of the total energy required for these operations, wastewater treatment plants
account for approximately half, or 2200 GWh per year. Municipalities use water
conservation policies to reduce peak water demand, defer the upgrading of facilities and
to ensure adequate supplies of water. These also have the additional benefit of reducing
energy consumption at water and wastewater plants.
One strategy to reduce water consumption is to use on-site infrastructure to treat
wastewater and reuse it for non-consumptive purposes. On-site treatment systems offer
an alternative to the conventional centralised approach. Essentially the on-site systems
provide a modularised and low cost system for treatment in close proximity to the
buildings. The on-site systems can be built incrementally, which reduces the need for
large capital expenditures. Moreover, since key components of the infrastructure may be
located within each private development, municipal expenditures can be further reduced.
On-site operations provide primary and secondary treatment that produces water
that is colourless, odourless and suitable for many re-uses within the vicinity. Also, the
treatment facility can be designed for multipurpose use, giving added value to nearby
residents. For example, a secondary function of a solar aquatic liquid waste treatment
system is a greenhouse.
Exterior Water Use
For the typical high-rise lot, rain sensor equipment may cost approximately $150.
Savings from water conservation would be 12-15% or $125 per season (at $1.00/m3).
Simple payback would be 1.5 years.
LANDSCAPE PRACTICES
THE ISSUES
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Appropriate and well-considered landscape practices offer designers the

opportunity to achieve increased levels of occupant comfort as well as cost savings
through reduced resource consumption. Consideration should be given to water
conservation, seasonally appropriate design decisions and storm water management.
Across Canada, water use more than doubles in the summer months. Most of this increase
is due to the watering of lawns and gardens, car washing and the f illing of swimming
pools. This is typical of suburban areas, but highr ise water consumption also contributes
to increased summer water use. This is the case for buildings with extensive landscape
watering requirements.
Through water conservation practices in landscape design, this phenomenon can be
reduced. Energy consumption in highr ise residential buildings can also be reduced
through thoughtful landscape design practices. Plants provide the most economic means
of modifying microclimate around a building, and represent a small investment for large
energy savings. Appropriate and well-placed plants will have an effect upon energy
consumption. Other devices such as landscape structures and site grading are also
available to the landscape architect, and when employed correctly, can result in further
energy savings.
Storm water management represents a signif icant cost to municipalities, via
infrastructure required to transport and treat run-off. It also represents a cost to the
environment through non-point source pollution. This is the transfer of pollutants from
roadways and parking lots directly to water bodies via run-off. The landscape architects
as well as the civil engineer are able to offset these costs by using appropriate best
management practices for storm water management. Many on-site devices are available
for slowing and filter ing storm water. Other strategies include minim izing the amount of
run-off from a site as well as re-using it.
Key issues considered in this section include:
Water-efficient landscape practices
Energy-efficient landscape practices for summer and winter
Storm water management practices.
Water-Efficient Landscape Practices Reducing watering requirements by at least
50% is achievable when specifying a water-efficient landscape. There are many water
conservation practices that can achieve such reductions.
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Rainfall Storage and Reuse

