Chapter No 2

Power project industry

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maintain and continually improve the quality in keeping with
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Commercial projects are currently either operational or under development in
Australia, the United States, and Germany.
The largest project in the world is being developed in Australia's Cooper Basin by
Geodynamics.[6] The Cooper Basin project has the potential to develop 5–10 GW.
Australia now has 33 firms either exploring for, drilling, or developing EGS
projects. Australia's industry has been greatly aided by a national Renewable
Portfolio Standard of 25% renewables by 2025, a vibrant Green Energy Credit
market, and supportive R&D collaboration between government, academia, and
industry.
Germany's 23 cent/kWh Feed-In Tariff (FIT) for geothermal energy has led to a
surge in geothermal development, despite Germany's relatively poor geothermal
resource. The Landau partial EGS project is profitable today under the FIT.
The AltaRock Energy effort is a demonstration project being conducted to prove
out the company's proprietary technology at the site of an existing geothermal
project owned and operated by NCPA in The Geysers, and does not include power
generation. However, any steam produced by the project will be supplied to
NCPA's flash turbines under a long-term contract.[7]
"There are some technical difficulties and challenges there, but those
people who are keen on getting Australia into geothermal say we've
got this great access to resource and one of the things, interestingly,
that's held them back is not having the capacity the put the drilling
plants in place. And so what we intend this $50 million to go towards
is to provide a one for one dollars. Match $1 from us, $1 from the
industry so that they can get these drilling rigs on to site and really get
the best sites identified and get the industry going."[8]
Efficiency and Renewable Energy, [10]
EGS are engineered reservoirs that have been created to extract heat from
economically unproductive geothermal resources. EGS technology includes those
methods and equipment that enhance the removal of energy from a resource by
increasing the productivity of the reservoir. Better productivity may result from
improving the reservoir’s natural permeability and/or providing additional fluids to
transport heat.[11]
An energy tower (also known as a downdraft energy tower because the air flows
down the tower) is a tall (1,000 meters) wide (400 meters) hollow cylinder with a
water spray system at the top. Pumps lift the water to the top of the tower and then
spray the water inside the tower. This cools the hot air hovering at the top. The
cooled air, now denser than the outside warmer air, falls through the cylinder,
spinning a turbine at the bottom. The turbine drives a generator which produces the
electricity.
The greater the temperature difference between the air and water, the greater the
energy efficiency. Therefore, downdraft energy towers should work best in a hot
dry climate. Energy towers require large quantities of water. Salt water is
acceptable, although care must be taken to prevent corrosion.
The energy that is extracted from the air is ultimately derived from the Sun, so this
can be considered a form of solar power. Unusually, this form of solar power also
works at night, because air retains some of the day's heat after dark. However,
power generation by the Energy tower is affected by the weather: it slows down
each time the ambient humidity increases (such as during a rainstorm), or the
temperature falls.
A related approach is the solar updraft tower, which heats air in glass enclosures at
ground level and sends the heated air up a tower to drive a turbine at the top.
Updraft towers don't pump water, which increases their efficiency, but do require
large amounts of land for the collectors. Land acquisition and collector
construction costs for updraft towers must be compared to pumping infrastructure
costs for downdraft collectors. Operationally, maintaining the collector structures
for updraft towers must be compared to pumping costs and pump infrastructure
maintenance.
Projections made by Altmann[4] and by Czisch[5][6] about conversion efficiency and
about Cost of Energy (cents/kWh) are based only on model calculations[7], no data
on a working pilot plant have ever been collected.
A traction powerstation is a power station that produces only traction current,
that is, electrical current used for railways, trams, trolleybuses, or other
conveyances. Pure traction power stations are rare, and there are many more power
stations that generate current for other purposes, such as standard three phase AC
current, in addition to traction current. Hydroelectric power stations, conventional
thermal power stations, and nuclear power stations can be used as traction power
stations; wind and solar power stations for the production of traction current
currently do not exist[citation needed] but can be used for this goal also.
