Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
SHAH IAN
SAVANT
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1
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HOSTETTER
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Raymond T. Stefani
California State University, Long Beach
Bahram Shahian
California State University, Long Beach
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2002
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Printing number: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3
Printed in the United States of America
on acid-free paper
00-058913
TO
Ted, Rick, and my Inspiration
Saleh and Mahin; Farahnaz, Bita and Nima
Barbara and the Savant family in memory of Clement
Donna and the Hostetter family in memory of Gene
=ontents
Preface
xv
Preview
Basic Concepts
1.2.1
Control System Terminology
The Feedback Concept
1.2.2
1.3
1.4
Modeling
System Dynamics
1.5
Electrical Components
1.5.1
Mesh Analysis
1.5.2
State Variables
1.5.3
Node Analysis
1.5.4
Analyzing Operational Amplifier Circuits
1.5.5
Operational Amplifier Applications
Translational Mechanical Components
1.6.1
Free-Body Diagrams
1.6.2
State Variables
Rotational Mechanical Components
1.7.1
Free-Body Diagrams
1.7.2
Analogies
1.7.3
Gear Trains and Transformers
1.6
1.7
2
2
4
7
9
10
11
13
15
18
21
25
25
29
32
32
35
37
CONTENTS
1.8
1.9
Electromechanical Components
Aerodynamics
1.9.1
Nomenclature
1.9.2
Dynamics
1.9.3
Lateral and Longitudinal Motion
1.1 0 Thennal Systems
vii
40
45
46
46
50
52
1.11 Hydraulics
1.12 Transfer Function and Stability
1.12.1 Transfer Functions
1.12.2 Response Terms
1.12.3 Multiple Inputs and Outputs
1.12.4 Stability
54
55
73
73
75
78
79
79
83
94
55
57
67
69
91
96
1.18 Summary
References
101
Problems
105
Preview
Response of FIrst-Order Systems
Response of Second-Order Systems
2.3.1
Time Response
2.3.2
Overdamped Response
2.3.3
Critically Damped Response
2.3.4
Underdamped Response
2.3.5
Undamped Natural Frequency and Damping Ratio
2.3.6
Rise Time, Overshoot, and Settling Time
2.4
2.5
Stability Testing
2.5.1
Coefficient Tests
2.5.2
Routh-Hurwitz Testing
2.5.3
Significance of the Array Coefficients
103
119
119
120
126
126
127
128
128
129
136
141
143
143
145
147
CONTENTS
iii
2.5.4
2.5.5
2.5.6
2.5.7
148
150
154
155
159
159
163
165
168
171
173
174
Performance Specifications
183
Left-Column Zeros
Row of Zeros
Eliminating a Possible Odd Divisor
Multiple Roots
2.6 Parameter Shifting
2.6.1
Adjustable Systems
2.6.2
Kharitonov's Theorem
2.7 An Insulin Delivery System
2.8 Analysis of an Aircraft Wing
2.9 Summary
References
Problems
~HAPTER 3
3.1
3.2
Preview
Analyzing Tracking Systems
3.2.1
Importance of Tracking Systems
3.2.2
Natural Response, Relative Stability, and Damping
3.3 Forced Response
3.3.1
Steady State Error
3.3.2
Initial and Final Values
3.3.3
Steady State Errors to Power-of-Time Inputs
3.4 Power-of-Time Error Performance
3.4.1
System Type Number
3.4.2
Achieving a Given Type Number
3.4.3
Unity Feedback Systems
3.4.4
Unity Feedback Error Coefficients
3.5 Performance Indices and Optimal Systems
3.6 System Sensitivity
3.6.1
Calculating the Effects of Changes in Parameters
3.6.2
Sensitivity Functions
3.6.3
Sensitivity to Disturbance Signals
3.7 Time Domain Design
3.7.1
Process Control
3.7.2
Ziegler-Nichols Compensation
3.7.3
Chien-Hrones-Reswick Compensation
3.8 An Electric Rail Transportation System
3.9 Phase-Locked Loop for a CB Receiver
3.10 Bionic Eye
3.11 Summary
References
Problems
183
184
184
187
189
189
190
192
198
198
200
201
204
208
215
215
216
220
223
224
224
225
231
234
237
240
242
244
CONTENTS
4.1
4.2
Preview
Pole-Zero Plots
4.2.1
Poles and Zeros
4.2.2
Graphical Evaluation
4.3 Root Locus for Feedback Systems
4.3.1
Angle Criterion
4.3.2
High and Low Gains
4.3.3
Root Locus Properties
4.4 Root Locus Construction
4.5 More About Root Locus
4.5.1
Root Locus Calibration
4.5.2
Computer-Aided Root Locus
4.6 Root Locus for Other Systems
4.6.1
Systems with Other FomlS
4.6.2
Negative Parameter Ranges
4.6.3
Delay Effects
4.7 Design concepts (Adding Poles and Zeros)
4.8 A Light-Source Tracking System
4.9 An Artificial Limb
4.10 Control of a Flexible Spacecraft
4. J 1 Bionic Eye
4.12 Summary
References
Problems
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