Rain diverted through downspouts into storage devices (cisterns, rain-barrels) can
be used for irrigation. The Rainfall Capture Potential table provides an estim ate of the
rainwater volume collectable from typical high-rise buildings across Canada. Storage
devices range in size. The Mountain Equipment Co-op Building in Ottawa has a rain
storage container of 65,000 liters. It is 2.4 m (8 ft) in diameter and 6.0 m (20 ft) high.
Considering that high-rise buildings can consume an average of 13,000,000 litres
annually1, rain collection for indoor use does not seem significant. However, rain
collection would likely meet a high-rise buildings irrigation requirements. Rain
collection for irrigation helps to lower water demand during summer months when
consumption is at its highest.
Locally Hardy Plants
Match plant species to their local conditions. Locally hardy plant species, such as
native plants, are adapted to their indigenous climate. Under conditions similar to their
native habitat, they have the ability to survive without human intervention. These species
are therefore ideally suited to water conservation and are less costly to maintain. Native
plants are also more resistant to disease and infestation, and will benefit local insects and
birds
Hydrozone Planting
Group plants according to their water requirements. This will ensure water is not
being wasted on plants whose needs do not warrant the frequency or quantity of adjacent
plants with higher watering-demands.
Drought-tolerant Plants
Water-efficient plant specifications should include the use of drought-tolerant
species. Such plants, while not exclusively native species, require less water than plants
of similar size and structure. Drought-tolerant species lists will vary according to
hardiness zones. These plants are often used in a type of landscape called a Xer iscape
(from the Greek xeros meaning dry).
Water-efficient Irrigation
Drip irrigation is more water- efficient than sprinkler irrigation. Sprinklers can lose
approximately 25% to 50% of water content to wind and runoff . Drip irrigation reduces
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evaporation through the application of water directly into the soil. It also limits irrigation
to planted surfaces only, avoiding the unnecessary watering of sidewalks and pavement.
Drip irrigation can save 50% to 75% compared to a sprinkler system. Also, rain sensors
prevent overwatering. Small and inexpensive rain sensors can be installed to prevent
automatic watering systems from activating dur ing or after rainfall. Installation costs can
be recouped within two years through water costs savings.
Lawns
Lawns typically require 25 mm (1 in.) of water per week. This can add up to
750,000 litres annually for a typical high-rise building. In general, groundcovers require
less water because they have a larger root zone from which to draw soil water. High-use
areas may be impractical for groundcovers, however. In such cases, droughttolerant
turfgrasses are available and should be used (see Appendix 3: Turfgrasses for Canadian
Lawns in Household Guide to Water Efficiency, CMHC 2000). Also, only fertilize lawns
once in the spring. Over-fertilized lawns grow beyond their limits and require increased
watering.
Mulching
Besides controlling weeds, mulches retain soil moisture levels and prevent soils
from overheating and drying-out by reducing evaporation. Mulches will also increase the
wetted surface area of soil under the mulch. Over time, organic mulches will also
breakdown and improve the structure of soils, improving water infiltration. Proper
mulching practices will reduce the quantity of water required for irrigation; it can reduce
evaporation and run-off by 75% to 90% over unmulched areas5. A mulching depth of 10
cm will result in optimum moisture retention. Storm water management represents a
signif icant cost to municipalities, via infrastructure required to transport and treat run-off.
It also represents a cost to the environment through non-point source pollution.
This is the transfer of pollutants from roadways and parking lots directly to water
bodies via run-off. The landscape architect as well as the civil engineer is able to offset
these costs by using appropriate best management practices for storm water management.
Many on-site devices are available for slowing and filtering storm water. Other strategies
include minimizing the amount of run-off from a site as well as re-using it.
Energy-efficient Landscape Practices

A recent study by CMHC looked at the amount of fuel; fertilizer and pesticide use
by a var iety of landscapes and found that low-maintenance lawns required less energy
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inputs than conventional lawns. Woodland-type gardens performed the best, however.
The low maintenance lawn consists of hardy, drought-tolerant, slow-growing grass and
broad-leafed species, such as clover, that do not require frequent mowing. The woodland
shade garden is composed of native trees, shrubs and groundcovers. Xeriscapes and
Meadows were also found to require minim al energy inputs. Xeriscapes consist of plants
suited to local rainfall conditions and require almost no watering. Meadows feature native
grasses and wildflowers. Graphs at the left illustrate these comparisons.
Summer
Use plants and landscape structures to reduce summer heat gain by:
Shading the building from direct solar radiation,
Diverting or channelling air movement away from or towards the building,
Creating cooler temperatures near buildings through evaporation and transpiration.
The Heat Island Effect
The heat island effect is the phenomena of higher temperatures occurring in
urbanised areas relative to their suburban and rural surroundings. On warm summer days,
the air in a city can be up to 5C hotter than its surrounding areas. One reason for this is
less vegetation in urban areas to intercept solar radiation, and cool the air with the
transpiration process. Transpiration is the process of water loss to the atmosphere through
living-plant surfaces.
At the m icroclimate level, vegetation can directly reduce surface temperatures
through shading and the interception of solar radiation. Trees can reduce the temperature
in their immediate vicinity by up to 5C from shading alone. One m ature beech for
example, will shade 170m2 of surface area . Air temperatures above vegetated areas can
be up 8 to 14C lower than over asphalt or concrete areas of equal size. As a result, urban
vegetation can alter the surface energy balance within a localised area and result in lower
ambient temperatures.
On a local climate scale, vegetated areas will lower air temperatures through the
process of transpiration. A 21-meter canopy tree, for example, can transpire the
equivalent of 375 litres of water per day, which has the cooling effect of 5 airconditioners operating for 20 hours. This cooling effect is the result of evapotranspiration
and lowers ambient daytime temperatures.
Tree canopies can also slow the escape of heat from urban surfaces at night.
Combined, these effects lower ambient temperatures. More vegetation lowers air
temperature, reducing the need for air-conditioning and lowering energy consumption.
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This translates into direct cost savings to residents. It also can reduce global warming
(less electrical demand implies less burning of fossil fuels at power generation plants).
Recomm ended Practices
Use rooftop plantings to reduce heat absorption into buildings through their roofs
Plant broad-leaf deciduous shade trees to intercept solar radiation near ground level
parking areas and other paved surfaces.
Acer platanoides will allow only 10% of solar radiation to penetrate its canopy in
summer, while allowing 65% in the winter. Shaded areas can be as much as 10oC
cooler than areas in full sun.
Plant self-supporting vines to climb south facing walls to reduce summer solar
gains. A 16-cm blanket of plants can increase the R-value of a wall by as much as
30%5. Less vigorous species will not compromise cladding.
Plant deciduous trees to shade the first 3 to 5 storeys of an apartment buildings
south and/or west elevations.
Stormwater Management Practices