) is the minimum amount of power that a utility or distribution company must
make available to its customers, or the amount of power required to meet minimum
demands based on reasonable expectations of customer requirements. Baseload
values typically vary from hour to hour in most commercial and industrial areas.[1]
Baseload plant, (also baseload power plant or base load power station) is an
energy plant devoted to the production of baseload supply. Baseload plants are the
production facilities used to meet some or all of a given region's continuous energy
demand, and produce energy at a constant rate, usually at a low cost relative to
other production facilities available to the system.[2] Examples of baseload plants
using nonrenewable fuels include nuclear and coal-fired plants. Among the
renewable energy sources, hydroelectric, geothermal[3] and OTEC can provide
baseload power. Baseload plants typically run at all times through the year except
in the case of repairs or scheduled maintenance. (Hydroelectric power also has the
desirable attribute of dispatchability, but a hydroelectric plant may run low on its
fuel (water at the reservoir elevation) if a long drought occurs over its drainage
bas Each baseload power plant on a grid is allotted a specific
amount of the baseload power demand to handle. The base load
power is determined by the load duration curve of the system. For
a typical power system, the rule of thumb is that the base load po
Power plants are designated baseload based on their low cost
generation, efficiency and safety at rated output power levels.
Baseload power plants do not change production to match power
consumption demands since it is more economical to operate
them at constant production levels. Use of higher cost combined-
cycle plants or combustion turbines is thus minimized, and these
plants can be cycled up and down to match more rapid
fluctuations in consumption. Baseload generators, such as nuclear
and coal, often have very high fixed costs and very low marginal
costs. On the other hand, peak load generators, such as natural
gas, have low fixed costs and high marginal costs.[5] Typically
these plants are large and provide a majority of the power used
by a grid. Thus, they are more effective when used continuously
to cover the power baseload required by the grid.load duration
curverule of thumbfixed costsmarginal costs[5]grid
wer is usually 35-40% of the maximum load during the year. [4][4]
inNuclear and coal power plants may take many hours, if not days, to achieve a
steady state power output.[citation needed] On the other hand, they have low fuel costs.
[citation needed]
Because they require a long period of time to heat up to operating
temperature, these plants typically handle large amounts of baseload demand.
Different plants and technologies may have differing capacities to increase or
decrease output on demand: nuclear plants are generally run at close to peak output
continuously (apart from maintenance, refueling and periodic refurbishment),
while coal-fired plants may be cycled over the course of a day to meet
demand[citation needed]. Plants with multiple generating units may be used as a group to
improve the "fit" with demand, by operating each unit as close to peak efficiency
as possible.
The net capacity factor of a power plant is the ratio of the actual output of a power
plant over a period of time and its output if it had operated at full nameplate
capacity the entire time. To calculate the capacity factor, total energy the plant
produced during a period of time and divide by the energy the plant would have
produced at full capacity. Capacity factors vary greatly depending on the type of
fuel that is used and the design of the plant. The capacity factor should not be
confused with the availability faLoad following power plants, also
called intermediate power plants, are in between these extremes
in terms of capacity factor, efficiency and cost per unit of
electricity. They produce most of their electricity during the day,
when prices and demand are highest. However, the demand and
price of electricity is far lower during the night and intermediate
plants shutdown or reduce their output to low levels
overnight.Load following power plants

ctor or with efficiency

The main characteristic of the interaction between waves and a WEC (wave energy
converter) is that energy is converted at large forces and low velocities due to the
characteristic of ocean waves. As conventional generators are designed for high
speed rotational motion, traditional wave power take-off system use a number of
intermediate steps, for example hydraulics or turbines, to convert this slow-moving
wave motion making it suitable for these generators.[1]
Another way to tackle the problem; instead of adapting the waves to the power-
take off system is adapting the system to the waves. This can be done by using a
direct driven WEC (wave energy converter) with a linear generator. The advantage
with this setup is a less complex mechanical system with potentially a smaller need
for maintenance. One drawback with this kind of system is a more complicated
transmission of the power to the grid. This is due to the characteristics of the
generated voltage which will vary both in amplitude and frequency.[1][2]
In the Lysekil project one goal was to develop a simple and robust wave energy
system with a low need for maintenance. The approach was to find a system with
few moving parts and as few energy converting steps as possible. Because of these
