Groups Lecture Structure

definitions, examples, results.

1. Groups and Homomorphisms

Addition mod 3
Symmetries of regular triangle
1
Group axioms
Some simple properties
2
Subgroups
Small detour about functions
3
Group homomorphisms
Images and kernels

Cyclic groups
5

Dihedral groups
Cartesian product of groups

2. Symmetric Groups Part I

Definitions
6
Cycle notation
7
The sign of a permutation

3. Lagrange Theorem
Cosets
8
The Theorem
Lagrange corollaries
9
Small detour on equivalence relations
Applications of Lagrange
10

Left or right cosets

4. Quotient groups
11 Normal subgroups
12

Quotients
The isomorphism theorem

Motivation with common properties

group, abelian, Z, Q, Z_n, D_{2n}, GL_{2}(R), counterexamples
id and inverses unique, a is inverse of inverse, socks and shoes. Finite group, order |G|
subgroup, trivial, rotations, 2Z, usual and lazy subgroup criterion, subgroups of Z
function, domain, codomain, identity, inclusion, times 2, , composition, injective,
surjective, bijective have inverses. Composite of bijective is bijective
group hom, iso, 1_G, times 2, exp, det. Isomorphic. f(e)=e, f(a^{-1})=f(a)^{-1},
composite of hom and iso + inverse of iso are group homs.
image, kernel, both are subgroups (mention normal). 1_G, exp, det,
injectivity via kernels
cyclic, generator, Z, Z_n, C_2, cyclic subgroup generated by, order of element,
order is size of cyclic subgroup, cyclic are abelian, <a_1,...a_k>
def with generators and relations
product G_1xG_2, C_2xC_2, C_2xC_3, C_nxC_m iso C_{nm} iff n, m coprime.
D_6 not iso C_2xC_3. Direct product theorem.

permutation, Sym X is group, S_n, two row notation, |S_n| =n!, D_2n < S_n
k-cycle, disjoint commute, disjoint cycle notation works, cycle type, order by cycle type
S_n generated by transpositions, sign is well-defined, even, odd, sgn surjective group
hom, odd length cycles even, even length cycles odd, alternating group, any subgroup of
S_n either no or half odd elements (proof on example sheet).

left, right cosets, 2Z, reflection in D_6. partition

Lagrange Theorem, index, same coset check
element order divides group order, a^{|G|}=e, prime order groups
equivalence relation (reflexive, symmetric, transitive). Isomorphism of groups.
Equivalence classes form partition. Coset equivalence relation.
+ and * mod n well-defined. Euler totient function, units. Mult mod n as group. FermatEuler. Subgroups of D_10 and D_8, converse of Lagrange is false. Groups of order 4.
have same size. Not always same: yes in abelian, rotations in D_6, but not for reflection
in D_6

normal subgroup (three ways). Index 2 is normal, in abelian all normal. Kernel is normal.
Midway rotation normal in D_8. Groups of order 6
group op on cosets well-defined and gives group. Quotient group, Z/nZ, D_6 mod
rotations in C_2, D_8 mod midway rotation gives C_2xC_2. D_6 with reflection: mult
not well-defined on cosets. Quotient map. (subgroups and) quotients of cyclic groups are
cyclic. Quotients not subgroups: nZ infinite, Z/nZ finite.
Isomorphism Theorem. Injective hom seen as subgroup, surjective is quotient.
(homomorphic images are quotients). Gln(R)/Sln(R), R/Z is unit circle, number of
quadratic residues. Essential uniqueness of cyclic groups. Simple group, C_p A_5 (proof
later).

5. Group actions
Groups acting on sets
13
14

Orbits and stabilisers

Standard actions

15
Applications
16
6. Symmetric Groups Part II
Conjugacy classes in S_n
17 Conjugacy in A_n
7. Quaternions
Groups of order 8
18 Quaternions
8. Matrix groups
The general and special linear groups
Actions of GL_n(C)
19 Orthogonal groups
20

Rotations and reflections in 2 and 3 dim

Unitary groups

9. More on regular polyhedra

Rotations of the cube
All symmetries of the cube
21 The tetrahedron
10. Mbius group
Mbius maps

Fixed points
Permutation properties
Cross ratios

action, several notations. trivial action, rotations of cube action on different sets.
Alternative action definition as hom from G to Sym X. Kernel of action. Cube acting on
three axes (pairs of opposite faces). faithful
orbit, stabiliser, cube on three axes. transitive. orbits partition. Orbit-Stabiliser. S_4
action with stab(1)=S_3
left regular action, Cayley Theorem. left coset action. Conjugation action, centre, ccls,
centralisers. conjugation action restricts to normal subgroups. normal are unions of ccls.
conjugation action on subgroups, normal subgroups have singleton ccls, normalisers.
stabilisers of elements in same orbit are conjugate
size of rotations of cube, index n gives normal subgroup or n!>|G|. Cauchy.

ccls in S_n determined by cycle type. ccls of S_4, normal subgroups & quotients of S_4.
splitting ccls, ccl splits iff no odd sigma in centraliser. ccls in A_4 and A_5. A_5 simple.

groups of order 8, mention of relations possibly giving contradictions

Quaternions as matrix group, as i j k, as a, b generated, with translation table

general linear group, is group, det is surjective group hom, special linear group as kernel
faithful action on C^n with 2 orbits; conjugation action on M_nxn. Jordan Normal Form
orthogonal group, orthonormal columns; det is surjective group hom, special orthogonal
group as kernel. O_n/S_n is C_2. O_n is partitioned into SO_n and the other coset.
Orthogonal matrices are isometries.
SO_2 all rotations, O_2 rotations and reflections; SO_3 is rotations round some axis, any
matrix in O_3 is product of at most three reflections.
"complex equivalent of orthogonal", unitary group, det is surjective onto S^1. special
unitary group as kernel. unitary matrices preserve complex dot product. Q_8 < SU_2.

rotations are S_4.

reflection in midpoint in centre. Get S_4xC_2. Octahedron dual to cube
self-dual. rotations are A_4. All symmetries are S_4.

intro, Stereographic Projection onto Riemann Sphere. (one-point compactification).

Mbius map (on Riemann Sphere). is a bijection. Mbius group, not abelian. Point at inf
not special. Mbius maps via matrices. Kernel is scalar matrices, centre of GL_2(C) (M
iso to projective general linear group, projective special linear group). Geometry of
Mbius maps: composites of dilation/rotation, translation, inversion.
Mbius with 3 fixed points is id. conjugacy classes of Mbius maps. fixed points of
Mbius maps.
3-point determination of Mbius maps. sharply three-transitive. M acts sharply threetransitively on Riemann Sphere. Equation of complex circle/straight line. Mbius send
circles/lines to circles/lines. (z-i)/(z+i) sends real line to unit circle.
cross ratio with [inf, 0, 1, w]=w, and formula. double transpositions fix cross-ratio.
Mbius maps preserve cross-ratio. z_1,z_2,z_3,z_4 on circle/line iff their cross-ratio is
real.