Preview
Shaping a Root Locus
Adding and Canceling Poles and Zeros
5.3.1
Adding a Pole or Zero
5.3.2
Canceling a Pole or Zero
Second-Order Plant Models
An Uncompensated Example System
Cascade Proportional Plus Integral (PI)
5.6.1
General Approach to Compensator Design
5.6.2
Cascade PI Compensation
Cascade Lag Compensation
Cascade Lead Compensation
Cascade Lag-Lead Compensation
ix
254
254
255
255
256
260
260
261
262
263
272
272
284
286
286
288
293
295
300
302
308
310
313
314
314
327
327
328
329
329
330
334
338
341
341
343
347
351
355
CONTENTS
357
361
365
366
367
370
373
378
381
385
388
393
394
395
405
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
Preview
Frequency Response
6.2.1
Forced Sinusoidal Response
6.2.2
Frequency Response Measurement
6.2.3
Response at Low and High Frequencies
6.2.4
Graphical Frequency Response Methods
Bode Plots
6.3.1
Amplitude Plots in Decibels
Real Axis Roots
6.3.2
Products of Transmittance Terms
6.3.3
6.3.4
Complex Roots
Using Experimental Data
6.4.1
Finding Models
6.4.2
Irrational Transmittances
Nyquist Methods
6.5,1
Generating the Nyquist (polar) Plot
6.5.2
Interpreting the Nyquist Plot
Gain Margin
Phase Margin
405
406
406
407
410
412
420
420
424
428
433
446
446
447
449
450
456
464
469
475
480
485
488
488
CONTENTS
Preview
Relation Between Root Locus, Time Domain, and Frequency Domain
Compensation Using Bode Plots
Uncompensated System
Cascade Proportional Plus Integral (PI) and Cascade Lag Compensations
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
Preview
State Space Representation
8.2.1
Phase-Variable Form
8.2.2
Dual Phase- Variable Form
8.2.3
Multiple Inputs and Outputs
8.2.4
Physical State Variables
8.2.5
Transfer Functions
State Transformations and Diagonalization
8.3.1
Diagonal Forms
8.3.2
Diagonalization Using Partial Fraction Expansion
8.3.3
Complex Conjugate Characteristic Roots
8.3.4
Repeated Characteristic Roots
Time Response from State Equations
8.4.1
Laplace Transform Solution
Time Domain Response of First-Order Systems
8.4.2
8.4.3
Time Domain Response of Higher-Order Systems
8.4.4
System Response Computation
Stability
8.5.1
Asymptotic Stability
BIBO Stability
8.5.2
Internal Stability
8.5.3
Controllability and Observability
8.6.1
The Controllability Matrix
The Observability Matrix
8.6.2
8.6.3
Controllability, Observability, and Pole-Zero Cancellation
xi
501
501
501
505
507
509
514
517
520
523
525
529
530
530
535
535
536
537
540
542
547
551
554
558
562
564
567
575
575
576
577
579
584
584
585
587
589
592
594
595
CONTENTS
8.7
8.8
8.6.4
Causes of Uncontrollability
Inverted Pendulum Problems
Summary
References
612
614
Problems
HAPTER 9
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
596
603
610
Preview
State Feedback and Pole Placement
9.2.1
Stabilizability
9.2.2
Choosing Pole Locations
9.2.3
Limitations of State Feedback
Tracking Problems
9.3.1
Integral Control
Observer Design
9.4.1
Control Using Observers
9.4.2
Separation Property
9.4.3
Observer Transfer Function
Reduced-Order Observer Design
9.5.1
Separation Property
9.5.2
Reduced-Order Observer Transfer Function
A Magnetic Levitation System
Summary
626
626
626
630
632
635
637
638
640
644
646
647
650
653
654
657
667
References
668
Problems
669
10.1 Preview
10.2 The Linear Quadratic Regulator Problem
10.2.1 Properties of the LQR Design
10.2.2 Return Difference Inequality
10.2.3 Optimal Root Locus
10.3 Optimal Observers-the Kalman Filter
10.4 The Linear Quadratic Gaussian (LQG) Problem
10.4.1
Critique of LQG
10.5 Robustness
10.5.1 Feedback Properties
10.5.2 Uncertainty Modeling
10.5.3 Robust Stability
10.6 Loop Transfer Recovery (LTR)
675
675
676
680
680
682
685
687
690
692
693
695
698
705
CONTENTS
A Brief History
Some Preliminaries
Hoo Control: Solution
Weights in Hoo Control Problems
xiii
709
709
710
713
715
722
723
724
733
733
734
734
737
737
739
741
741
741
744
749
751
753
753
756
757
760
760
762
763
764
768
771
771
774
777
779
779
782
785
788
788
CONTENTS
References
789
790
798
800
Problems
802
812
A.l
Preview
812
A.2
Nomenclature
812
A.3
812
AA
Transposition
A.5
Multiplication
813
813
A.6
814
A.7
Inverse
816
A.8
Simultaneous Equations
817
A.9
819
821
823
A.12 Definiteness
824
A.13 Rank
826
827
Problems
830
834
B.l
Preview
834
B.2
834
B.3
835
BA
837
B.5
841
842.