Imperviousness
Factors affecting runoff quantity and quality inc lude soil type, land cover, slope
and imperviousness. Imperviousness radically alters the water balance of a site by
increasing runoff volume and peak discharge. This is a major contributor to water
pollution. Urbanisation results in more hard surfaces, soil compaction and less
stormwater absorption. Under forested conditions only about 6% of total rainfall becomes
runoff. Within urban settings, as much as 90% of rainfall can become runoff. There is an
inverse relationship between imperviousness and runoff quality. Runoff from urban
sources represents a threat to receiving water bodies. It contains high concentrations of
nutrients (phosphorous, nitrogen), suspended solids, organic carbon, bacteria,
hydrocarbons, trace metals, chlorides (salt) and debris.
Runoff also results in increased peak storm discharges causing erosion and
sedimentation. Even small increases in impervious cover can effect water bodies. For
example, stream degradation occurs even when imperviousness increases within a given
watershed by as little as 3 to 10%. The imperviousness of a high-rise building lot is
typically 50-70%, but can be as high as 85% . While the highest proportion of urban
imperviousness is transportation-related (60% to 70%) , decreasing lot imperviousness is
still an important overall strategy.
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Best Management Practices for Stormwater

Best management practices (BMPs) are accepted methods for reducing runoff
quantity and increasing its quality. In order to decrease the impacts of urbanisation, many
communities in North America have adopted these practices (Bellevue, WA; Baltimore,
MD). Detaining water on-site provides the fundamentals for water quality treatment.
Urban phosphorus loads can be reduced when BMPs are used. BMPs include stormwater
ponds, wetlands, filters and inf iltration practices. BMPs can reduce phosphorus loads by
as much as 40% to 60%6 and offer added amenity.
Runoff Diversion
Where water runs from impervious surfaces onto absorptive surfaces, runoff is
minimised. By using curbs and berms to divert stormwater from impervious surfaces and
reusing it when possible, urban runoff can be greatly reduced. One method for
accomplishing this is to direct rainwater into swales, infiltration basins and trenches
where it can inf iltrate into the groundwater. One of the more common stormwater
management mechanisms is the drywell or french drain. Manufactured sediments traps
are also available that intercept runoff from drainage areas, and slowly release it while
trapping sediments.
Land Cover
Complex land covers result in less runoff because they tend to intercept more
precipitation. The most complex land covers are highly layered plant communities with
vast amounts of leaf area that must be wetted before runoff occurs. Urbanisation tends to
lead to a simplified land cover, causing an increase in runoff volumes.
Green Roofs
Green roofs offer three important benefits concerning stormwater management.
They retain, filter and slow down stormwater. Green roof systems have been observed to
reduce stormwater discharge by as much as 90%. On average, green roofs retain 70%100% of summer precipitation, and 40-50% of winter precipitation that falls on them. A
green roof acts as a natural filter for discharge that does occur by filtering out heavy
metals and nutrients carried by rainwater. Its absorptive quality (10-15 cm of runoff
retained with a 20-40 cm layer of growing medium) also slow downs discharge, reducing
the risk of flooding.
OCCUPANT CO MFORT NOIS E

