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Rina
Research Scholar, Haryana School of Business,
Guru Jambheshwar University of Science and Technology,
Hisar-125001, Haryana (India)
ABSTRACT
The aim of this paper is to show the association which exists among the various supportive HR practices
(development and flexibility, work and organizational culture, reward and financial benefits) and outcomes (career
satisfaction, job satisfaction, intention to leave) in case of dual career couples. The proposed literature review
includes the systematic process of research in the following manner; after identifying the main area of interest, key
concepts and words were selected, parameters were set to ensure selection of good quality journals, and availability
of articles in full text was also considered. The study finds that availability of various supportive HR practices
improves the career and job satisfaction of dual career couples, while on the other side lower the intentions to leave
the organization.
Introduction
In this era, human resources are forced to come out from the mode of cultural comfort, and have to interact with
diverse groups of people who are different from them and also now a days families and employing organizations
throughout the industrialized world are changing fundamentally and rapidly, both in terms of structure and in terms
of expectations. However, work and family policies and practices within organizations and wider societies, and the
values and assumptions which underpin them, are changing more slowly. Albertsen, et.al, 2010 mentioned in his
study that globalization of economic exchanges has created a 24-hour economy that has significantly impacted on
the way work is organized and regulated (Major & Germano, 2006). Indeed during the last century, Denmark, as
well as many other industrialised countries, has undergone several large transitions of working life (Nswall, et.al,
2008). These transitions have involved a high level of organizational changes, reorganizations, downsizing, and
changes in ownership (Olsen, et.al, 2008). Moreover, production systems have shifted away from manufacturing
jobs toward more service-oriented jobs and jobs involving exchange of knowledge (Burr, et.al, 2003; Major &
Germano, 2006). As an overall concept referring to this new working life, the concept of boundaryless work has
been introduced (Allvin, 2008). The failure to reflect and build upon rapid social change poses threats to
occupational health and has far reaching implications for human resources management. Majeed, (2009) quoted in
his study that the expertise and capability of individuals or the accumulation of knowledge within an institute is
referred to as human capital (Barney, 1991; Alvesson, 2000).
Recent decades have witnessed unprecedented changes both in the world economy and in the composition of
workforces internationally, resulting in womens economic activity rates increasing dramatically since the 1970s.
According to a recent report from the International Labour Organization (ILO), more women now work outside the
home than ever before. In 2003, 1.1 billion of the worlds 2.8 billion workers, or 40 percent, were women,
representing a worldwide increase of nearly 200 million women in employment in the past 10 years (ILO, 2004). In
the USA women now represent approximately half of the working population (Cooper and Jackson, 1997), while in
the UK women constitute just over 50 per cent of the total workforce. Despite this rapid increase in female
participation in the paid labour-force, considerable evidence has been gathered that documents a dearth of women in
executive level positions not just in Ireland, but globally. Womens increased involvement in the labour force,
however, is not paralleled within the management levels of organizations. Managing people is not a matter of
manipulation. It is about working with the staff and colleagues (human resources) on a partnership basis to achieve
the strategic goals of the organization (Kermally, 2006) and to make balance between the two domains of their lives
that are family and work.
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The following were set as sub objective:
I.
How supportive HR practices i.e. development and flexibility, work and organizational culture, reward and
financial benefits affect the performance and work-family conflict.
II.
What are the various outcomes (e.g. career satisfaction, job satisfaction, intention to leave) of supportive
HR practices in case of dual career couples.
Literature Review
Dual-career couples were identified in the late 1960s as an important societal and workplace phenomenon. Such
families were defined as those in which both heads of household pursue careers and at the same time maintain a
family life together (Rapoport and Rapoport, 1971). Dual-career couples were a small minority when Rapoport and
Rapoport apparently coined the term in 1969. The dual-career couple, where both partners are pursuing
simultaneous careers, is a prevalent and lasting phenomenon that reflects the increasing educational achievements
and career aspirations of women worldwide (Davidson, 1987; Sekaran, 1986). Each spouse in a married relationship
is pursuing a career that demands a high level of personal commitment, a constant updating of knowledge, and has a
component of upward mobility. The dual-career title includes women in professions and in trainees skill careers
(Cron, 2001).The dual-career relationship implies a psychological commitment of marital or de facto partners to
both the family relations and their individual careers. This has been hailed the middle-class marital relationship
(Hertz, 1986).