requirements, a concept with a direct driven permanent magnet linear generator
driven by a buoy that follows the motion at the sea surface was chosen. [1]
[edit] Purpose of the project
Results from the studies demonstrate how well wave energy converting with this
concept functioning in calm as well as rough offshore sea states. Experiments with
non-linear loads have increased the knowledge about how the transmission system
should be designed. The results also show how the WEC operates when connected
to a non-linear load which will be the case when the generated voltage rectifies.[1]
The Lysekil Project has been enlarged with two additional WEC which have been
launched in the test site together with a marine substation. These three WEC have
recently (June 2009) been interconnected with the substation.[1][4]
[edit] Technology
[edit] Linear Generator
The moving part in a linear generator is called translator and when the buoy is
lifted by the wave, the buoy sets the translator in motion. It is the relative motion
between the stator and the translator in the generator which causes voltage to be
induced in the stator windings.[1][2]
The requirement on a linear generator for wave power applications is the ability to
handle high peak forces, low speed and irregular motion at low costs.[5] When a
generator moves with varying speed and direction it results in an induced voltage
with irregular amplitude and frequency. The output power’s peak value will be
several times higher than the average power production. The generator and the
electrical system has to be dimensioned for these peaks in power.[6]
There are different kind of linear generators which could be used in wave power
applications and at comparison it has been found that permanent magnetized
synchronous linear generators is the most suitable type.[5] In the Lysekil project this
type of generator has been chosen and the magnets are Nd-Fe-B permanent
magnets mounted on the translator. Inside the generator powerful springs are
fastened underneath the translator, they act as a reacting force in the wave troughs
after the buoy and translator being lifted by the wave crests. The springs also
temporarily store energy which results in allowing the generator, optimally, to
produce an equally amount of energy in both directions, evening out the produced
power. In the top and bottom of the generator end stops with powerful springs are
placed to limit the translator stroke length.[1][2]
[edit] Transmission system
The power produced cannot, as earlier mentioned, be directly delivered to the grid
without conversion. This is done in several steps; firstly the voltage is rectified
from each generator. Then they are interconnected in parallel and the DC voltage is
filtered (the filter consist of capacitors). The filter smooths out the voltage from the
generators and creates a stable DC voltage. During short periods of time, the power
after the filter will also be constant. If the system is studied during hour-scales (or
more) there will be variations in the produced power, these variations is due to
changes in the sea state.[1]
This buoy-generator concept does not allow a single unit to be operated, especially
not connected to the grid. This is mainly due to the large short term variations in
produced power and the relatively small size of the WEC. The cost for the
electrical system, the transmission system, would be too high. When several
generators are connected in parallel the demand on the ability of the capacitive
filter to store energy will decrease and hence also the cost associated with it. To
compensate for voltage variations on the output that occur due to sea state
variations, a DC/DC converter or a tap-changed transformer can be used.[1]
[edit] System aspects
A high level of damping (power extraction) results in bigger difference between
the vertical motion of the wave and the speed of the translator. This will in turn
result in a higher line force when the wave lifts the buoy and a lower force when
the buoy moves downwards. The maximum power occurs during the maximum
and minimum line forces (assumed the translator is within generator stroke length).
If the translator moves downwards with a lower speed than the buoy the line will
slacken and the resulting line force becomes almost zero. The reverse relation
occurs when the buoy moves upwards, then the line force becomes larger the
bigger difference there is between the motion of the buoy and the generator
translator.[1]
If the wave height (the difference between wave crest and wave trough) is larger
than the stroke length, the translator will reach a standstill at the lower end stop. At
the upper end stop the wave flushes over the buoy and at the lower the line
slackens. In both of these cases no power is produced (voltage induced) until the
translator starts to move again. This happens when the wave is lower than the
buoy’s top position in the upper state, and in the lower state when the wave has
risen so much that the buoy once again starts to pull the translator upwards. It has
been found that most of the energy is transmitted through wave heights of 1.2-2.7
m in the research area.[1]
If the generator is connected to a linear strictly resistive load, it will deliver power
as soon as voltage is induced in the generator. With a non-linear load the relation is
not so simple. The load is not linear due to the transmission system, whose diode
rectifier results in power only being able to be extracted over certain voltage levels.