THE ISSUES
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Noise emanating from neighbouring apartments, common areas, building

mechanical and plumbing systems and noise from outdoors can reduce occupant comfort
in high-r ise buildings and can also become the source of litigation. Noise reaches
building occupants through the airborne transmission of sound, and through the
transmission of vibrations through the structure of the building. The sources of disturbing
noises are many. They include exter ior traffic and aircraft noise, and interior noises from
neighbour ing suites generated by T Vs, stereos and other appliances. The building
systems themselves are also the sources of mechanical, plumbing, fan, diffuser and other
HVAC noises. Recent research for CMHC and IRC has resulted in the development of
recommended practices which can minim ize noise problems in multi-unit apartment
buildings.
STC Ratings
STC (Sound Transmission Class) ratings are used to describe the performance of
assemblies in reducing airborne sound. While higher than current Code requirements, the
STC ratings presented in the chart below will provide enhanced building comfort.
IIC Ratings
The IIC (Impact Insulation Class) rating applies to noise transmission due to
structural impact and vibration through floor and ceiling assemblies. The ratings in the
attached graphic illustrate improved design objectives.
Noise control strategies must be addressed at the design stage, as retrofit costs to
improve acoustic performance can be very high. Designers must consider the noise
implications of the architectural, structural, mechanical, and electrical design. The
designer must address sound transmission through airborne and structural routes.
Verification
Sound levels should be ver ified by field measurements using the ASTME336
standard, allowing construction defects to be corrected prior to occupancy.
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Doors
Noise transmission is a common complaint in high-rise buildings with pressurized
corridors. More innovative ventilation strategies (such as compartmentalized suites) may
allow for better sealing of entry door systems. The accompanying chart demonstrates the
potential noise reduction from alternative door assemblies.
Windows
Windows have typically been the weakest acoustical link in exter ior walls.
Improvements in windows for thermal comfort purposes (for example multi-pane glazing
and thermally broken frames) have also improved their acoustical performance. Sound
transmission (especially when close to transportation routes) can be reduced by
increasing glass thickness (laminated glass), and increasing the width of the air space
between panes. These two strategies can increase the STC rating by as much as 8 to 10
points. Eliminating r igid mechanical coupling of the window to the frame structure, using
resilient or gasketed mounting, will further enhance performance.
Air-Borne Noise
Strategies to deal with air-borne noise include:
selection of envelope and party wall assemblies with good sound insulation
characteristics.
Impact Noise
Strategies to reduce noise transmitted through the structure include:
providing an improved f loor design e.g., a floating f loor above the structural floor
and/or absorbent materials within the floor cavity,
providing an increase in floor layer mass and resiliently suspended ceilings,
reducing the impact at source through the use of resilient materials such as carpet
and underlay (with due consideration to their effect on IAQ),
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Avoiding flanking noise transmission through structure by using resilient

connections.
Mechanical Equipment Rooms1
Noise control measures for mechanical equipment rooms adjacent to apartment units
include:
choose equipment designed for low noise emissions,
use a floating concrete floor in the mechanical room,
use resiliently suspended secondary isolation ceilings in the mechanical room,
use cavity wall construction in the mechanical room,
use sound absorptive treatment of the mechanical space walls and ceilings,
elim inate structural connections to avoid flanking noise transmissions
Plumbing Systems
Measures for controlling noise resulting from plumbing assemblies include:
maintain water pressures at a maximum of 35 psi, and velocities below 1.8 m/sec
in branch lines and 3.0 m/sec in main lines,
the use of plastic piping in the supply network will decrease noise transmission3 ,
supply pipes should be supported by vibration isolation mountings of resilient
material,
where pipe cross-overs occur in occupied space, pipes should be housed in
double
Gypsum board boxes and lined with fibreglass batt insulation.
Installation
While good acoustic design is vital, it should be noted that poor installation
techniques can negate good design practices. For example, debris and waste construction
material can create a noise bridge that results in flanking noise transmission despite a
correct overall design. Poorly installed resilient channels are also a common problem
(often upside-down or installed into structural elements). Proper onsite training and
demonstrations for workers involved with walls and plumbing equipment would help to
reduce poor installation.
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CONCLUSION
A wide range of Economic, Technology, Socio-cultural, Environmental, and