1. HR Practices
Human resource management (HRM) is defined by many authors in many ways e.g. Stone (2005) defined it as [the]
productive use of people for achieving the organizations strategic objectives and the satisfaction of individual
employee needs. (Hartel, et.al, 2007) mentioned in his study that this definition reflects the development of the
HRM literature in the late twentieth century, which saw a shift of focus from the rational administration of
employees to employee motivation and job satisfaction. Som (2008) has conceptualized HRM as carefully designed
combinations of such practices that are geared towards improving organizational effectiveness and hence, better
performance outcomes (Shen and Zhu, 2011).
Diverse workforce (diversity) refers to the co-existence of people from various socio-cultural backgrounds within
the company. Diversity includes cultural factors such as race, gender, age, color, physical ability, ethnicity, etc.
(Kundu, 2004). Dynamic companies look for people who are different from us because the diverse workforce may
bring different talents, interests, and viewpoints (Simmons, 1996). A company with a diverse workforce can better
serve and compete in diverse markets. The basic concept of managing diversity accepts that the workforce consists
of a diverse population of people. The companies can succeed at diversity if the initiative to create and manage the
diverse workforce has the full support from the top management (Hayes, 1999).
Work-life balance is a state where an individual manages real or potential conflict between different demands on
his/her time and energy in a way that satisfies his/her needs for well being and self-fulfillment (Clutterbuck, 2004).
Work-life balance policies define how the organization intends to allow employees greater flexibility in their
working patterns so that they can balance what they do at work with responsibilities and interests they have outside
work (Armstrong, 2005). Employees are increasingly complaining that the line between work and non-work time
has become blurred, creating personal conflicts, and stress (Cappelli et al., 2000; Verespej, 2000; Barnett and Hall,
2001). Todays married employee is typically part of a dual-career couple. This makes it increasingly difficult for
married employees to find the time to fulfill commitments to home, spouse, children, parents, and friends (Robbins,
2004). Employees are increasingly recognizing that work is squeezing out personal lives and theyre not happy
about it. For example, studies suggested that employees want jobs that give them flexibility in their work schedules,
so, they can better manage work/life conflicts (Conlin, 1999). Todays progressive workplace is being modified to
accommodate the varied needs of a diverse workforce. Balance has become the most sought after benefit for the new
millennium. Generation Xers are not that impressed with money as with a balanced lifestyle. Studies have shown
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that organizational commitment is more in organizations adopting family-responsive HR practices (Grover and
Crooker, 1995; Laabs, 1998).
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such as parental leave allow parents to work fewer hours than the standard number of hours per week (Dikkers, et.al,
2010). Organizations emphasizing management initiatives like improved employee services, opportunities for
personal growth, and employee development have been found to have fewer intentions of employees to resign. The
results of a study showed that organizations having provision of employee services had more commitment from their
employees for their organizations but fewer intentions to quit of employees (Lee et al., 2008). Some results also
reveal that absence of opportunity for professional growth and development affects management retention and
turnover (Walsh and Taylor, 2007). Firms like Starbucks and Southwest Airlines, have attributed their strong
performance to their emphasis on employee retention and development (Hinkin and Tracey, 2000). On the basis of
above literature, following proposition can be advanced:
Proposition 1: Availability of development and flexibility practices affect performance
and work-family conflict of dual career couples.
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leave, insurance plans and retirement and savings plans. These benefits are often not subject to taxation and are,
therefore, cheaper to gain through an employer than through the market (Alpert, 1987). Consequently, cheaper
benefits should increase worker job and career satisfaction (Artz, 2010). Research studies have focused on
determining reasons of employees leaving organizations and also concentrating on factors positively influencing
employees to stay (Hoisch, 2001) and also the benefits associated with retaining tenured workers (Ramlall, 2004). .
Thus, following proposition can be stated:
Proposition 3: Presence of better reward and financial benefits boost performance and
lower work-family conflict of dual career couples.