Consequently the DC voltage level limits the amplitude of the generator phase
voltage. With a non-linear load the generator phase voltage will reach maximum
amplitude which is approximately equal to the DC voltage. When the generator’s
phase voltage reaches the level of the DC voltage current starts to flow (power is
extracted) from the generator to the DC side of the rectifier. Power will be
delivered as long as the waves can deliver mechanical power to the buoy and as
long as the translator has not reached its upper or lower end stop. The current will
increase when the speed of the translator increases. This non-linear power
extraction results in different shapes of the voltages and the current pulses.[1]
[edit] Environmental impact
The research site was investigated at the beginning of the project and in 2004
sediment samples were taken before the WEC was deployed. This was done in
order to investigate and analyze the marine infauna inside the research area and
control area and get information about species composition and biodiversity.
Biodiversity richness is often used to measure the health of biological systems. The
organisms were identified down to family or species level where possible. At
Lysekil research area 68 different species were found. There were only small
juvenile organisms and no red-listed species were found. Since 2004 sediment
sample are taken yearly to follow the development in both the control area and in
the research area. Through the initial studies it has become clear that it was a
higher species richness and biodiversity in the research area than in the control
area. This is explained by the variety of sediment substrate. Sediment in the control
area mainly consists of silt, which is mostly relatively oxygen deficient and fewer
species are adapted to such extreme conditions. Overall the Lysekil research site is
not a unique environment and there was no concern about extinction of sensitive
local species.[1][3]
The first experimental setup for marine ecological studies of wave power consisted
of 4 biology buoys which were deployed in 2005. The purpose of the buoys is to
study the effects an establishment of a wave power farm can have. When placing
solid structures on an otherwise rather empty sand bottom the living conditions at
the site will change and the consequences of this are studied with the help of the
buoys. In 2007 the size and the complexity of the study was increased when
additional buoys were installed. The buoys were divided into two different areas
inside the research area, with 200 meter between the groups. Within the groups the
buoys were placed 15-20 meter apart. Half of the foundations were designed with
various holes and the other half without. The holes in the foundations were made to
study the difference in colonization between the foundation with and without holes
and how the different kind of holes affect the colonization pattern.[1][3]
The biology buoys are also used to study biofouling and its impact on the power
absorption. Some preliminary studies suggest that the effect of biofouling on
energy absorption can be neglected but this has to be investigated further.[3]
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Load following power plant

A load following power plant is a power plant that adjusts its power output as
demand for electricity fluctuates throughout the day.[1] Load following plants are in
between base load and peaking power plants in efficiency, speed of startup and
shutdown, construction cost, cost of electricity and capacity factor.
•
[edit] Base load power plants
Base load power plants operate continuously at maximum output. They only shut
down to perform maintenance or if something breaks. They produce electricity at
the lowest cost of any type of power plant. Base load power plants include coal,
fuel oil, nuclear, geothermal, hydroelectric, biomass and combined cycle natural
gas plants.
[edit] Peaking power plants
Peaking power plants operate only during times of peak demand. In countries with
widespread air conditioning, demand peaks around the middle of the afternoon, so
a typical peaking power plant may start up a couple of hours before this point and
shut down a couple of hours after. However, the duration of operation for peaking
plants varies from a good portion of the waking day to only a couple dozen hours
per year. Peaking power plants include hydroelectric and gas turbine power plants.
Many gas turbine power plants can be fueled with natural gas or diesel. Most
plants burn natural gas, but a supply of diesel is sometimes kept on hand in case
the gas supply is interrupted. Other gas turbines can only burn either diesel or
natural gas.