842
843
844
B.5.1
B.5.2
B.5.3
B.5.4
lex
Real Translation
Second independent Variable
Final- Value and initial-Value Theorems
Convolution integral
845
Preface
As the new millennium begins, we look back in gratitude to the many faculty and students who have
used the three earlier editions of this textbook and made many helpful suggestions to the authors. In
those earlier editions we introduced comprehensive design examples, drill problems, and wide margins
with notes. Other texts followed our lead and emulated those items. What other texts cannot emulate,
we believe, is the clear and understandable exposition we bring to the field of control system science.
Throughout this book we try to make complicated methodology accessible to a spectrum of students
with widely varying backgrounds. Detail is there for those who want to know "why." Summaries and
marginal comments are there for those who simply want to know "how."
Revisions
The most obvious change in this edition is the comprehensive keying of this text to MATLAB. We
created sections of "Computer-Aided Learnirig" by which each student can learn how the MATLAB
platfonn can be used to verify all figures and tables included in the text. We selected a small group of
MATLAB commands to efficiently focus the use of that computational package. In a basic course such
as this, it is essential that every student use the computer as an aid to learning and not as the primary
source of information. The student should learn all basics and should be able to sketch (albeit roughly)
time response plots, root locus plots, and BodeJNyquist plots manually. MATLAB (or any other
computer tool) may then be used to fine-tune understanding and to obtain results of high accuracy. But,
those results must be critically reviewed by a knowledgeable user; otherwise the computer becomes
the master and the user becomes the slave.
Chapter I has been substantially revised. Linearization is introduced by which models may be generated. Operational amplifier applications are included for the various types of compensator designed
later in the text. Substantive coverage is made of aerodynamics, thermal systems, and hydraulic systems. Drill problems cover those topics. Stability is covered in more detail. Signal flow graphs are better
compared to block diagrams. Design examples are added for the human thyroid gland as a controller
and for oil well drill dynamics.
For Chapter 2, we include the significance of Routh array coefficients and the stability implication
of multiple roots occurring as even divisors. An example of Kharitonov's theorem is added.
xv
PREFACE
xvi
Hurwitz determinants are now presented in Chapter 3. It is now shown how coefficients of the
transfer function may be selected to force a given type number to occur. An interesting biomedical
design example is added, that of a bionic eye for the blind. Time response examples are added to
illustrate time domain design.
The main change to Chapter 4 is inclusion of computer-aided means for calculating breakaway
points, entry points, departure angles, and approach angles. The MATLAB command rltool is
introduced. Delay effects are evaluated as a function of 1/ T where T is the delay in seconds. The
bionic eye example is again used, this time to illustrate use of the root locus.
Chapter 5 is revised comprehensively. Root locus design methods are now more general and more
flexible. The effect of adding or canceling poles or zeros is covered in detail. The MATLAB command
rl tool is suggested as a primary computer aid in that the effect of each root locus design point may
be evaluated in terms of step response and the Bode plot. A new design example is introduced for a
solar furnace.
Chapter 6 now begins with an introduction to all frequency response plots. It is argued that
frequency response data are complex vectors, hence can be plotted in a variety of ways resulting in
Bode, Nyquist, and Nichols plots. There is a new section that discusses the relation between open-loop
and closed-loop frequency response plots. Closed-loop frequency response data such as bandwidth
and peak resonance are introduced more formally. Nichols plots, Nichols charts, and constant loci M
and N circles are also discussed. Chapter 7 on frequency domain design remains unchanged.