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2b. Job Satisfaction
Job satisfaction has been described in a variety of ways. A general denition of job satisfaction is how much one is
fond of ones job. Job satisfaction has been conceptualized as an appraisal of ones job (i.e., a cognitive variable), an
affective reaction to ones job, or an attitude towards ones job (Weiss, 2002). Job satisfaction can also be discussed
in global or facet aspects. Global job satisfaction refers to the overall feeling towards the particular job. Global job
satisfaction is a predictor of organizational citizenship behaviors (Organ & Ryan, 1995), absenteeism (Wegge,
Schmidt, Parkes, & van Dick, 2007) and turnover (Saari & Judge, 2004). The facet approach is used to nd out what
aspects of the job context produce satisfaction or dissatisfaction. Some of the facets measured are satisfaction with
the job, supervisor, coworkers, pay, and promotion.
Anderson et al. (1994) observed that employee commitment can be measured by job satisfaction and pride in their
work. Sureshchandar et al. (2001a, b) suggested that firms must focus on employee job satisfaction because there is
a high association between employee perceptions of well-being and the customers perception of service quality.
Increased employee relations and satisfaction will lead to successful quality implementations in the service sector.
Expectancy theory states that high performance leads to greater rewards (both extrinsic and intrinsic) which in turn
increases job satisfaction (Lawler and Porter, 1967).
Studies have found the linkage between job satisfaction and the act of quitting (Brayfield and Crockett, 1955;
Vroom, 1964). Poorer performers have been found to be less satisfied with their jobs, more likely to be absent
(Viswesvaran, 2002), and more likely to leave the organization (Griffeth et al., 2000). But, as noted by Fishbein and
Ajzen (1975), intentions toward an act or behaviour are distinct from that act or behaviour itself. That is, even
though an employee may intend to quit, they may not actually do so. There are other factors too associated with an
employees decision to quit, merely intending to quit may not lead to actual quitting. Thus, on the basis of above
literature following proposition can be stated:
Proposition 5: Presence of supportive HR practices have an positive impact on job
satisfaction of an employee.
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Proposition 6: Intentions to leave is comparatively less in case of an organization in
which HR practices are supportive for employees.
Conclusions
Human Resource Management is an emerging area for study as it changes fast in changing environment under
globalization. With the passage of time and due to the globalization of the business including Human Resources,
various contemporary issues in HR have emerged. One of such an issue, which has received great attention from
researchers, is Workforce Diversity. Nowadays the focus is on smaller families with all heads working, which make
women to come out of their traditional role and work. With this independency of the women, their focus towards
their career leads them to the corporate world. With the entrance of women in job a new dimension, Workforce
Diversity in gender was identified. Increasing number and level of education of women leads to an increase in their
career aspirations.
The review of the literature on various supportive HR practices have shown that to effectively manage the human
resources the organizations have to implement supportive HR practices. The organizations which implements such
practices with dedication, remains ahead of their competitors because such practices affects other outcomes like
career satisfaction, job satisfaction, intention to leave etc. in a positive manner and leads to overall corporate and
individual performance. While designing and implementing such practices, one important thing is to be kept in mind
that the supportive HR practices should be revised from time to time and also proper feedback must be taken from
employees so that it should be updated accordingly. Dual career couples should also be involved in designing and
implementing these supportive HR practices and survey should be conducted among employees to know their
opinion about implemented supportive HR practices. Because according to the norms of ours traditional society,
females are bound with more feminine tasks and family responsibilities and men are the bread-winners for the
family but now when scenario is changed, responsibility and challenges for employing organization equally changed
.Also, above reviewed literature clearly showed that if HR practices are supportive i.e. if organization provide good
development and flexible practices, comfortable work and organizational culture and also the rewards and benefits
employees receive are good than the HR outcomes i.e. career and job satisfaction increases and intention to leave the
organization lower down significantly. So, it calls for a need to evolve supportive HR practices to cope up with these
problems of HR outcomes and work-life conflicts among working couples.
Older and more recent studies have pointed out the need for longitudinal research and the importance of a life cycle
perspective when studying HR practices in case of dual-career couples. In fact, there should be a general consent
that marriages are fluid arrangements .At some stages of a relationship (e.g. during career-building), the allocation of
tasks and responsibilities is very different from other stages (e.g. during the early years of child rearing). The shifts
from more to less traditional types among married couples and, however, are understandable when viewed within a
long temporal framework. Only few scholars, however, have adopted such a research design when studying the
dual-career couples/family.
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