Public Policy issues, illustrating ways to improve sustainability in high r ise structures,
and drawing out, where relevant, the opportunities or constraints applicable to them. The
key to achieving high quality high r ise structures is to look at the ideal and work back,
rather than our traditional approach of an incremental improvement on the last building
we were involved with. Such as the impact on the city planning and the local community,
cultural responses and shadows cast and wind impact.
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PROJECT REPORT

BARRIERS TO HIGH RISE CONSTRUCTION

Guide: Mr. Muralidhar

BARRIERS TO HIGH RIS E CONSTRUCTION

DEFINING HIGH RIS E BUILDINGS ........................................................................................5

HIS TORICAL DEVELOPMENT ................................................................................................6

WHY HIGH RIS E IN INDIA? .....................................................................................................9

1.3.1. URB ANIZAT ION AT THE MACRO LEVEL .........................................................................10

ARCHIT ECTURAL ASPECTS AND URB AN DEVELOPMENT TODAY ............................17

FINANCING MODELS ..................................................................................................................19

COS T MODELS ..........................................................................................................................22

3.2.1. LEAS ING......................................................................................................................................22

INFRASTRUCTURAL AS PECTS ............................................................................................24

SOCIAL AND ECOLOGIC AL AS PECTS ...............................................................................26

TECHNOLOGY OF HIGH-RIS E CONS TRUCTION............................................................46

4.5 CULT URAL RES PONSE...............................................................................................................83

BARRIERS TO HIGH RIS E CONSTRUCTION

Planning and Scheduling

BARRIERS TO HIGH RIS E CONSTRUCTION

BARRIERS TO HIGH RIS E CONSTRUCTION

1.1. Defining High Rise Buildings

BARRIERS TO HIGH RIS E CONSTRUCTION

1.2. Historical development

BARRIERS TO HIGH RIS E CONSTRUCTION

BARRIERS TO HIGH RIS E CONSTRUCTION

BARRIERS TO HIGH RIS E CONSTRUCTION

1.3. Why High Rise in India?

BARRIERS TO HIGH RIS E CONSTRUCTION

URBANIZATION AT THE MACRO LEVEL

An important feature of urbanization in India is dualism urban growth at

BARRIERS TO HIGH RIS E CONSTRUCTION

BARRIERS TO HIGH RIS E CONSTRUCTION

BARRIERS TO HIGH RIS E CONSTRUCTION

URBANIZATION TREND: AN ANALYSIS

BARRIERS TO HIGH RIS E CONSTRUCTION

be attributed to government sponsored infrastructural investment in the district and taluka

BARRIERS TO HIGH RIS E CONSTRUCTION

Emerging Growth Centres

BARRIERS TO HIGH RIS E CONSTRUCTION

BARRIERS TO HIGH RIS E CONSTRUCTION

2. Architectural Aspects and Urban Development Today

BARRIERS TO HIGH RIS E CONSTRUCTION

BARRIERS TO HIGH RIS E CONSTRUCTION

BARRIERS TO HIGH RIS E CONSTRUCTION

BARRIERS TO HIGH RIS E CONSTRUCTION

Private Equity/Real Estate Funds (REFs)

BARRIERS TO HIGH RIS E CONSTRUCTION

3.2. COST MODELS

Leasing of buildings, particularly high-rise buildings, can to a large extent be

BARRIERS TO HIGH RIS E CONSTRUCTION

location to a leasing company is of two-fold advantage to the company: firstly, it

The developer is a new profession born out of the explosive rise in

BARRIERS TO HIGH RIS E CONSTRUCTION

BARRIERS TO HIGH RIS E CONSTRUCTION

4.2. ECONOMIC ASPECTS

BARRIERS TO HIGH RIS E CONSTRUCTION

4.3. SOCIAL AND ECOLOGICAL ASPECTS

BARRIERS TO HIGH RIS E CONSTRUCTION

It is a proven fact that considerably more murders, burglaries, muggings,

BARRIERS TO HIGH RIS E CONSTRUCTION

4.4 PLANNI NG and Scheduling

BARRIERS TO HIGH RIS E CONSTRUCTION

If we were to include all the contractors and specialists involved in the