Chapter 8 now includes a design example of the classic inverted pendulum problem and several
variations. This famous problem has become a benchmark for testing novel control design techniques
and provides an excellent tool for introducing the important concepts of controllability, observability, pole-zero cancellation, and practical issues such as sensor placement. Appropriate MATLAB
commands for state space modeling, transforniation, analysis, and simulation are also discussed.
Chapters 9-11 have minor corrections along with the introduction of MATLAB commands for
digital control.
Use of This Textbook
The text can be divided into six areas:
Classical analysis including modeling (Chapters 1-4,6)
Classical design (Chapters 5 and 7)
State-variable analysis (Chapter 8)
State-variable design (Chapter 9)
Advanced topics (Chapter 10)
Digital control (Chapters 11)
These six areas represent building blocks to construct a course. We have purposely included more
material than a three-semester unit course or a four-quarter unit course would normally cover. The
extra material is intended to give ~he instructor flexibility in structuring a course to meet the needs of
the program, the university, and the community served. We suggest that it is better to cover a smaller
number of units well than to cover a larger number poorly.
For example, a two-course sequence could be created where the first course covers classical
analysis (Chapters 1-4 and 6) followed by a second course including state variables, design, and
advanced topics (Chapters 5 and 7-10). Chapter 11 is often used as reference material, introducing
the student to digital control and providing a comparison with analog methods. The possibilities are
endless.
Raymond T. Stefani
Bahram Shahian
Clement J. Savant Jr. (late)
Gene H. Hostetter (late)
Continuous-Time
System Description
The first conscious use of feedback control of a physical system by mankind lives in
prehistory. Possibly it was a spillway in an irrigation network, where excess water was
automatically drained. Development of a mathematical framework for the description,
analysis, and design of control systems dates from the introduction of James Watt's
flyball governor (1760), which was used to regulate the speed of steam engines, and
the subsequent work by James Clerk Maxwell (ca. 1868) and others to improve the
design and extend its applicability.
Since that era, the theory and practice of control system design advanced rapidly.
Important new concepts and tools were developed in connection with telephone and
radio communications in the 1920s and 1930s. Rather poorly performing electronic
devices, including amplifiers and modulators, were dramatically improved by feedback. World War II further accelerated the development of classical control theory
and practice. Heavy guns had to be rapidly and accurately positioned. Precise navigation and target tracking were increasingly important, and aircraft performance was
improved greatly with the incorporation of complex control systems to aid the pilot.
Latter, automation became a household word as industry began to depend more and
more upon automatically controlled machinery.
Today, feedback control systems are pervasive in industry and in our everyday
lives. They range from governmental regulation (such as that governing monetary
policy) to automated and highly flexible manufacturing plants to sophisticated automobiles, household appliances, and entertainment systems. It is our purpose to learn
to design feedback control systems for a wide variety of applications.
1
Control system designers find that block diagrams provide a particularly useful
way to visualize the interconnections of system components, thus revealing the
system structure. Successful design begins by creating a mathematical model of the
system to be stabilized. Next, the contentS of the blocks within a diagram must be identified. Finally, values must be selected for those parameters that are adjustable, and
sometimes additional components must be added to provide acceptable performance.
This chapter begins by defining basic control system terminology. Since design
requires a model of each system of interest, the behaviors of many typical electrical,
mechanical, and electromechanical systems are described. The resulting differential
equations must be rendered into a forin useful to the controls engineer. The goal can be
accomplished by Laplace-transforming each differential equation and then generating
a relationship, the transmittance, between the input and output of each block of the
control system block diagram. In Appendix B, a summary of the Laplace transform
method is presented.
The block diagram can be reduced to just one input-output relationship, the
system overall transfer function. By converting the block diagram into an equivalent
fo~, the signal flow graph can be developed. Subsequent chapters will describe the
design steps that follow once the block diagram has been defined and the transfer
function has become available.
All the chapters of this text conclude with examples that are intended to reinforce
the key points of the chapter in an interesting and informative manner. Chapter 1
concludes with discussion of a positioning servo, analysis of the thyroid gland, and
design of an oil well drilling system.
While the material in the first chapter involves subjects already known to the
reader from previous experience, the text provides a coherent review. The emphasis
here is on using rather than proving results.
Control systems influence each facet of modem life. Automatic washers and dryers, microwave ovens, chemical processing plants, navigation and guidance systems,
space satellites, pollution control, mass transit, and economic regulation are a
few examples. In the broadest sense, a control system is any interconnection of
components to provide a desired function.
The portion of a system that is to be controlled is called the plant or the process.
