Word association tests

Sentence completion method

Third-person technique and role playing

Thematic appreception test (TAT)

Cartoon tests

Modern technology and qualitative research

Videoconferencing and streaming media

Interactive media and online focus groups

Social networking

Software development

Text mining

4 types of projective techniques

An indirect means of questioning that enables a respondent to project beliefs

and feelings onto a third party, an inanimate object or a task situation.

Common projective techniques include:

word association tests

sentence completion methods
third-person techniques
thematic apperception tests.

Secondary research objectives

Survey research

Survey: A method of collecting primary data in which information is gathered

by communicating with a representative sample of people

Stucture disguised questions

A structured question imposes a limit on the number of allowable responses.

An unstructured question does not restrict the respondents answers.

An undisguised question is straightforward and assumes the respondent is

willing to answer.

A disguised question assumes the purpose of the study must be hidden from
the respondent.

Temporal classification

Cross-sectional study: A study that samples various population segments and

collects data at a single moment in time

Longitudinal study: A survey of respondents at different times, thus allowing

analysis of continuity and changes over time.

Tracking study uses successive samples to compare trends and identify

changes.

Consumer panel: A study of the same sample of individuals or

households to record their attitudes, behaviour or purchasing habits
over time.

Personal interview advantage

Opportunity for feedback

Probing complex answers

Interviewer asks the respondent for clarification of answers.

Length of interview controlled

Completeness of questionnaire

Item nonresponse is least likely to occur.

Props and visual aids

High participation

Disadvantages

Interviewer influence

Different interviewer characteristics and techniques influence

respondents answers.

Lack of anonymity of respondent

Respondent may be reluctant to provide confidential information

Cost

Mail surveys increase response rate

The number of questionnaires returned or completed divided by the number

of eligible people who were asked to participate in the survey.

Increasing response rates for mail surveys

Stamped return envelope

Attractive questionnaires
Cover letter
Monetary incentives or premiums
Interesting questions
Follow-ups
Advance notification
Survey sponsorship

Manipulating variables experiments

Experimental group: Group of subjects exposed to the experimental

treatment

Control group: Group of subjects not exposed to the experimental

treatment; compared to the experimental group to determine any causal
effects

Validity issues in experiments

Experimenters may strive for constancy of conditions.

Blinding is used to control subjects knowledge of whether or not they have

been given an experimental treatment.

Constant experimental error occurs when extraneous variables are allowed to

influence the dependent variable every time the experiment is repeated. This
results in a systematic bias. Eg. economy and competitive actions on DBS
Bank layout tests.

Internal validity

Mortality effect: Sample bias that results from the withdrawal of some
subjects from the experiment before it is completed

Also called sample attrition

Demand characteristics: Experimental design procedures that provide

unintentional hints about the experimenters hypothesis to subjects

Guinea pig effect: Subjects changing their behaviour or attitude to

cooperate with an experimenter

Hawthorne effect: Subjects changing their

behaviour or attitude in the presence of an experimenter

External validity

External validity is the ability of an experiment to generalise beyond the

experiment data to other subjects or groups in the population under study.

If the experimental situation is artificial and does not reflect the true setting
and conditions in which the investigated behaviour takes place, then the
experiment is not externally valid.

Steps in questionnaire design

1. Specify what information will be sought

2. Determine the type of questionnaire and survey research method.
3. Determine the content of individual questions.
4. Determine the form of response to each question.
5. Determine the wording of each question.
6. Determine questions sequence.
7. Determine physical characteristics of the questionnaire.
8. Re-examine and revise steps 17 if necessary.
9. Pre-test the questionnaire.

4 Types of fixed alternative questions

Simple-dichotomy: Choose one of two alternatives; also called dichotomousalternative questions

Determinant-choice: Choose one from among several alternatives

Frequency-determination: Asks for an answer about general frequency of

occurrence (eg how often shop at Katong Shopping Centre )

Checklist: Provide multiple answers to a single question by checking off items

(Multi response eg purchases at Katong Shopping Centre)

Wording of questions

Some guidelines to help prevent the most common mistakes:

Avoid complexity: Use simple, conversational language

Avoid leading and loaded questions(push idea)
Avoid ambiguity: Be as specific as possible
Avoid double-barrelled items

 Avoid making assumptions

Avoid burdensome questions that may tax the respondents memory

Means of data collection will influence the question format and phrasing.

Questions for mail, internet and telephone surveys are less complex
than those used in personal interviews.

Questionnaires for telephone and personal interviews should be written

in a conversational style.

Order of questions

The order of questions serve several functions.

Opening questions influence respondents cooperation and

involvement.

Demographic questions that may embarrass or threaten respondents

should be asked at the end of the questionnaire.

Order bias may distort survey results.

Funnel technique: Asking general questions before specific questions in

order to obtain unbiased questions

Stages of data analysis

In-house editing is performed by centralised office staff who rigorously

investigate the results of data collection.

An in-house editors tasks include:

adjusting inconsistent or contradictory responses so that the answers

will not be a problem for coders and keyboard operators

checking for adherence to the data collection framework

checking for logically consistent responses
editing for completeness.

Coding

Codes are rules for interpreting, classifying and recording data in the coding
process.

A field is a collection of characters that represent a single type of data.

A record is a collection of related fields.

A file is a collection of related records.

Code construction should be exhaustive and the categories should be

mutually exclusive and independent.

Stages in sample selection

Sampling frame: A list of elements (e.g. a membership list, a student email

list) from which a sample may be drawn

List brokers provide lists of specific populations.

A sampling frame error occurs when certain sample elements are not listed or
accurately represented in a sampling frame.

Probability sampling: A sampling technique in which every member of the

population has a known, non-zero probability of selection

Non-probability sampling: A sampling technique in which units of the sample

are selected on the basis of personal judgement or convenience

 The probability of any particular member of the population being

chosen is unknown.

Sampling criteria to evaluate each sample design:

Degree of accuracy

Probability methods are better for conclusive projects that

demand accuracy.

Resources

Nonprobability methods are better for projects with financial and

human resource constraints.

Time

Simple sample design is better for projects

with time constraints.

Advance knowledge of the population

A lack of adequate lists rules out systematic and stratified

sampling.

National versus local project

Cluster samples are better when population elements are

unequally distributed geographically.

Determining sample size

1. The variance or heterogeneity of the population

Only a small sample is required if the population is
homogenous.

2. The magnitude of acceptable error

Higher precision requires a larger sample.
3. The confidence level
Higher confidence requires a larger sample.
Multivariate techniques

The Chi-square (2) test allows for investigation of statistical significance in

the analysis of a frequency distribution.

Analysis of categorical data on variables such as sex, education etc.

Allows us to compare the observed frequencies with the expected

frequencies based on theoretical ideas about the population distribution

Tests whether the data came from a certain probability distribution

Chi square test

Calculate the chi square statistic for gender based
brand awareness
(Memorise formula)

1. Set the hypothesis (H0 : H1: )

2. Calculate chi square statistic and create table:
Calculate the x2 value

3. Calculate ddegree of freedom and p = 0.05 df= k-1 k=2

4. Referring to the table with df and p values, derive the critical x2 value (from
table column)

5. Compare the calculated x2 value with the critical x2 value and test the
hypothesis

a. If the calculated value is larger than the critical value, the null
hypothesis is rejected (H0 rejected)

To calculate the Chi-square statistic:

2 = the Chi-square statistic

O = the observed frequency in the ith cell
i
E = the expected frequency in the ith cell
i