Communication, the process of sharing ideas, information, and messages with others in a

particular time and place. Communication includes writing and talking, as well as nonverbal
communication (such as facial expressions, body language, or gestures), visual communication
(the use of images or pictures, such as painting, photography, video, or film), and electronic
communication (telephone calls, electronic mail, cable television, or satellite broadcasts).
Communication is a vital part of personal life and is also important in business, education, and
any other situation where people encounter each other.
Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
Language, the principal means used by human beings to communicate with one another.
Language is primarily spoken, although it can be transferred to other media, such as writing. If
the spoken means of communication is unavailable, as may be the case among the deaf, visual
means such as sign language can be used.
Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
Speech and Speech Disorders. Speech is a learned system of communication requiring the
coordinated use of voice, articulation, and language skills. Although many animals are
physiologically able to use the voice for communicating a wide range of simple messages to
others of their species, only humans are able to produce true speech (as opposed to the skills in
speech mimicry of such birds as parrots and mynae). In a broad sense, speech is synonymous
with language.
Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
V.
SPEECH DISORDERS

Because speech is a learned function, any interference with learning ability may be expected to
cause a speech impairment. The most common interfering conditions are certain neuroses and
psychoses, mental retardation, and brain damage, whether congenital or acquired. Articulation
itself may be impaired by such physical disabilities as cleft palate, cerebral palsy, or loss of
hearing; it may likewise deteriorate as a result of paralysis of any part of the articulating
mechanism. Impairment may also be the consequence of unconscious imitation of poor speech
models or inadequate perception of auditory stimuli.
Voice disorders, so-called dysphonias, may be the product of disease or accidents that affect the
larynx. They may also be caused by such physical anomalies as incomplete development or other
congenital defect of the vocal cords. The most frequent cause, however, is chronic abuse of the
vocal apparatus, either by overuse or by improper production of the voice; this may result in such
pathological changes as growths on or thickening and swelling of the vocal cords.
Disorders of rate and rhythm are generally either psychogenic or have a basis in some
neurological disturbance. A notable example of a neurological condition is Parkinson disease.

Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

A speech therapist is a specialist who has been trained to diagnose and treat the various disorders
of speech, language, and voice. Because physical, neurological, or psychological conditions
often are either responsible for or are related to the speech disorder, the therapist often works as a
member of a team, which may include a neurologist, an otolaryngologist, a psychiatrist, a
psychologist, a psychiatric social worker, and a speech pathologist.
Speech disorders caused by disease, injury, or malformation fall in the province of the physician
and surgeon. Once these defects are remedied, the speech therapist is responsible for teaching the
speech-impaired person to hear and monitor speech accurately, to think appropriately in verbal
terms, and to exercise control over speech disordered by incoordination or emotional influences.
Inasmuch as a hearing loss (see Deafness) will prevent learning by imitation of essential speech
patterns and sounds and prevent the individual from monitoring his or her own errors, one of the
therapist's most valuable techniques is the measurement of hearing. Because intellectual capacity
and the ability to handle language are closely related, the therapist must also understand how
intelligence develops in a young child. The most obvious emotional speech disorder is stuttering,
which is often caused by anxiety. The speech therapist uses a program of speech exercise to
reduce this disability. Where necessary, the aid of a psychologist is enlisted; in extreme cases, a
psychiatrist assists with psychotherapy.
Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Meeting Needs of Students with Communication Disorders

Most children with communication disorders work in the regular classroom and receive
special instruction in speech and language, usually with a speech-language therapist. As the
classroom teacher, you can help identify the child with a communication disorder by
listening to how the child speaks and what he or she says. The key is to look for consistent
differences in language use, articulation, and comprehension. When a child consistently
misspeaks (saying th for s, for example), you should recommend to the parents that the
child be evaluated for speech-language therapy. You must have parental permission before
you have a student tested or evaluated in any way.
When you invite a speech-language therapist (or any other specialist) into your classroom,
it is important to prepare your students for the visit. Letting the students know that a visitor
will be observing the class can reduce their fears and curiosity. Talk with the student you
are concerned about, and let him or her know that youve asked someone to come help you
understand what is going on in the classroom. Try to make the student comfortable. Avoid

giving a special lesson on that day or treating the student differently than you normally
would. Allowing the specialist to observe the normal classroom routine will ensure that both
you and your students receive the help youve asked for.
Prior to the classroom observation the specialist may ask you to fill out a checklist like the
one shown in Figure 6.2. This checklist can help you organize your concerns and focus your
own observation of the child. Again, it is absolutely necessary that you obtain parental
permission before you have a student tested or observed.

Once a child has been identified as having a communication disorder, he or she will receive
special instruction, most likely outside the regular classroom. This instruction will include
techniques to help the child with specific needs: for instance, practice in understanding
language rules or exercises to teach the child how to position his tongue while he says a
sound. The child will spend only a small portion of total school time in speech-language
therapy, so it is important to ask the specialist for techniques you can use in the classroom
to reinforce what the child is learning. Be sure to share with the parents what the speech
therapist is doing so they can complement this work at home.
Typical Speech Therapy Session
FAQs for a Speech and Language Pathologist
Here are some recommendations to keep in mind with regard to language and speech
development for any child (with or without an identified communication disorder):

Modeling. When a child mispronounces a word or is not clear, restate what the child
has said. That is, instead of saying What? or I dont understand you, say, Did
you just ask me to ___? Think of a one-year-old child you know. When he or she
says, Baa, you might say Ball or Bottle, but you would never say What? to a

child so young. Help the child by modeling what you think she is trying to say. It is
frustrating for her to repeat herself with no feedback about what you did or did not
understand.
Making speech clear and easy to understand. Organize your classroom and student
seating so that all students can easily see and hear you. Reduce background noises
as much as possible, and eliminate distractions like an open door into a noisy
hallway. Make sure a student knows that you are addressing him or her before you
start speaking. Be sure to speak loudly enough for your students to hear, and if you
know you tend to be a fast talker, slow down!
Promoting language exchange. Show students you are interested in them by
listening. This may sound simple, but in a typical classroom of twenty-five students
we all ignore what someone is saying from time to time. Let your students know you
are interested by making time every day to talk to each of themwhen they arrive
at school in the morning, at lunch, recess, or during a small-group activity. Be sure
to encourage students to talk to you and each other and elaborate on their
comments and responses. By creating an environment where all students regularly
talk, you will encourage language development in all children.
Read to your students. At every level, students can increase their language skills by
hearing text read aloud. Read a news story to your high school students, make time
after lunch to read to your first graders, or read a students paper to the class.
Although some students will be reluctant to read aloud during a lesson, all students
appreciate a good story, and reading to them is a great way to model interacting
with text. It also helps by differentiating between conversational speech and reading,
increasing vocabulary, and providing a quiet break for everyone in the classroom.