It is affected by applied signals, called inputs, and produces signals of particular
interest, called outputs, as indicated in Figure 1.l(a). The plant is fixed insofar as the
control system designer is concerned. Whether the plant is an automobile engine, an
electri!=al generator, or a nuclear reactor, it is the designer's job to ensure that the plant
operates as required. Other components must be specially created and connected as
a means to an end.
A controller may be used to produce a desired behavior of the plant, as shown
in Figure 1.1(b). The controller generates plant input signals designed to produce
BASIC CONCEPTS
Inputs
Outputs
Desired
Disturbance
plant
inputs
behavior , . - - - - - - ,
(a)
(b)
Pump
load
Shalt
speed
30
(e)
60
90
120
Throttle position (angle)
ISO
(d)
Figure 1.1 (a) A plant or process to be controlled. (b) An open-loop control system.
(c) Example of an open-loop control system. (d) Engine speed versus throttle angle curves.
desired outputs. Some of the plant inputs are accessible to the designer and some are
generally not available. The inaccessible input signals are often disturbances to the
plant. The double lines in the figure indicate that several signals of each type may be
involved. Arrows indicate direction of flow. This system is termed open-loop because
the control inputs are not influenced by the plant outputs: that is, there is no feedback
around the plant.
Such an open-loop control system has the advantage of simplicity, but its performance is highly dependent upon the properties of the plant, which may vary with
time. The disturbances to the plant may also create an unwanted response, which it
would be desirable to reduce.
As an example, suppose that a gasoline engine is used to drive a large pump, as
depicted in Figure l.l(c). The carburetor and the engine comprise a common type
of control system wherein a large-power output is controlled with a small-power
input. The carburetor is the controller in this case, and the engine is the plant. The
desired plant output, a certain engine shaft speed, may be obtained by adjusting the
throttle angle.
Two plots of engine speed versus throttle angle are shown in Figure 1.1 (d). If the
nominal curve is used, a throttle angle of 80 produces an engine speed of 2300 rpm.
Suppose that a disturbances occurs, consisting of a change in engine load. For the new
curve, a throttle angle of 80 produces an engine speed of only 1000 rpm. In some
cases open-loop control may be acceptable. In other cases, it may not be acceptable
to have system output change when other values change. In these more critical cases,
the closed-loop procedure of the next section may be needed.
Table 1.1 shows five examples. The first two examples are for open-loop systems
in that no measurements are taken to adjust controller influence on the plant. Each
of the two controllers is specified when a manual setting is made of temperature
and speed respectively. Hair dampness and the type of material being drilled are
disturbances affecting desired performance. In these two cases, the user simply alters
the total time until the job is done. In the case of the hair dryer, output air temperature
remains constant while drying time for hair will vary according to wetness. In the case
of the drill, output speed may vary while the drilling requirement remains constant.
Figure l.l(b) describes these systems.
If the requirements of the system cannot be satisfied with an open-loop control system,
a closed-loop or feedback system is desirable. A path (or loop) is provided from the
output back to the controller. Some or all of the system outputs are measured and
used by the controller, as indicated in Figure 1.2(a). The controller may then compare
a desired plant output with the actual output and act to reduce the difference between
the two.
Let us return to Table 1.1 and consider the third and fourth examples. Temperatures and speed are the system outputs, as was the situation for the first two examples,
but now measurements are used to keep the outputs constant in the presence of dis- ,
turbances. If outside temperatures drops, a thermostat determines that the room is
becoming too cold. The thermostat causes furnace heat to increase which, in tum,
causes the room temperature to increase to the predetermined value.
Changes in driving conditions represent disturbances affecting an automobile's
speed. One possible feedback control configuration is shown in Figure 1.2(b).
A tachometer produces a voltage proportional to the engine shaft speed. The input
voltage, which is proportional to the desired speed, is set with a potentiometer. The
tachometer voltage is subtracted from the input voltage, giving an error voltage that
is proportional to the difference between the actual speed and the desired speed.
The error voltage is then amplified and used to position the throttle. The throttle
actuator could be a reversible electric motor, geared to the throttle arm. When the
engine shaft speed is equal to the desired speed (when the difference or error is zero),
the throttle remains fixed. If a change in load or a change in the engine components
"Q~'!tppt
Input
' Controller
Heat setting
Dial
Hair dryer
Hair dampness
Speed setting
Dial
Drill
Type of material
Desired
temperature
Desired speed
Thermostat
Furnace
Cruise control
Auto engine
Desired
performance
Electorate
President
Outside
temperature
Driving
conditions
Economy
Hot air
temperature
Rotating drill
bit speed
Hot air
temperature
Car speed
None
Decisions
Evaluation
None
Room
temperature
Enginerprn