[edit] Load following power plants
Load following power plants run during the day and early evening. They either
shut down or greatly curtail output during the night and early morning, when the
demand for electricity is the lowest. The exact hours of operation depend on
numerous factors. One of the most important factors for a particular plant is how
efficiently it can convert fuel into electricity. The most efficient plants, which are
almost invariably the least costly to run per kilowatt-hour produced, are brought
online first. As demand increases, the next most efficient plants are brought online
and so on. The status of the electrical grid in that region, especially how much base
load generating capacity it has, and the variation in demand are also very
important. An additional factor for operational variability is that demand does not
vary just between night and day. There are also significant variations in the time of
year and day of the week. A region that has large variations in demand will require
a large load following and/or peaking power plant capacity because base load
power plants can only cover the capacity equal to that needed during times of
lowest demand.
Load following power plants include hydroelectric power plants and steam turbine
power plants that run on natural gas or heavy fuel oil, although heavy fuel oil
plants make up a very small portion of the energy mix. A relatively efficient model
of gas turbine that runs on natural gas can also make a decent load following plant.
[edit] Gas turbine power plants
Gas turbine power plants are the most flexible in terms of adjusting power level,
but are also among the most expensive to operate. Therefore they are generally
used as "peaking" units at times of maximum power demand. Gas turbines find
only limited application as prime movers for power generation at military facilities.
This is because gas turbine generators typically have significantly higher heat rates
than steam turbine or diesel power plants; their higher fuel costs quickly outweigh
their initial advantages in most applications. Applications to be evaluated include:
 a. Supplying relatively large power requirements in a facility where space is
at a significant premium—such as hardened structure.
b. Mobile, temporary or difficult access site such as a troop support or lie of
sight station.
c. Peak shaving, in conjunction with a more efficient generating station.
d. Emergency power, where a gas turbine’s lightweight and relatively
vibration-free operation are of greater importance than fuel consumption
over short periods of operation. However, the starting time of gas turbines
may not be suitable for a given application.
e. Combined cycle or cogeneration power plants where turbine exhaust
waste heat can be economically used to generate additional power and
thermal energy for process or space heating.
[edit] Hydroelectric power plants
Hydroelectric power plants can operate as base load, load following or peaking
power plants. They have the ability to start within minutes, and in some cases
seconds. How the plant operates depends heavily on its water supply. Many plants
do not have enough water to operate anywhere near their full capacity on a
continuous basis. Plants that have a large amount of water may operate as base
load or as load following power plants. Those that have limited amounts of water
may operate as peaking power plants. Also, the plants may change their operating
style depending on the time of year. For example, the plant may operate as a
peaking power plant during the dry season, and as a base load or load following
power plant during the wet season. This is often done when the reservoir
frequently reaches full capacity and water either has to be used for electricity
generation or be released through the spillway. Another factor is whether the plants
have to release significant quantities of water downstream in order to maintain the
stream habitat. Many plants have a base load capacity that is generated with the
water released to maintain the stream habitat. For example, a 100-MW
hydroelectric plant may generate 5-MW when it is only releasing enough water for
downstream habitat. Except when it is undergoing maintenance and the water is
bypassed around the turbines, the plant will always be generating at least 5-MW.
Some plants have a small turbine for these releases because it is inefficient to run a
little bit of water through a large turbine. Run of the river hydroelectric plants do
not have any water storage. They simply divert water from a stream, run it through
the turbines and then return it to the stream. For this reason, they are always base
load plants. However, they may be forced to shut down or reduce the amount of
diverted water when the streamflow is insufficient to provide habitat for aquatic
organisms while providing water for electricity generation.
[edit] Nuclear power plants
Some nuclear power plants (ABWRs and older BWRs) have the capability to go
from 100% of rated power down to 50% of rated power in about one hour. This
makes them useful for overnight load-following.

KKS Power Plant Classification System

The KKS Power Plant Classification System is a standardised system for the
classification of power stations. It serves during engineering, construction,
operation and maintenance of power stations for identification and classification of
the equipment. The system is known in short as KKS which is the abbreviation of
the German term Kraftwerk-Kennzeichensystem. KKS will be replaced in future by

Referenc e Designation System